Mech 448 QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering

Mech 448

ADIABATIC FLOW IN A DUCT WITH FRICTION

September, 2011

MECH 448

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW September, 2011

Mech 448

Mech 448

INTRODUCTION In the discussion of flow through ducts given in the preceding chapters, it was assumed, in almost all cases, that the effects of viscosity were negligible. This is often an adequate assumption when dealing with flow through nozzles or short ducts For long ducts, however, the effects of viscosity, i.e., the effects of fluid friction at the walls, can in fact be dominant. This is illustrated in the following figure which shows typical Mach number and pressure variations in a constant area duct with and without friction.

Effect of Friction On Mach Number and Pressure in a Duct

In incompressible flow through a duct of constant cross-sectional area, the friction only affects the pressure which drops in the direction of flow. The velocity in such a situation remains constant along the duct. In compressible flow, however, friction effects all of the flow variables, i.e., the changes in pressure cause changes in density which lead to changes in velocity.

Mech 448 In some cases, the effects of viscosity may be negligible over part of the flow but then be very important in other parts of the flow. This is illustrated in the figure.

Mech 448

In the present chapter, consideration will be given to the effects of viscosity on steady gas flows through ducts under such conditions that compressibility effects are important. In the analyses given in the present chapter it will be assumed that the flow is adiabatic, i.e., that the duct is well insulated. Attention will, in the present chapter, also mainly be restricted to flow in a constant area duct although a brief discussion of the effects of area change will be given at the end of the chapter.

Effect of Friction in Different Portions of Flow

Mech 448 Attention will here be given to the effects of wall friction on adiabatic flow through a duct whose crosssectional area does not change. This type of flow, i.e., compressible adiabatic flow in a constant area duct with frictional effects, is known as Fanno flow. Consider the momentum balance for the small portion of the duct shown in following figure.

Mech 448 Conservation of momentum gives since steady flow is being considered:

pA ( p + dp ) A wCdx = ( + d )(V + dV ) A V 2 A
2

i.e.: -dpA wCdx = V 2 A + 2 VdVA + d V 2 A V 2 A i.e.: -dpA wCdx = 2 VdVA + d V 2 A = VA ( 2 dV + d V )

Here w is the wall shear stress and C is the perimeter length of the duct.

Control Volume Used in Analysis of Frictional Flow in a Duct.

Mech 448 Next consider the mass conservation equation. This gives:

Mech 448 As discussed before, it will be assumed that the heat transfer through the duct walls is negligible, i.e., that the flow is adiabatic. The energy equation therefore gives:

( + d )(V + dV ) A = VA
i.e.,: VA + dVA + d VA = VA i.e.,: dVA + d VA = 0
Hence the momentum equation result can be expressed as:

c pT +

(V + dV ) i.e. c dT + VdV = 0 V2 = c p (T + dT ) + p 2 2
2

The equation of state gives:

-dpA wCdx = VA dV

RT

( + d ) R (T + dT )

p + dp

i.e.

dp d dT =0 p T

Mech 448 Also:

Mech 448 Also using:

1/ 2

M = Va = V ( RT )

and ( M + dM ) = (V + dV ) R (T + dT )

1/ 2

f =
and:

w V 2
4A C

from which it follows that:

dM dV dT = M V 2T
Combining all of the above results gives:

DH =

The above equation can be written as:

1 2 M M 3 1 + 2 (1 M 2 ) 2 4 fdx dM 4 fdx dM i.e. = = 2 M DH 1 2 M 2 (1 M ) 3 DH M 1 + 2 M

1 2 M M 3 1 + 2 dM wCdx = 2 2 M AV 2 (1 M )

Mech 448

Mech 448 In general:

Since the wall shear stress, the velocity and the Mach Number are always positive, the above equation indicates that the sign of dM depends on the sign of (1-M2). This equation, therefore, shows that if the Mach number is less than one, friction causes the Mach number to increase while if the Mach number is greater than one, friction causes the the Mach number to decrease. Viscosity, therefore, always causes the Mach number to tend towards one. Since once a Mach number of one is attained, changes in the downstream conditions cannot effect the upstream flow, it follows that choking can occur as a result of friction.

f = function ( Re, , DH , M )
where Re is the Reynolds number based on the mean velocity and the hydraulic diameter and is a measure of the mean height of the wall roughness. The effect of M has been found to be small. Therefore, for most purposes, it is adequate to assume that:

f = function ( Re, , DH )
Thus, f will be given by the same equations or charts that apply in low speed duct flow. A Moody Chart then can be used to give the friction factor.

Mech 448

Mech 448 It can be shown using the above equations that:

2 1 + ( 1) M 2 dp 4 fdx M = 2 p DH (1 M )

and:

dT 4 fdx ( 1) M 4 = 2 T DH (1 M )
ds 4 fdx 2 = ( 1) M c p DH

These equations can be used with the entropy equation to give:

Moody Chart.

Mech 448 These equations show that if M is less than 1, dT and dp are negative while if M is greater than 1, dT and dp are positive. The entropy, however, always increases, i.e., ds is always positive. The above relations, therefore, together indicate that in constant area compressible duct flow with friction: dM M<1 M>1 + dV + dP + dT + ds + +

Mech 448 These results are also summarized in the following figure.

+ means quantity is increasing, - means it is decreasing.

Effect of Friction on Flow Variables in an Adiabatic Flow in a Constant Area Duct.

Mech 448 Integrating the equation for M along the duct between two points distance l12 apart and assuming that f can be assumed constant then gives:
M2 4 (1 M 2 ) 4 f 12 dM = DH 1 2 M 3 M1 M 1 + 2 M

Mech 448 where:

1 2 (1 M 2 ) 4 f * dM = DH M 1 3 2 M M 1 + 2 M

Carrying out the integration then gives:

For convenience since M always tends to 1 this is written as:

1 2 (1 M 2 ) dM 4 f 12 = DH 1 2 M 3 M1 1 + M M 2

dM 4 f * 4 f * 1 2 = M D DH 1 2 H M2 1 + M M 2

2 (1 M 2 )

2 1 2 M 1+ M2 4 f 12 1 1 1 +1 1 2 = 2 2+ ln DH M 1 M 2 2 M 2 1 + 1 M 2 2 1 2
Changes in the friction factor along the duct are usually small and changes in f have been ignored in carrying out the integration.

Mech 448 Setting M2 = 1 then gives:

Mech 448

4 f * 1 M 2 + 1 ( + 1) M 2 ln = + 2 DH 2 1 + 1 M 2 M 2 2
The equations for the pressure and temperature variations can similarly be integrated to give:

From the above equations it follows that:

4 f * p T = function( M ) , * = function( M ) , * = function( M ) DH p T

Values of these functions are available in graphs, in tables and are given by software. A typical chart, this being for = 1.4, is given in the following figure.

p 1 ( + 1) / 2 = 2 p* M 1 + ( + 1) M / 2
and:

T ( + 1) / 2 = T * 1 + ( 1) M 2 / 2

Mech 448

Mech 448

Variation of Flow Variables in Adiabatic Constant Area Duct Flow with Friction.

Variation of Flow Variables in Adiabatic Constant Area Duct Flow with Friction for = 1.4.

Mech 448

Mech 448

These charts, tables or software can be used to find the changes in the values of the flow variables in ducts whose length is less than that required to give a Mach number of 1 by noting that if l12 is the actual duct length and if M1 and M2 are the Mach numbers at the beginning and end of the duct then:
* 12 = * 2 1

i.e.,

4 f 12 4 f * 4 f * 2 1 = DH DH DH

In cases where the hydraulic diameter of the duct or the flow rate through the duct has to be found, the friction factor cannot initially be directly found and an iterative approach has to be used. The inlet Mach number is usually initially guessed and the unknown diameter or flow rate is found. This value is used to find an improved value of the Mach number and the calculation is repeated. This is continued until a converged result is obtained. Although sophisticated iteration procedures can be used, a straightforward procedure that involves obtaining solutions for a series of guessed values of the initial Mach number and then deducing the correct initial Mach number from the results so obtained is usually quite adequate.

Mech 448 THE FANNO LINE The Fanno line has, in the past, been used extensively in describing the changes that occur in an adiabatic flow in a duct with friction, such flow, as noted before, being called Fanno flow. The Fanno line shows the flow process on a T-s or h-s diagram.

Mech 448

The Fanno Line

The maximum entropy point on the Fanno line is the point at which the Mach number is 1. The upper portion of the curve, which is associated with higher values of T , applies in subsonic flow while the lower portion of the curve, which is associated with lower values of T , applies in supersonic flow. Since, as discussed before, the entropy always increases, this again shows how the Mach number always moves towards 1.

Mech 448 FRICTIONAL FLOW IN A DUCT PRECEDED BY AN ISENTROPIC NOZZLE Consider the case where a constant area duct is supplied with gas which flows into the duct through a nozzle from a large chamber. The duct discharges into another large chamber. It is usually adequate to assume that friction effects are negligible in the nozzle. This is because the nozzle is usually relatively short and because the flow is accelerating through the nozzle. It will be assumed that the conditions in the first large chamber, i.e. the stagnation conditions upstream of the nozzle, are kept constant and that the back pressure in the large chamber into which the duct discharges is varied. The case where the duct is preceded by a converging nozzle will first be considered. The flow situation considered in this case is shown in the following figure.

Mech 448

Convergent Nozzle Flow Situation.

Mech 448 When the back pressure pb is equal to the supply chamber pressure there is, of course, no flow through the duct. As the back pressure is decreased, the mass flow rate through the duct and the Mach number at the duct exit increase, the exit plane pressure pe being equal to the back pressure pb . This continues until Me reaches a value of 1. Further decreases in the back pressure have no effect on the flow in the duct, the adjustment from pe to pb in this situation taking place through expansion waves outside the duct. The mass flow rate is thus limited, i.e., the flow is choked, as a result of friction. The variation of the mass flow rate with back pressure is illustrated in the following figure.

Mech 448

Variation of Mass Flow Rate for Convergent Nozzle.

Mech 448 Next consider the case where the constant area duct is preceded by a convergent-divergent nozzle. Again when the back pressure pb is equal to the supply chamber pressure there is, of course, no flow through the duct. As the back pressure is then initially decreased, the Mach number increases at the nozzle throat but then decreases again in the divergent portion of the nozzle, the flow remaining subsonic throughout the nozzle. The Mach number then increases in the constant area duct as a result of friction. As the back pressure is further decreased, one possibility is that the Mach number will reach a value of 1.0 at the duct exit, i.e. that the flow will choke at the end of the duct as a result of friction and that the flow will remain subsonic in the nozzle no matter how low the back pressure gets. This situation is exactly the same as that which occurs with a convergent nozzle.

Mech 448 A more likely situation is, however, that the system will be sized so that as the back pressure is decreased the Mach number at the nozzle throat will reach a value of 1.0 before the Mach number at the duct exit reaches a value of 1, i.e., the nozzle will choke before choking occurs in the duct. Once the Mach number has reached a value of 1.0 at the nozzle throat, a region of supersonic flow develops downstream of the throat with further decrease in back pressure. The region of supersonic flow is terminated by a normal shock wave. Because there is a significant region of subsonic flow near the wall the effects of this shock wave can be spread out over a significant length of the duct in small ducts. However, the flow can usually be adequately analyzed by assuming that a conventional normal shock wave occurs.

Mech 448

Mech 448

As the back pressure is further decreased, the shock wave moves towards the duct exit, eventually reaching the exit. Once the back pressure has been reduced to a value at which the shock wave is at the exit plane of the duct, further reductions in the back pressure have no effect on the flow in the duct system, the adjustment from the exit plane pressure to the back pressure taking place through oblique shock waves or expansion waves outside the duct. The changes in the flow and the mass flow rate with back pressure are illustrated in the following two figures. Variation of Flow Pattern with Back Pressure for Convergent-Divergent Nozzle Flow Situation.

Mech 448

Variation of Mass Flow Rate for ConvergentDivergent Nozzle Flow Situation.