SafavidEmpire,RiseandFallof TheSafavidscametopowerin1501whenShahIsmail(d.1524)marchedintothecityofTabrizwiththeqizilbash,his tribalwarriors,andhadhimselfcrownedking.ThismarkedthebeginningofalongeraofSafavidrulethatwitnessed manyformativedevelopmentsinthefieldsofreligion,art,andpolitics.Thesechangescanbestbetracedalongside thecontinuallytransformingreligiopoliticalspheresaseachsucceedingSafavidrulerfurtherseparatedtemporal powerfromreligiousauthority.Underareligiousbanner,theearlySafavidswereabletounitevariousturkoman tribalfactionsatatimeofgreatpoliticalfragmentation.Astimewenton,religiouslyvalorizedrulewanedandstate bureaucracieswereformedunderShahAbbasI(d.1629)leadingtogreatimprovementsinstateinfrastructure. However,duetorampantcorruptiontheSafavidEmpirebegantointernallydisintegratetothepointwheretheking (shah)wassimplyafigureheaddirectedbystronggovernmentministers(vizier).TheSafavidmilitarystrength likewisediminishedtothepointwhere,in1722,AfghantribescapturedtheircapitalIsfahaneffectivelyending Safavidrule.

Whilethepoliticalrealmremainedtumultuous,socioculturalchangescontinuedthroughthisperiodof ruleandhadlastingeffectsonIraniansocietythatcanstillbeseentoday AscenttoPower BeforetheSafavidDynastycameintoexistence,therewasaSufiorder(tariqa)namedtheSafaviyyafoundedby ShaykhSafialDinalArdabili(d.1335)inthecityofArdabil.Whiletheywereapowerfultariqawithtiestovarious localrulers,theSafaviyyawereverymuchoperativeasfairlytypicalSufiorderofthetimeperiod.However,they begantoappropriatewarriorlikeextremist(ghulat)tendenciesandsoughttoattackvarioustribalfactionsinthearea undertheleadershipofShaykhJunayd(d.1460)andhissonandsuccessorShaykhHaydar(d.1488).Duringthese excursions,variousAnatolianTurkomantribeswerebroughtunderthetutelageoftheSafaviyyaandgiventhetitle qizilbashduetotheredhatstheywore.WiththedeathofShaykhHaydarssonAliin1494,successionfellintothe handsofthethensevenyearoldShahIsmailI(d.1527)whoemergedoutofGilanin1499inordertomakeabidfor power.Withhimwerearound7,000qizilbashwarriorswhobelievedthatShahIsmailwasnotonlytheirtemporal leader,butalsotheperfectmaster(murshidikamil),andtheverythemanifestationofGodonearth.FirstIsmail soughtrevengeagainsttheShirvanshahwhohadkilledhisfatherandgrandfather,thenheproceededtoconquerthe rulingTurkomantribe,theAqQoyunlu.Shortlythereafter,in1501,hehadhimselfcrownedthefirstshahofthe SafavidEmpireandthenproclaimedIthnaashariShiismastheofficialstatereligionincontradistinctiontotheSunni OttomanEmpiretotheWestandtootherformsofIslamicreligiosity,namelySufism.TheSunniSufitariqaofthe SafaviyyafoundedintheearlythirteenthcenturyhadthusbeentransformedintotheShiiSafavidDynastywith Ismailastheirleader. TherewasanadditionalmotivebehindhismovetoShiism,mainlytoalienatemanyoftheTurkomantribeswhohad earlierpledgedallegiancetoShahIsmailasasacralkingthroughaSufiparadigm.Shortlyaftersuccessfulbattlesfor expansionintoMesopotamia,IsmailsarmywasdefeatedbytheSunniOttomanSultanSelimI(d.1520)atthebattle ofChaldiran(1514)duetothelatterssuperiorfirepowerandartillery.Uponhisdefeat,manyqizilbashbeganto questiontheverynotionofIsmailsdivinityandassuchbegantoshowdissent.Thiswascoupledwithcontinued suppressionofSufiordersandformsofreligiousexpressionthatwerenotinlinewithIthnaasharibelief.This furthersidelinedthepowerandlegitimacyoftheqizilbashwhosereligiosityhadhingeduponamasterdisciple relationshipwiththeheadoftheSafaviyya.Atthistime,thestatusasapractitionerofIthnaashariShiismbeganto affordasenseofunitytothepeoplewhichsupersededtribalaffiliationsandservedtoreinforceasortof protonationalisticidentity.Theimportanceoftheseshiftsinthereligiousspherecannotbeunderstatedandhad ramificationsthatreverberatedthroughhistory. BloomoftheSafavids AfterthedeathofShahIsmailin1524,hewassucceededbyhissonShahTahmasp(d.1576)whoselongtimeinthe thronebeganundertheheavyinfluenceofvariousqizilbashleaders.However,in1534,Tahmaspassertedhis independentsovereigntyandtheremainderofhisreignsawcontinuedattemptsofusurpationfromvariousnobles andelites.Underhistutelage,thereemergedanewclassofaristocracyformedfromvariousGeorgiansand CircassiansbroughtbackfromTahmaspscampaignsforexpansion.Theyprovedtobedirectcompetitionwiththe remainingqizilbashtribalentitieswhowerefightingforaristocraticsupremacyinthesocioculturalsphere.This

conflictcametoaheadafterthedeathofShahTahmaspin1576wheresuccessioncrisesfollowedduringthereigns ofIsmailII(d.1577)andSultanMuhammadShah(d.1588).Theqizilbashwereeffectivelyoustedfromtheirstatus amongthemilitaryeliteinplaceoftheGeorgiansandCircassianswhenShahAbbasI(d.1629)cameintopowerin 1588. Atthispointintime,themajorityofSafavideconomyconsistedofpastoralnomadismamongtheTurkomantribal peoplesandtheagricultureofthesettledPersianpeasants.Irrigationprovedtobeanissue,butthroughfurther developmentsintheagriculturalspheretheproductionoftradingcropssuchastobaccocontinuedtoexpandnorth intoKhorasanandGilan.ExpansioninthisfieldwassupplementedbyShahAbbascontinuedtransformationof statelandsintocrownlandswherehewouldincreaseproductiononthenewlyappropriatedlandsinordertoreceive moretaxrevenueforhiscoffers.Additionally,manystatelandswereheldbyqizilbashamirs,thusthispracticealso helpedfacilitatetheremovaloftheqizilbashfrompower.However,asthispracticeexpandedandmoreandmoreland wasplacedinthehandsofthecrown,taxexploitationbegantoaccelerateleadingtocorruptionthroughoutmany levelsofgovernment.Atthesametime,ShahAbbaswasspendingmanyofthetaxrevenuesoncreatinganew militarythatwasnolongerreliantontheqizilbashTurkomantribes,butinsteadCircassiansandGeorgiansslaves. ReligiousfunctionarieswithintheSafawidstatealsobegantolosepowerasthehegemonicstatusofIthnaashari Shiismbegantotakeholdduetothedevelopmentandspreadofnormativedoctrines. Withinthecontextofreligion,twoschoolsofthoughtemergedduringthereignofShahAbbas,theAkhbarisandthe Usulis.TheformerbelievedthatanIslamicrulingcouldnotutilizeanyformofinterpretation(ijtihad),andinstead mustsolelyrelyonthesayings(hadith)andtradition(Sunna)oftheProphetMuhammad.Thisschoolofthought wonoutagainsttheUsuliswhobelievedahighrankingclericcouldutilizehisexperienceandunderstandingofthe worldasitisduringhislifetoformulatearuling.ThisdebatecontinueduntilafterthefalloftheSafavidswherethe Usuliswereeventuallyvictoriousandwhoseacceptanceofthepracticeofijtihadbyqualifiedclericsstillcontinues tothisdayinIran.ThisperiodalsosawaflourishinginIslamicphilosophywiththeemergenceofMullaSadra(d. 1640),whoislargelyregardedasoneofthegreatestphilosophersofIslamthoughhewasattackedbymanyShii clericsduringhislife.Theseformsofreligiosityalsoaffectedarchitectureandnewdecorativesymbolsbeganto appearonthevariousedificesofIsfahan,proclaimedcapitaloftheSafavidsin1597underShahAbbas.Inaddition, hepatronizedtheartsinIsfahanwhichsawgreatdevelopmentsintherealmsofpainting,rugmaking,andtailoring duetonewmaterialsandculturalinteractionsstemmingfromtradeontheSilkRoad.Thiswasmirroredwith increasedconstructionofpublicworks,schools(madrasas),mosques,andcaravanserais.However,thepolitical realmoftheSafavidEmpiredidnotreflecttheadvancementsandgrowthseeninthesefields,butinsteadsuffered greatlyduetoinfighting,corruption,andmilitarydecayafterthedeathofShahAbbasin1629. DevolutionandFallofanEmpire ShahSafi(d.1642)tookpowerin1629andduringhisreigntheOttomansmadefurtherincursionsintoSafavid territories,eventuallycapturingBaghdadin1638.AfterthetreatyofZuhadwassignedin1639,thereexistedatruce betweentheSafavidsandtheOttomans.However,thiswasnecessaryduetothenewthreatsfacedbytheSafavids comingfromtheUzbeksintheEast,whileatthesametimefacingoffagainsttheMughalEmpirewhotookKandahar in1638.AfterShahSafisdeath,furthersuccessorstothethroneservedsolelyasfigureheadsduetothecontrol governmentofficialshadovertheaffairsofthestate.ThiswasdueinlargepartbythepracticeofShahAbbasI wherefuturerulerswereraisedinseclusionintheharamsofthepalacewheretheywereexposedtomanystate officialsvyingforpowerofinfluence.Thenextking,ShahAbbasII(d.1666),didnotseeanysignificant developmentsorshiftsinthepowerstrugglebetweentheshahandtheviziers.Similarly,hissuccessorSuleimanI(d. 1694)didnothingtoimprovethesituation,butinsteadwasknownasanalcoholicwithlittleregardforstateaffairs andleftdecisionsofgovernmenttohisviziers.SultanHusayn(d.1726)tookcontrolafterthedeathofSuleimanI,but againhadnodesiretoparticipateinactualruleinsteadleavingdecisionstohisofficials.Theprocessofstate degradationhadacceleratedtothepointthatsmallwarringtribesfromAfghanistanposedsignificantthreatstothe stabilityoftheSafavidEmpire.Somuchso,thatagroupoftribalAfghansledbyMahmudHotaki(d.1725)besieged theSafavidcapitalIsfahan,eventuallycapturingitin1722.Thisactofusurpationwouldserveasthedeathblowto theSafavidempire,andwhilethesonofSultanHusaynproclaimedhimselfShahTahmaspII(d.1740)oftheSafavid Empire,thiswasinnameonly.Shortlythereafter,bothTahmaspIIandhissonAbbasIII(d.1740)weremurderedby thenewShahofIranNadirShah,whosolidifiedthefalloftheSafavids.

FurtherReading