Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Jing Lu
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial ful llment of the requirements for the degree of
APPROVED:
ABSTRACT
This thesis presents new productivity and well testing formulae of horizontal wells. Taking a horizontal well as a uniform line source, this thesis nds velocity potential formula and the productivity formulae for a horizontal well in an ellipsoid of revolution drainage volume by solving analytically the involved three-dimensional partial di erential equations. These formulae can account for the advantages of horizontal wells, and they are more accurate than other formulae which are based on two-dimensional hypotheses. This thesis also presents new well testing formulae of horizontal wells in a single porosity system and a double porosity system. Compared with the formulae published in the literatures, our formulae, which do not use the sum of in nite series, are more reasonable and easy to be used in well testing analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I can not use my words to express my deep gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Tao Lin. Whatever success I have gotten is due to his support and guidance and encouragement. His knowledge, dedication to research and ideas have been invaluable throughout the last two years and this research project was supported in part by the NSF under grant DMS-9704621. Expressions of sincere appreciations and gratitude go to Prof. Tao Lu who is the director of Center for Mathematical Sciences, Institute of Computer Application, Chengdu Branch, Academia Sinica, for drawing my attention to these problems. I would like to thank Dr. Robert Rogers and Dr. Shu-Ming Sun for kindly serving on my committee and for having critically read this manuscript and supplied helpful comments and corrections. For valuable lessons and practices I have learned in mathematics, I am greatly indebted to Professors Martin Day, Robert Wheeler, Layne Watson, Michael Renardy, and Jim Thomson, etc. It was a pleasure and a valuable professional experience to associate with all the members of Department of Mathematics. I thank all of them for their corporations, friendship and kindness which made my stay at Virginia Tech. meaningful and enjoyable. Deepest appreciations are extended to my mother for her love and many sacri ces she poured to give me the opportunity to pursue higher education.
iii
Contents
1 Introduction and Literature Review 2 Basic Equations 3 Velocity Potential Analysis 4 Productivity Formulae 1 6 15 22
3.1 Equipotential Surfaces of Horizontal Wells : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16 3.2 Average Velocity Potential of Horizontal Wells : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 20 4.1 Formulae for Wells at Midheight of Formation : : : : : : : : : 4.2 Well Eccentricity Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4.2.1 Point Convergence Pressure Distribution Formulae : 4.2.2 Dimensionless Pressure Formulae of Horizontal Wells : 4.2.3 Productivity Formulae for Eccentricity Wells : : : : : 4.3 Comparisons of Productivity Formulae : : : : : : : : : : : : :
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5.1 Point Convergence Pressure Distribution Formula : : : : : : : 5.2 Dimensionless Pressure Formulae in In nite Reservoirs : : : : : 5.3 Dimensionless Pressure Formulae in Reservoirs of Finite Height 5.3.1 Reservoirs with Impermeable Boundary Conditions : : : 5.3.2 Reservoirs with Bottom Water or Gas Cap : : : : : : :
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6.1 Warren-Root Model : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 55 6.2 Laplace Transform Images of Point Convergence Pressure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 56 6.3 Well Testing Formulae for Wells in Finite Height Reservoirs : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 61
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List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
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Original Reservoir System with x z Anisotropy and Horizontal Well. Transformed Isotropic Reservoir System with Elliptic Wellbore. : : Axis Dimensions for Transformed Wellbore. : : : : : : : : : : : : : Division of 3D Horizontal Well Problem into Two 2D Problems. : :
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7 9 10 13 15 17 18 19 24 24 25 38 56
List of Tables
3.1 The ratioes of velocity potential of endpoint and midpoint. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 21 3.2 The comparisons of the two methods of calculating average velocity potential. : : : : 21 4.1 Dimensionless pressure of endpoint under di erent boundary conditions. : : : : : : 35 4.2 The comparisons of methods to compute the productivity of a horizontal well. : : : 42 5.1 The convergence rate of the integration of K0 z . : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 50
vi
Chapter 1
well is to increase oil production rate, and well ow rate will not be limited by tubing or surface facilities, then productivity formula can be used to estimate the well length needed to obtain the desired oil rate. Another bene t of increased productivity is reduced the drawdown for the same withdrawal rates, possibly resulting in reduced water and or gas production. If surface facilities are limited by gas or water handling capacity, this may mean that overall eld oil production rate can be increased. In condensate systems, increased productivity can result in reduced liquid dropout near the well. There are several potential problems that may limit the productivity increase. Skin damage may be di cult to remove from horizontal wells. Also, an e ective low vertical permeability due to shales, etc., may mean that horizontal well length must be very long to obtain su cient productivity improvement. Real sweep e ciency can be better in horizontal wells compared to vertical wells for favorable well orientations in pattern oods. As horizontal well length approaches a value equal to the distance between injectors and producers, areal sweep e ciency theoretically will approach 100 percent. The vertical sweep e ciency will depend on where the horizontal well is completed in the vertical section. The e ciency could be greater or less than that of vertical wells. For example, if vertical barriers are present, vertical sweep e ciency could be very poor. Sweep e ciency is best evaluated by numerical simulation. For oil production from a reservoir with a gas cap and or aquifer, horizontal well sweep e ciency can be better than that of vertical wells because the gas or water crest due to horizontal wells is larger than the cone due to vertical wells. Very long horizontal wells may even allow the reservoir to produce below the critical coning rate. Horizontal wells can be completed farther away from the gas - oil contact, delaying breakthrough of gas and water. However, it may be di cult to produce oil located above the horizontal well for water - oil systems and similarly for oil below the well in gas - oil systems. For systems with both gas - oil and water - oil contacts, optimum horizontal well placement between the contacts is important. Optimum placement depends on the strength of the aquifer or gas cap, phase densities, viscosity, relative permeability and the ability to handle gas or water. Reservoir simulation is the best way to study optimum placement of the horizontal well in such systems. In general, horizontal wells are believed to perform better than their vertical counterparts in thin reservoirs, naturally fractured reservoirs double-porosity and discretely fractured , reservoir with water - and gas - coning problems, and reservoirs with favorable vertical permeability anisotropy. Thus, horizontal wells should be useful in cases of thin-layered reservoirs, heavy oil, and reservoirs with gas - or water - coning problems. A convenient model to represent the pressure behavior in a horizontal well drainhole is on assumes no pressure drop in its interior during uid ow. This means that pressure is uniform along the wellbore face, and the well is said to have in nite conductivity. In practice, it is not feasible to evaluate the wellbore pressure directly from the in nite conductivity model solution, this kind of solution is then approximated with either an equivalent pressure-point or pressureaveraging technique. The main goal of this thesis is to develop necessary mathematical analyses for the horizontal well, it includes the following objectives: 1 Derive potential formula and show that horizontal wells do not have in nite conductivity by taking a horizontal well as a uniform line source in three dimensional space; 2 Derive productivity formulae and pressure drop well testing formulae of horizontal wells by using equivalent pressure point technique and pressure averaging technique.
For both vertical and horizontal wells, steady-state and unsteady-state pressure-transient testings are useful tools for evaluating in-situ reservoir and wellbore parameters that describe the production characteristics of a well. The use of transient well testing for determining reservoir parameters and productivity of horizontal wells has become common because of the upsurge in horizontal drilling. During the last decade, analytic solutions have been presented for the pressure behavior of horizontal wells. There have been several attempts to describe and estimate horizontal well productivity and or injectivity indexes, sweep e ciency, and several models have been used for this purpose 26, 32, 47, 48, 72, 78 . Following the tradition of vertical well productivity models, analogous well and reservoir geometries have been considered. A widely used approximation for the well drainage is, conveniently, a parallelepiped model with no- ow or constant-pressure boundaries at the top or bottom, and either no- ow or in nite-acting boundaries at the sides. One of the earliest models was introduced rst by J.P. Borisov 15 in 1964, which assumed a constant pressure drainage ellipse whose dimensions depend on the well length. Later, in 1984, using Borisov's equation, F.M. Giger reported reservoir engineering aspects of horizontal drilling, developed a concept of replacement ratio, FR , which indicates the number of vertical wells required to produce at the same rate as that of a single horizontal well 43, 44, 45 . The repalcement-ratio calculation assumes an equal drawdown for the horizontal and vertical wells. In addition, Giger studied fracturing of a horizontal well and provided a graphical solution to calculate reduction of water coning using horizontal wells 46 . In 1987, L.H. Reiss reported a productivity-index equation for horizontal wells 88 . In 1988, S.D. Joshi 60 presented an equation to calculate the productivity of horizontal wells and a derivation of that equation using potential uid theory. That equation may also be used to account for reservoir anisotropy. To simplify the mathematical solution, Joshi reduced the threedimensional drainage problem into two two-dimensional problems. In 1989, D.K. Babu reduced a complex equation to an easy-to-use equation for calculating productivity of horizontal wells, requiring that the drainage volume be approximately box-shaped, and all the boundaries of the drainage volume be sealed 6, 7 . In 1991, C.Q. Liu reported a two - dimensional theoretical equation to calculate oil production from a horizontal well, however the report does not include the derivation of the equation 73 . In 1993, Z.F. Fan used conjugate transform method, got the productivity formula of a horizontal well in a reservoir with bottom water drive, his formula may be used to account for well eccentricity i.e., horizontal well location other than midheight of a reservoir 39 . Determination of transient pressure behavior for horizontal wells has aroused considerable interest over the past 10 years. Transient pressure analysis of horizontal well is considerably more complicated than it is for vertical wells because of the potential occurrence of several transient ow periods in contrast to the occurrence of essentially one ow period for vertical well. An extensive literature survey on horizontal wells can be found. Interpretation of well tests from horizontal wells is much more di cult than interpretation of those from vertical wells because of a considerable wellbore storage e ect, the 3D nature of the ow geometry and lack of radial symmetry, and strong correlations between certain parameters. Analytical solutions for the pressure behavior of uniform- ux, as well as, in nite-conductivity horizontal wells have been discussed in the literatures 1, 33, 35, 50, 51, 69, 70, 71, 91 , etc. In general, the techniques explaining the pressure-transient response in horizontal wells can be grouped into two categories:1 solutions to the pressure-transient response of horizontal drainhole based on the use of source and Green's functions and 2 solutions based on the use of integral
Laplace and Fourier transforms 16, 23, 66, 67, 68 . Most work dealing with the horizontal well pressure transient problem uses the instantaneous Green's function technique developed by A.C. Gringarten and H.J. Ramey to solve the 3D isotropic di usivity equation 23, 53, 54 . P.A. Goode and R.K. Thambynayagam used nite Fourier transforms to solve the anisotropic problem for the line-source case 50 , they presented a solution for an in nite-conductivity horizontal well located in a semi-in nite, homogeneous and anisotropic reservoir of uniform thickness and width. E. Ozkan compared the performances of horizontal wells and fully-penetrating vertical fractures 81, 82, 83, 84 . For the horizontal wellbore, both in nite-conductivity and uniform- ux boundary conditions were used. F. Daviau also analysed the pressure behavior of horizontal wells, considering both in nite-conductivity and uniform- ux inner boundary conditions 31 . They noted that the in nite-conductivity approximation related more closely to the real case than uniform- ux approximation. M.D. Clonts considerd the pressure response of a uniform- ux horizontal drainhole in an anisotropic reservoir of nite thickness, but in nite horizontal extension 27 . They identi ed two possible transient ow regimes. F.J. Kuchuk extended the previous works 31, 50, 81 on pressure transient bevavior of horizontal wells to include the e ects of gas cap and or aquifer 70 . They computed the pressure response at the well by averaging the pressure along the length of the well, rather than using an equivalent pressure point. A.S. Odeh and D.K. Babu noted that in nite or semi-in nite extension assumption of the reservoir in the horizontal plane, used by previous authors, could lead to the occurrence or nonoccurrence of some of the transient ow regimes. Therefore, they assumed the reservoir to be completely sealed in all three directions, identi ed four possible transient ow regimes for a horizontal well in a closed, box-shaped reservoir 8 . R. Agullers and R.A. Beier studied the transient pressure behavior of horizontal wells in anisotropic naturally fractured reservoirs 3, 12 . R.M. Butler, R.A. Hamm studied the gravity drainage to horizontal wells and the e ect of gravity on the movement of water-oil interface for bottom water driving upwards to a horizontal well physically and theoretically 18, 19, 20, 21, 56, 63 . F.M. Giger, P. Papatzacos, R. Suprunowicz, W.S. Huang and S.D. Joshi et al. studied the cone breakthrough, water ooding, thermal oil recovery problems for horizontal wells 42, 46, 57, 62, 85, 95, 96, 97 . R.A. Novy pointed out that frictional losses create a pressure drop within a horizontal wellbore, thus friction can thus reduce productivity 80 . Numerical simulation is a powerful tool for comparing the productivity of vertical and horizontal wells since it can account for heterogeneities, multi-phase ow and a variety of boundary conditions. The accuracy of numerical simulation often depends on numerous factors such as grid size, time-step size, solution methods and accuracy of the input data. In fact, reservoir description can be considered a limiting factor in accurately predicting future performance 47, 48 . The literatures survey on horizontal wells numerical simulation can be found in 5, 9, 98 . A generalized semi-analytical productivity model, accounting for any well and reservoir conguration, has been constructed and presented recently. The model allows for the production or injection prediction of any well and reservoir con gurations in both isotropic and anisotropic media. A concern in modern reservoir management is the potential desirability of multiple horizontal laterals, frequently emanating from the same vertical well. Using the analytical solution of M.D. Clonts 27 , D. Malekzadeh and D. Tiab have presented type curves and appropriate equations to be used in determining transmissivity and storativity from horizontal well interference test data 58, 75 . T. Zhu discussed both multi-well as well as single well interference test analyses of horizontal well data, with the objective of obtaining estimates of the transmissivity and storativity and detection and location of reservoir boundaries 105 . D. Malekzadeh 76 has presented a
solution for interference testing between horizontal and vertical wells, and has explained how this solution deviates from the exponential-integral solution. T. Zhu and D. Tiab 104 have presented analytical solutions for Multi-Point-Interference testing in a single horizontal well located in an innite reservoir with a linear discontinuity, and transient pressure data are measured at one or more perforated horizontal sections, while uids is produced at alternate sections. A. Retnanto studied the performance of multiple horizontal well laterals in low - to medium - permeability reservoirs 90 . Formation damage can be described as any phenomenon induced by the drilling, completion or stimulation process or by regular operations resulting in a permanent reduction in the proinjectivity of a water or gas injection well. Invasive formation damage can occur by the introduction of: a Foreign potentially incompatible uids into the formation; b Natural or arti cial solids; c Extraneous immiscible phases; d Physical mechanical damage. A few detailed discussions of mechanisms of formation damage in horizontal wells have been presented in the literatures 10, 13, 41, 89, 99, 103 . Formation damage tends to be more signi cant in horizontal vs. vertical wells for a number of reasons, some of these being: 1 Longer uid exposure time to the formation during drilling and greater potential depth of invasion in situations where sustained uid and solids losses to the formation are apparent; 2 The majority of horizontal wells remain as open hole or slotted liner completions, therefore, shallow damage, which would normally be perforated through in a typical vertical completion, may remain as an impermeable or low permeability barrier to oil or gas ow; 3 Drawdowns applied in many horizontal wells result in selective cleanup of a small portion of the total exposed available ow area, causing the majority of the production from a relatively small fraction of the exposed wellbore face; 4 Selective stimulation in wells where slotted liners are in place is ine cient. Extensive stimulation of any horizontal section is generally di cult and expensive in comparison to a vertical well, and hence many stimulation programs are ine ective due to cost and or time limitations. Most procedures which result in the contact of the formation by foreign uids or solids have a potential of permeability impairment. The most common of these would include: a Drilling; b Completion procedures; c Workover kill procedures; d Stimulation procedures; e Injection procedures. The ow e ciency of horizontal wells was derived by G. Renard assuming steadystate ow of an incompressible uid in a homogeneous, anisotropic medium 89, 103 . T.P. Frick presented conceptual and mathematical descriptions of the damage along and normal to a horizontal well 41 . D. Tiab pointed out that during the production, some sections of the horizontal well which have severe damage will not contribute to the production 99 . The wide use of horizontal wells has required that the standard procedure for matrix acidzing be adapted to the new environment. Two major factors must be considered when designing an acid treatment for a horizontal well: the area exposed to the formation is large, and the horizontal and vertical permeabilities must be taken into account 37, 38, 77 . Althougth productivity of horizontal wells could be two to ve times higher than productivity of vertical wells, fracturing a horizontal well may further enhance its productivity, especially when formation permeability is low. Presence of shale streaks or low vertical permeability that impedes uid ow in the vertical direction could make fracturing a horizontal well a necessity 93 .
Chapter 2
Basic Equations
This chapter will serve as an intruction to the basic equations in reservoir engineering. The theory on the ow of reservoir uid is based on the general principles of single-phase uid owing through porous media. The driving forces for the ow of reservoir uid are reservoir uid potential gradients, temperature gradients, electrical gradients and chemical gradients. Under reservoir formation conditions, the net force Ef acting on a unit mass of reservoir uid can be given by 14
Ef = ,rf , rT , rE , rC;
2.1
where, f = reservoir uid potential, T = temperature of the reservoir uid, E = electrical potential of the reservoir uid, C = chemical potential of the reservoir uid. In this thesis, when we refer to the dimension of a physics parameter, L stands for length, its international unit is metre m; T stands for time, its international unit is second s; M stands for mass, its international unit is kilogram kg. The reservoir uid potential gradient is the main driving force for reservoir uid. At a certain point the reservoir uid potential f , i.e., the mechanical energy per unit mass of reservoir uid, and the corresponding total head hT , i.e., the mechanical energy per unit weight, for reservoir uid whose density is a function of pressure only, is given by M.K. Hubbert as 24, 29, 30 h = ghT =
Z
where, h = Hubbert's potential of reservoir uid L2 T ,2 , hT = total head of reservoir uid L , g = acceleration due to gravity LT ,2 , gc = dimensionless number of g at sea level, = density of reservoir uid ML,3 , P = pressure of reservoir uid ML,1 T ,2 . 6
p0
dP + g=g d; c P
2.2
P R
ds
Figure 2.1: Element of Surface in Volume. To derive an expression for potential of a uid at a point, M.K. Hubbert de ned it as the amount of mechanical energy to transform a unit mass from some reference level to an arbitrary level, d. Equation 2.2 is Hubbert's potential which is valid for both compressible and incompressible uids. For either case, the gradient of the potential is 5, 28, 98 2.3 r = 1 rP + g=g rd:
h c
Some authors de ne another potential function, , where = h and r = rh in which equation 2.3 becomes 98
2.4
where, = g=gc , pressure per unit distance ML,2 T ,2 , is also called speci c gravity, = potential of reservoir uid ML,1 T ,2 , P = pressure of reservoir uid ML,1 T ,2 . We have the below relationship = P + d: 2.5 The net driving force for reservoir uid that results from the reservoir uid potential gradient only, can thus be expressed as Ef = ,rf : 2.6 The direction of this force Ef is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces of the reservoir uid. The uid will be driven in the direction of Ef , i.e., in the direction of decreasing potential. The three-dimensional ow of reservoir uid through the subsurface can be described by a combination of Darcy's equation for reservoir uid with a continuity equation or mass balance equation and equations of state for the reservoir uid and the porous medium 24, 28, 30 .
We all know that Gauss' theorem also called the Divergence Theorem relates an integral over a volume, R, to an integral de ned on its surface, S , namely,
Z
where ~ v is a velocity vector in R, d is a di erential element of volume in R, d is a directed element of surface = ~ nds, and ~ n is an outward drawn unit vector normal to the scalar surface element, ds as depicted in Figure 2.1. If we consider the uid ux ~ q= ~ v at a point P , then
Z
Now since ~ v~ nds = j ~ vjj~ ndsj cos = dsj~ vj cos where is the angle between vectors ~ n and ~ v, then ~ v~ nds physically represents the component of the uid ux escaping from R through the element of surface ds in the direction of the outward drawn normal. Consequently, the integral of this quantity over the entire surface of R, i.e., the right-hand side of equation 2.7 represents the rate of decrease of mass from R. This can also be expressed as Z , @ d ; where is porosity. Therefore it follows that or combining 2.7 and 2.8
Z
div ~ v d =
~ v~ nds:
2.7
@t
S R
~ v~ nds = ,
@ d ; R @t
Z
2.8 2.9
div ~ v d = ,
Since R is an arbitrary volume, it follows that the arguments of the integrals in equation 2.9 are identical, i.e., div ~ v = , @ @t : 2.10 Equation 2.10 is known as the continuity equation. It simply is an expression of the law of conservation of mass at a point P in R. If a source or a sink is a present at the point P , then we add a mass rate term, q ~ say, to the continuity equation 28, 64, 92 , r ~ v q ~ = , @ : 2.11 The choice of sign on the additive term is purely arbitrary. We adopt the convention that the minus sign represents a source and the plus sign a sink. Therefore the mathematical form of the mass balance in porous media is given by the continuity equation which may be written using the tensional notation as equation 2.10 or 2.11. To arrive at the basic equations that describe reservoir ow, we make use of the continuity equation 2.11, an expression for the super cial ow velocity in a porous medium Darcy's Law , a mathematical expression for ow potential, and appropriate equations of state. In so doing, we take an Eulerian point of view; i.e., we focus our attention on xed points of space within the eld
@ d : R @t
@t
Solid
Figure 2.2: Viscous Flow at P in Volume. of ow, in contradistinction to the Lagrangian method, where the coordinates of a moving particle are represented as functions of time. We furthermore invoke the basic assumptions enumerated below: 1 Flow is laminar and viscous; 2 Flow is isothermal; 3 Electrokinetic e ects are negligible; 4 Di usion e ects are negligible; 5 Flow is irrotational. In keeping with assumption 4, we con ne our attention to immiscible uids throughout this thesis, and we also restrict ourselves to a single-phase ow. The geometric complexity of the pores, however, does not permit formulation of the boundary conditions for the ow through a porous medium. Thus, a di erent approach must be taken. Darcy discovered a simple relationship between the velocity vector and pressure gradient for a single phase viscous ow. A basic law for uid mechanics is Newton's Law for viscous uids. Consider a uid owing along a solid interface as shown in Figure 2.2 with velocity, ~ v. Newton's Law states where = viscosity and dF is the di erential of the viscous force. Since ow in the reservoir is very tortuous, dv=dz surface is very di cult to evaluate and estimations must be used. If we neglect inertial e ects, then v is proportional to the ux divided by the bulk external area, A, of the porous element under consideration, i.e., v is directly proportional to q A, similarly, dv dz is also directly proportional to q A. Moreover, if we could integrate over the porous surface, the result would be proportional to the bulk volume, AL, of the porous element. L is length of the bulk. This leads to the conclusion that the total viscous force F , is given by
v dF = d dz surface
q AL; F = A
10
ds
dz
Figure 2.3: Element of Surface in Volume. where is a proportionality parameter. Thus, F = vL. Now consider an element of surface in the neighborhood of the point P as shown in Figure 2.3. The component of the resisting force is the viscous force along the axis of the outward drawn normal, i.e., F = , v ndsdz; We use a negative sign because the force is directed opposite to the outward drawn normal. The component of the driving forces result of a potential gradient at P acting on an element of surface ds, i.e., Fd = rh ndsdz: At equilibrium F = Fd , rh ndsdz = , v ndsdz: This implies rh = , v; or rh : v = , Now, can be expressed in terms of a rock characteristic, viz., the permeability. From laboratory experiments one deduces that = = K 2 where K is a permeability tensor. Substituting for in the above equation gives Darcy's Law 28, 30 note that rh = r , we have
where ~ v is de ned as a volumetric ow rate across a unit cross-sectional area solid and uid averaged over a small region of space, its dimension is LT ,1 , the dimension of permeability K is L2 , the dimension of viscosity is ML,1T ,1 . This semi-empirical relationship 2.12 is used to describe single-phase ow in porous media in lieu of a momentum equation.
K r; ~ v=, K r = , h
2.12
11
Combining equations 2.4 and 2.12, and suppose the coordinate in the vertical downward direction is z, then we can write , gg rz = , rz: In reservoir engineering, we often de ne the velocity potential as follows 24, 92 :
c
and the dimension of velocity potential v is L2 T ,1 . By equations of state, we mean relationship that relate density to pressure at a point. Reservoir uids are considered compressible and, at constant reservoir temperature, we can de ne an isothermal compressibility of uid as a positive term Cf as follows 5, 34, 74 2.14 C = , 1 @V = 1 @ :
f
K v = K = P + z
2.13
where V denotes original volume and P is pressure. Gas compressibility is signi cantly greater than those of liquid hydrocarbons, which in turn are greater than those of reservoir waters. The subscript terminology for the compressibilities of gas, oil and water is Cg ; Co ; Cw . Reservoir pore volume may change with change in uid pressure, resulting in an increased fraction of overburden being taken by reservoir rock grains. If the variation of pore volume with pressure is the rock compressibility CR , we have @ : CR = 1 @P 2.15 Liquid hydrocarbons are often assumed to exhibit constant compressibility. Equation 2.14 can be integrated to yield = 0 exp Cf P , P0 ; 2.16 where the zero subscripts refer to a datum level, 0 is the density at the reference pressure P0 . If the reservoir liquid is a slightly compressible, then by Taylor's expansion,
2 = 0 f1 + Cf P , P0 + Cf P , P0 2 =2! + g:
V @P
@P
1 + Cf P , P0 :
2.17
then
= 0 1 + CR P , P0 ; where o is the porosity at the reference pressure P0 . If the uid is a gas, we employ the gas law PV = nZRT = mZ=MRT where m is mass, M is the molecular weight, T is temperature, and Z is gas deviation factor, and PM = Z RT 4, 55 . Since 5, 55 @ = 1 , 1 dZ ; Cf = 1 @P P Z dP
@ = M @ P : @P RT @P Z
12
In reservoir engineering, we often de ne the total compressibility coe cient as follows 5, 34, 74 : Ct = 0 Cf + CR 2.18 The dimension of Cf ; CR and Ct is M ,1 LT 2 . In summary, we may write equation of state as = P : 2.19 We now have the following relationships: continuity equation 2.11, ow potential equation 2.2, Darcy's law 2.12 and equation of state 2.19. We emphasize that each of these equations are prescribed at some point in pore space. By combining them in an appropriate manner, one can arrive at the ow equations for single-phase uids in a porous system. Their subsequent integration over space provides a dynamic picture of global phenomena i.e., at all points in space. Here we use the term integration" rather loosely, including obtaining a solution or approximate solution in some sense. Another important point is that equations 2.11, 2.2, 2.12 and 2.19 are valid in any coordinate system. Consequently, for a given reservoir, we need only specify the coordinate system, the number of dimensions i.e., 1D, 2D, or 3D , and the type of uid present to arrive at a speci c ow expression. When the entire pore space is occupied by a single phase compressible ow, after combining equations 2.10, 2.12 and 2.2, we have 2.20 r f K rP + rdg = @ :
@t @ , this implies that rP = 1=C r , so equation 2.20 can be written If Cf = 1 @P f K rP + C rdg = @ ; r f C f @t
f
2.21
@ Kx @ @ Ky @ @ Kz @ @ 2.22 @x Cf @x + @y Cf @y + @z Cf @z + Cf = @t : If again, the medium is homogeneous and isotropic and is constant, we get 28, 30, 94 K r2 = 1 @ ; = 2.23 @t Cf
neglecting gravity e ects. This is known as Fourier's equation or the di usivity equation. If the uid is slightly compressible, then one can employ 2.17 to obtain an equation identical to 2.23 where is replaced by P . In equation 2.23, the constant is frequently called the di usivity coe cient. We have assumed constant rock properties K; , constant viscosity , negligible gravitational e ects and ignored the square of the pressure gradient, and there holds 92
"
13
ELEVATION
a)
LINEAR
b)
RADIAL
c)
SPHERICAL
Note that in addition to the assumptions already made, the validity of 2.23 and 2.24 are limited to isotropic media, horizontal formation and the uid ow obeying the Darcy's law. We know that thermodynamic behavior of gases can be described by the equation of state 55 ,
r P = 1 @P @t ;
2
K : = C
f
2.24
PM : = ZRT
Insertion above equation into 2.20 and subsequent simpli cations results in the ow equation for ideal gases 55 2 K : = C 2.25 r2P 2 = 1 @P @t ;
f
The ow equations, 2.23,2.24,2.25 can be written in terms of rectangular Cartesian , cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Since ow is normally dominant in one direction only, a suitable choice of the coordinate system may lead to a substantial mathematical simpli cation. A well is considered to produce from a symmetrical drainage area of a uniform pay thickness. Furthermore, a well is open to ow over the entire pay thickness so that the ow lines converge towards a pressure sink, the wellbore itself see Figure 2.4 . Such a ow model is called the radial-cylindrical or simply the radial ow model and equation 2.24 is then reduced to 94 @P = K 1 @ r @P : 2.26
@t
Cf r @r
@r
Partial well completion and or a very thick formation may be better described by using the spherical geometry 30 . The uid is assumed to ow towards the wellbore which is approximated by a central point. The radial form of 2.24 in spherical coordinates becomes @P = K 1 @ r @P : 2.27
@t
Cf r2 @r
@r
Fluid ow in fractured wells of in nitely large conductivity or in long narrow channels can often be characterized by linear ow in a horizontal plane. In terms of the rectangular coordinates, the
14
@P = K @ 2 P : @t Cf @x2
Two di erent physical conditions may arise at the wellbore during well testing: a Constant production rate: AK @P ; qsf = ,B @r
rw
2.28
2.29
2 where A = 2rw h in the case of a radial system, whereas A = 4rs is used in a spherical system. Note that qsf refers to the ow rate at the sandface level. b Constant bottomhole pressure:
P = Pwf ;
r = rw ;
2.30
where Pwf is a constant pressure at the wellbore against which the well produces. The speci cation of the pressure behavior at the external boundary depends on the type of reservoir considered. a Volumetric reservoir: This is a closed system characterized by no uid ow across the outer boundary. Referring to equation 2.29, the zero ow rate velocity is expressed in terms of pressure gradient as @P = 0: 2.31 @r
re
b Reservoir associated with a gas cap or bottom water is featured by constant pressure at the external boundaries. In this case the pressure distribution does not change with time and the true steady-state condition is reached; that is,
P = Pi ;
r = re :
2.32
c In nitely large reservoir: This is a mathematical concept which is very useful during the initial stages of well testing when the pressure disturbance does not travel far enough to reach the reservoir boundary. 2.33 rlim !1 P = Pi : In all situations considered, it is assumed that initially the reservoir pressure is uniform
P = Pi ; t = 0 :
2.34
Chapter 3
Z=H Z H Zw X Z=0 Y
16
v = 0; div!
then
If we use the velocity potential v , see equation 2.13 , therefore in order to derive the reasonable and reliable productivity formulae, we must solve 3D Laplace equation: see equation 2.24, 2 r2v = 0: 3.1 Suppose a mathematical point M in the 3D space, and an in nite large percolation eld around M , then the percolation velocity of a sphere surface is 4, 28
!
div, K r = 0:
the dimension of q is L3 T ,1 , and A is cross-sectional ow area. According to Darcy's law 4, 64 , ! dv v = dr ; thus we obtain the velocity potential of point M in 3D space is We consider the uniform - ux, nite - conductivity model, take the horizontal well as a uniform line source in 3D space, the total productivity is Q, thus Q=L is unit length productivity, the dimension of Q is L3 T ,1 , at every point along the well, the well ow rate is the same. If C x0 ; y0 ; z0 is a point in 3D space, the velocity potential at point C caused by dx a di erential segment of the horizontal well line source is
q= q ; v= A 4r2
q + constant: v = , 4r
17
2 2 2 where r0 = y0 + z0 . L If we let c = 2 , then the velocity potential caused by the whole line source is
3.2
Figure 3.2 shows the analyses of the velocity potential. Point O0; 0; 0 is the midpoint of e be the radius segment AB . Point Dx0 ; 0; 0 is the projection of point C in segment AB . Let R of triangle ABC 's circumscribed circle, considering A,c; 0; 0, B c; 0; 0, and let the three sides of e; e e, we can show that 40 triangle ABC be a b; c e sin B; e sin A; e sin C; e = 2R e = 2R AC = e b = 2R BC = a AB = c and according to the Sine Law of Triangle, we have 40 e sin B cos A; AD = OA , OD = c , jx0 j = e b cos A = 2R e sin A cos B; e cos A = 2R BD = OA + OD = c + jx0 j = a therefore
Z
2 2 + z0 = r0 ; OA = OB = c; CD = y0
Z c Q v = , 4L dx : ,c R
3.3
18
e +e a b, In the triangle, let s be half perimeter, r be the radius of inscribed circle, and let a = 1 2 according to the Half Angle Law of Triangle 106 , we have
3.4
1 a e +e e; b+c s= 2
Therefore we have
r ; tan A = e 2 s,a
es , e e bs , c r = s , a ; s
r ; tan B = e 2
According to the de nition of ellipsoid of revolution 40 , if the sum of segment AC and AB 's length is 2a, point C is on the ellipsoid of revolution whose focuses are point A and B , and e +e a= 1 a b is semimajor axis. So we can come to the conclusion: 2 The equipotential surfaces of a horizontal well uniform line source in 3D space are a family of ellipsoids of revolution whose focuses are the two endpoints of the horizontal well. Figure 3.3 shows the shape of the equipotential surfaces.
19
H Re
Re
20
,c
The velocity potential of the two endpoints and midpoint are dependent on the semimajor axes of the ellipsoids of revolution equipotential surfaces which they are on. So, we have
2 2 2L Rw + Rw =2L; Rw Rw =2L; 1 qL2 + R2 + R L=2 + R =2 + R2 =4L; aE = w w w 2 w w q 2 L=2 + R2 =L: aM w = L=22 + Rw w Thus, the velocity potential of the endpoints and midpoint are
3.10
Q E w 4L ln Rw =2L ;
3.11
21 3.12
According to Simpsons Integral Approximation Rule 40, 52 , the average velocity potential of the horizontal well can be approximately represented as follows Q 5 1 1 M g 3.13 w 6 2E w + 4w = 4L 3 lnRw =L , 3 ln 2 : Let I be the ratio of endpoint and midpoint's velocity potential, then w = 1 1 + 1= log L=R 1 ; I= w 2 M 2 2 w when L ! 1, I ! 1 : 2 Let J be the ratio of eqaution 3.13 and equation 3.10, then
5 Rw =L , 1 ln 2 3 J = 3 ln : 2 R ln 2Lw2 ln2L=Rw
3.14
3.15
Table 3.1: The ratioes of velocity potential of endpoint and midpoint. Rw 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m L 200m 300m 400m 500m 600m I 0.545 0.543 0.542 0.541 0.539 According to Table 3.1, we can see that the endpoint's velocity potential is approximately equal to 54 percent the midpoint's velocity potential. This conclusion tells us: If we take a horizontal well as a uniform line source in 3D space, the well is not an in nite conductivity fracture, the in nite conductivity model is not exact for horizontal wells. Table 3.2: The comparisons of the two methods of calculating average velocity potential. Rw 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m 0.1m L 200m 300m 400m 500m 600m J 0.935 0.933 0.931 0.930 0.929 According to Table 3.2, we can see that these two methods perform similarly, the di erence between them is small.
Chapter 4
Productivity Formulae
In petroleum engineering, in order to determine the economic feasibility of drilling a horizontal well, the engineers need reliable methods to estimate its expected productivity well ow rate. In this chapter, we will derive the productivity formulae of horizontal wells in three-dimensional space for steady state ow. We will show that any two-dimensional 2D methods are not suitable for three-dimensional 3D percolation problems unless we assume the horizontal well's length is in nite. The formulae based on 2D model can not satisfactorily re ect characteristics of horizontal wells. In a reservoir, there may be several wells working together at the same time. However, a speci c well exploits a de nite volume of reservoir uid, and this volume is called the drainage volume of that well. Let Pw be the pressure drawdown between the boundary of drainage volume and wellbore, then we have Pw = Pe , Pw = Pi , Pw ; the pressure on the external boundary Pe is assumed to be the initial pressure Pi .
Q ln pL2 + H 2 , L : e = 4L L2 + H 2 + L
22
"
4.2
23
2
p E = pL + H , L ;
2
then, combining equations 2.13, 3.10 and 4.2, the productivity formula of a horizontal well in an ellipsoid of revolution drainage volume is Pw =B : Qw = 4KL 4.3 2EL2 ln R2 ln2 L=R w w In the above formula, B is formation volume factor. Formation volume factors have been given the general standard designation of B and are used to de ne the ratio between a volume of uid at reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure and its volume at standard condition : 600 F and 1 atmosphere. The factors are therefore dimensionless but are commonly quoted in terms of reservoir volume per standard volume. Thus, in this thesis, Qw means well ow rate at standard condition. p When x ! 0; 1 + x 1 + x=2, thus if L H , then
p
L2 + H 2 + L
L2 + H 2 + L 2L;
q
4.4 ln 2R2 ln2 L=R w w The above formulae 4.3, 4.4 are only suitable for isotropic reservoirs the formation's vertical permeability is equal to its horizontal permeability. In fact, in many reservoirs with anisotropic permeabilities, formation's vertical permeability is smaller than horizontal permeability. To derive the productivity formula of horizontal wells in anisotropic reservoirs, we assume that Kh = Kx = Ky ; Kv = Kz . Then equation 2.22 can be reduced to
2 @ 2 P + K @ 2 P = 0: + K Kh @ P v 2 h @x2 @y2 @z
L2 + H 2 , L = L 1 + H 2 =L2 , L H 2 =2L;
w =B : Qw = 4KLP H2
4.5
We let
Kv e = x Kh x;
4
p
Kv 4 Kh e= e= y Kh y; z Kv z:
4
2 @ 2 P + @ 2 P = 0; Kv Kh @ eP + 2 2 e e @ x2 @ y @z
4.6
and K; L; H become
Kv L; H Kh H: f= e = 4 e = 4 K Kv Kh ; L Kh Kv
p
24
Rw
Z Kz
X Kx
Figure 4.1: Original Reservoir System with x z Anisotropy and Horizontal Well.
, K , z
, X Kx
25
Figure 4.3: Axis Dimensions for Transformed Wellbore. We should use the correct equivalent wellbore radius for the anisotropic formation, which guarantees that elliptical ow e ects near the well are treated correctly. We de ne permeability anisotropic factor is 60, 89 In the above transformed coordinates the original circular well occupies the elliptical cylinder. A horizontal well in an anisotropic system is sketched in two dimensions in Figure 4.1. Let us assume that the directional permeabilities Kx and Kz di er considerably, as they do in most reservoirs, with Kx Kz . A simple transformation of variables can be used to change all dimensions to an equivalent isotropic system. The result is shown in Figure 4.2. The wellbore is now an ellipse, as p 4 shown in Figure 4.3. The length of the majorp axis in the z direction is Rw Kx =Kz . Similarly, the minor axis in the x direction is reduced to Rw 4 Kz =Kx . From inspectional analysis, the behavior of this transformed isotropic system is identical in every respect at all points and times to the original system. The question now is how to model this ellipic wellbore as an equivalent circle in the best way. Actually, there is no single answer to that question. From the previous work of M. Muskat, F.J. Kuchuk and W.E. Brigham 65, 79 , it is known that, when the ow near the well becomes steady, an elliptical well with semiaxes a and b in an isotropic formation is equivalent to a circular well of b. radius a+ 2 When the well ow rate is constant, the wellbore behaves as though its radius is the arithmetic average of the major and minor axes 17, 86 , so the equivalent radius of the horizontal well is 1 g = R 4.8 w 2 1=2 + ,1=2 Rw ;
h = K K: v
s
4.7
26
,1=2 x; e = x
,1=2 y; z e= e= y
e = H
1 2
1 2
z:
We de ne
e = ,1=2 L; L
H:
and we apply F; G and equation 4.8 to equation 4.3, then we obtain the productivity formula of a horizontal well in an anisotropic permeability reservoir
4 3 4 K LP =B w h v : Qw = 4 K 1 ln 2 + 2F + G , ln F
p
4L ; F = ln + 1Rw p pK L 2 + K H2 , K L v h G = ln p 2 p v : Kv L + KhH 2 + Kv L
4.13
It has been pointed out that, during production, the vertical permeability is more important than the horizontal permeability for horizontal wells. But the productivity formulae in 6, 7, 39, 44, 60 can not account for this viewpoint. Our formula 4.13 demonstrates it, because in formula 4.13, the exponent of Kv is 3=4 while the exponent of Kh is 1=4. Our physical system consisted of a horizontal well producing at a uniform and constant rate from an anisotropic, box-shaped drainage volume. We used the well-known line sink source solution for the well. Thus, according to our analysis, in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore, i.e., at R = Rw , the ow is characterized by two main features: 1 the ux into the wellbore is uniform; 2 the pressure along the well varies, i.e., the well can not be an isopotential, we may use a representative average wellbore pressure. In an anisotropic formation, the isopotential lines are ellipses, the circular wellbore can not have uniform pressure along the perimeter. It is also clear that, because of friction losses and other factors, the pressure is not constant along the well 7 . Our formulae 4.3, 4.4 and 4.13 are suitable for the horizontal wells at the midhight of a formation.
27
= qB x , x0 y z , zw ; 4.14 where x , x0 , y, z , zw are Dirac functions 106 . The dimension of the above Dirac functions such as z , zw is L,1 , the dimension of q is L3 T ,1 , and the dimension of both sides of equation 4.14 is ML,1 T ,2 . The total productivity of the horizontal well is Qw , its dimension is also L3 T ,1 . Transformation of a mathematical model into dimensionless form is a common engineering practice. In treating pressure transient problems, the introduction of dimensionless groups reduces the number of variables and parameters which can signi cantly simplify the mathematical statement. Let , , , y z x K K K 1=2 1=2 4.15 xD = L K ; yD = L K ; zD = L K 1=2 : We de ne e ective permeability
x y z
4.16 4.17
,
K 1=2 ; LD = K x
K 1=2 ; HD = H L Kz
h = Kx : = K Kv Kz
s
w K 1=2 : zwD = zL Kz
4.18
4.19
As we stated before, because of dimensionless transformation, the circular wellbore becomes ellipse, the dimensionless equivalent radius of the well is the arithmetic mean of semimajor axis and semiminor axis of the ellipse, i.e. 17, 86 , when = 1; RwD = Rw =L. According to equation 4.15, there hold
RwD
1 2
4.20
@ 2 P = 1 K @ 2 P : @x2 L2 Kx @xD 2
28
,
3
K 3=2 5 x , x y z , z : 4 qB x , x0 y z , zw = qB D 0D D D wD 3 L Kx Ky Kz 1=2 According to equation 4.16, there holds
2
4.21
@ 2 PD + @ 2 PD + @ 2 PD = , x , x y z , z : 4.22 D 0D D D wD @xD 2 @yD 2 @zD 2 We must point out that if the point convergence intensity of point x0 ; y0 ; z0 is q, then the Qw = qLD :
4.23
In this subsection, we will derive the point convergence pressure distribution formulae, i.e., dimensionless pressure formulae of the points in 3D space. We rst consider the drainage domain is between the in nite parallel planes z = H and z = 0 with the impermeable boundary condition at z = H , constant boundary condition at z = 0 e.g. the horizontal well is in the reservoir with bottom water , thus
PD jzD =0 = 0;
@PD is the exterior normal derivative of dimensionless pressure. where @N D Considering the simultaneous equations of 4.22 and 4.24, let the normalized orthogonal solution systems be gn zD , then we have
4.24
n = 1; 2; 3; :::;
4.25
29
HD
gi gj dzD = 0;
i 6= j ;
4.26 4.27
Z
0
HD
gn 2 dzD = 1;
1
n = 1; 2; 3; ::::
Therefore, according to the properties of Dirac function and the normalized orthogonal solution systems of the partial di erential equation basic solution, there holds 100, 101, 102 zD , zwD = i.e., zD , zwD = Let
X X
n=1
4.28
n=1
4.29 4.30
PD =
n=1
Apply equations 4.31 and 4.30 to equation 4.22, then Un is the basic solution of the following equation 100, 101, 102 Un xD ; yD , 2n , 1=2HD 2 Un xD ; yD 2 x , x y sin 2n , 1z =2H : = H D 0D D wD D
D
@xD
@yD
4.31
4.32
Using integration transformation method, we have 2 sin 2n , 1z =2H f 1 K 2n , 1R =2H g Un xD ; yD = H wD D D D 2 0 D = 1 sin 2n , 1z =2H K 2n , 1R =2H ; where
HD
wD
4.33
4.34 Combining equations 4.30 and 4.33, if the boundary conditions are 4.24, the dimensionless pressure of the point x0D ,0,zwD is
2 RD = xD , x0D 2 + yD :
PD =
n=1
4.35
30
In the 4.33 and 4.35, K0 x is modi ed Bessel function of second kind and order zero 106 . If the drainage domain is between the in nite parallel planes z = H and z = 0 such that the boundary condition is impermeable at z = 0 , but constant at z = H e.g the horizontal well is in the reservoir with gas cap , then
PD jzD =HD = 0;
is
Similarly, if the boundary conditions are 4.36, the dimensionless pressure of the point x0D ,0,zwD
@PD j @ND zD =0 = 0:
4.36 4.37
PD =
If the drainage domain is between the in nite parallel planes z = H and z = 0 with the boundary conditions at z = H and z = 0 are both constant e.g the horizontal well is in the reservoir with bottom water and gas cap , then
n=1
PD jzD =0 = 0;
q
PD jzD =HD = 0:
4.38
Considering the simultaneous equations of 4.22 and 4.38, letting the normalized orthogonal solution systems be fn zD , then we have
D fnzD = 2=HD sin nz H ; D
Z
0
n = 1; 2; 3; :::;
4.39
fi fj dzD = 0;
i 6= j ;
4.40 4.41
Z
0
HD
fn 2 dzD = 1;
n = 1; 2; 3; ::::
is
Hence, if the boundary conditions are 4.38, the dimensionless pressure of the point x0D ,0,zwD
1 sin nzD sin nzwD K nR =H : H 4.42 0 D D H H D D D n=1 Formulae 4.35, 4.37, 4.42 are the point convergence pressure distribution formulae, i.e., dimensionless pressure formulae of the points in 3D space.
PD =
In this subsection, we will derive the dimensionless pressure formulae of the endpoint and midpoint of horizontal wells under di erent boundary conditions. Because the horizontal well line uniform source is located between ,L=2 x0 L=2, i.e., ,LD =2 x0D LD =2, according to the Superposition Principle of Potential, the dimensionless pressure of the endpoints and midpoint can be computed by the integration method, and the average dimensionless pressure of the whole horizontal well can be computed by the Simpsons Integral Approximation Rule.
31
2 jxwD , x0D j: 4.43 RwD = xwD , x0D 2 + ywD If the boundary conditions are 4.24, in the equation 4.35, let zwD + RwD take the place of zD , and let x0D be the element of integration, along the well length LD , integrate equation 4.35, we can obtain the dimensionless pressure of the horizontal well at xwD is
PwD =
i.e., 1 f PwD = H
X
L D =2 Z
,LD =2
D
PD dx0D ;
4.44 4.45
D n=1
Z
An =
LD = 2 LD = 2
= If we let then 2HD An 2n , 1
8
2
K0 2n , 1RwD =2HD dx0D K0 jxwD , x0D j2n , 1=2HD dx0D K0 jxwD , x0D j2n , 1=2HD dx0D K0 jxwD , x0D j2n , 1=2HD dx0D :
Z 0
LD =2
K0 vdv +
9 = ;
K0 vdv :
4.46
If our observation point is the endpoint of horizontal well, i.e., xwD = LD =2 or xwD = ,LD =2, then
AE n
Z 2HD = 2n K0 vdv , 1 0 Z 1 Z 1 2 H D K0 vdvg: = 2n , 1 f K0 vdv , 0 2n,1LD =2HD
2
n,1LD =2HD
K0 vdv = =2;
4.47
n,1LD =2HD
K0 vdv:
Z 1 L D K0 vdv: 4.51 n= u u By the de nitions of LD ; HD see equation 4.18 , u is a positive number which is greater
F u =
When v ! 1, according to the asymptotic expansion formula of K0 v, there holds 40, 52
r K0 v 2v e,v ;
K0vdv:
4.52 4.53
F u
= Because therefore
n=
1 r ,v e dv
2
e,u :
2 u
1 ,v e dv
2v
Note that equation 4.45 should include the in nite sum of n with respect to n. Now we estimate the summation, since there holds equation 4.54 and zwD + RwD sin 2n , 1zwD 1; sin 2n , 12H 2HD D thus we let 1 1 X zwD + RwD sin 2n , 1zwD g ; E = H fsin 2n , 12H n 2H
D n=1 D D
LD F u; u
4.54
33
where
and we have used the below formula 40, 52 1 + = 2 + 3 =3 + 5 =5 + ::: + 2n+1 =2n + 1 + ::: ; jj 1: ln 1 , By the de nitions of ; LD ; HD and note the fact that L H , we come to the conclusion that is a positive number and ! 0, we have + 2; ln 1 1, thus p 1 + p ,3=2 : E 232 4.55 =2 ln 1 , 2 Therefore, the global error is controlled by a very small positive number, when n increases, the error does not increase, it is reasonable to neglect n in equations 4.45 and 4.48, and we can simplify 4.48 as follows 4.56 If our observation point is the midpoint of horizontal well, i.e., xwD = 0, by a similar method, we have 2n,1L Z D =2HD 4 H D M K0 udu 2HD =2n , 1: 4.57 An = 2n , 1 When x 6= 0, there hold 40, 52
X
0
1;
AE n HD =2n , 1:
n=1
X
cosnx=n = , ln 2 sinx=2 ;
n=1
34 4.61
2zwD + RwD 2zwD : 4.62 Combining equations 4.45, 4.56, 4.59, 4.60, and 4.62, if the boundary conditions are 4.24, the dimensionless pressure of the endpoints of the horizontal well is
E = 1 f PwD
RwD 0;
1 sin 2n , 1zwD + RwD sin 2n , 1zwD g; 2 n 2HD 2HD n=1 , 1
X
E = 1 fln cot RwD , ln cot 2zwD + RwD g; PwD 4 4H 4H E = 1 fln cot RwD , ln cot zwD g: PwD 4 4H 2H D D D D
Similarly, if the boundary conditions are 4.24, the dimensionless pressure of the midpoint of the horizontal well is 1 M = 2 f X 1 sin 2n , 1zwD + RwD sin 2n , 1zwD g; PwD 4.66 n=1 2n , 1 2HD 2HD
M = 1 fln cot RwD , ln cot 2zwD + RwD g; PwD 2 4H 4H M = 1 fln cot RwD , ln cot zwD g: PwD 2 4H 2H D D D D
4.67 4.68
In the same manner, if the boundary conditions are 4.36, the dimensionless pressure of the endpoints and the midpoint of the horizontal well are given by the two formulae below, respectively: E = 1 fln cot RwD + ln cot zwD g; PwD 4.69 4 4HD 2HD If the boundary conditions are 4.38, the dimensionless pressure of the endpoints and the midpoint of the horizontal well are given by the two formulae below, respectively: E = 1 lnf sinzwD =HD g; PwD 4.71 4 sin RwD =2HD
M = 1 lnf sinzwD =HD g: PwD 2 sin R =2H wD D M = 1 fln cot RwD + ln cot zwD g: PwD 2 4H 2H D D
4.70
4.72
In summary, we have Table 4.1. Observe the above dimensionless pressures of the endpoint and the midpoint, we may come to the following conclusion which is similar to what stated in Chapter 3.
35
Within the given error tolerance, the dimensionless pressure of midpoint of the horizontal well is about twice as large as the dimensionless pressure of endpoints, i.e. see equation 3.14 ,
M 2P E : PwD wD
4.73
According to Simpsons Integral Approximation Rule, the average dimensionless pressure of the horizontal well uniform line source is A 1 2P E + 4P M 5 P E : 4.74 PwD wD 6 wD 3 wD Therefore, in a certain sense of approximate representation, the average dimensionless pressure of the whole horizontal well is 5=3 of the dimensionless pressure of endpoints. In this subsection, we will derive productivity formulae for eccentricity wells. By the de nition of dimensionless pressure see equation 4.21 , consider the constant boundary condition, Pe = Pi , thus E = P E ; Pe , Pw 4.75 w E means the pressure drop is measured at the endpoint of the horizontal well, and P A means Pw w the average pressure drop of the horizontal well, we have A 5 P E : 4.76 Pw 3 w Combining equations 4.21 and 4.64, note that , ln cotx = ln tanx ; when x ! 0, tanx ! x, and RwD 0, we have
E PwD E LPw = K qB
RwD 2zwD + RwD g = 41 fln cot 4HD , ln cot 4HD RwD wD 41 fln tan z 2HD , ln tan 4HD g RwD wD 41 fln tan z 2HD , ln 4HD g;
36 4.77 4.78
According to equations 4.17, 4.18 and 4.23, the total productivity of the horizontal well is
E =B 4 Kh Kv LPw Qw = ln 4H zwD : D =RwD + ln tan 2H D
4.79
4.80
M means the pressure drop is measured at the midpoint of the horizontal well. and Pw The total productivity Qw is the summation of every point productivity along the well, Qw is A , and note equation also the whole well productivity under the steady average pressure drop Pw 4.76, there holds E =B 4 Kh Kv LPw Qw = ln 4H zwD D =RwD + ln tan 2H D p A KhKv LPw =B = ln 4H =R zwD D wD + ln tan 2H pK K L 5 P E =B D h v 3 w = ln 4H =R zwD : D wD + ln tan 2H D
Qw =
where l is a parameter, i.e.,
4.81
4; if l = E ; 2; if l = M ; 4.82 : 2:4; if l = A: Equation 4.81 is our horizontal well productivity formula in bottom water reservoir whose upper boundary is impermeable and bottom boundary pressure is constant.
l=
37
Similarly, if the horizontal well is in gas cap reservoir whose bottom boundary is impermeable and upper boundary pressure is constant, then
Qw =
4.83
According to equations 4.71 and 4.72, on the analogy of the above derivation of equations, if the top and the bottom boundaries are at constant pressure the reservoir has gas cap and bottom water , then the horizontal well productivity formula is
4.84
has the same meaning as in equation 4.82. When Kx = Ky = Kz , or Kh = Kv , the formulae 4.81, 4.83 and 4.84 reduce to the formulae below, respectively:
l
for the wells in the reservoir with bottom water whose upper boundary is impermeable and bottom boundary pressure is constant; for the wells in the reservoir with gas cap whose bottom boundary is impermeable and upper boundary pressure is constant; 4.87 lnf sin Rw =2H g for the wells in the reservoir with gas cap and bottom water, i.e., upper boundary pressure and bottom boundary pressure are constant. Formulae 4.85, 4.86 and 4.87 are productivity formulae for eccentricity horizontal wells. We must point out the value of l varies with the point where the pressure is measured. When the pressure measuring point is the midpoint, l = 2; when the pressure measuring point is the endpoint, l = 4; at other points, l will be a di erent value, if we apply the average presssure drop, l = 2:4. And we must point that when the horizontal well is at the midheight of the pay formation, i.e., zw = H=2, we have w = cot zw = sinz =H = 1; tan z w 2H 2H so zw w ln tan z 2H = ln cot 2H = ln sinzw =H = 0; therefore the denominators of the right sides of formulae 4.85, 4.86 and 4.87 reach their minimum values, i.e., Qw reaches maximum value. So, we have proved that in the steady state and
l =B Pw ; Qw = l KL sinzw =H l =B Pw Qw = ln 4H=lKL R + ln cot zw ; w
2
4.85
4.86
38
A 2b
B B
2a
Figure 4.4: Division of 3D Horizontal Well Problem into Two 2D Problems. under any boundary conditions, for maximum productivity, the horizontal well should be located at the midheight of the pay formation, as observed in oil reservoir operations 7, 60 , and the reservoir engineering practice has showed that if the pay formation is not very thick, we may assume the horizontal well is at the midhight of the formation, and the productivity error is less than 5 percent. Taking the parameter l into account, our formulae 4.3, 4.4, 4.13 should change to the formulae below, respectively: l =B Pw Qw = l KL ; 4.88 2EL2 ln R2 w ln2L=Rw
l =B Pw ; Qw = l KLH 2 l 4
p
3 4 K LP l =B Kv h w Qw = : ln 1 + 2 F + G , ln F 2
ln 2R2 w ln2L=Rw
4.89 4.90
39
4.93
4.94
where X = 2a=L, a is the same as we state in 4.93, cosh,1 x is the inverse hyperbolic cosine function, and 0 Rw = 1 + =2 Rw ; 0 when = 1; Rw = Rw . C.Q. Liu's formula : 73 2KLPw =B Qw = 4.95 zw =2H g : ln 4H=Rw + lnf sinsin H ,zw =2H Z.F. Fan's formula : 39
4.96
And it is interesting to nd that when = 1, l = 2, our formula 4.85 becomes formula 4.95 and formula 4.96. Thus we have obtained formulae 4.95 and 4.96 from a di erent approach. In 61 , there is an example for us to calculate a horizontal well productivity index with di erent methods. The drainage area of the horizontal well is 325 103 m2 , the length of the well is 305 m, the wellbore's radius is 0.11 m, the crude oil's formation volume factor B is 1.34, the thickness of the pay formation is 50 m, the formation's e ective permeability is 74 10,3 m2 , the viscosity is 0.62 mPa:s. The well is at the midhight of the pay formation. If we use International Units, and take the constants such as 2, 4, 2:4 and dimensional unit conversions into consideration, we apply the above formulae to compute the productivity index Jh of this well. In the following calculations, we let = 1; l = 2:4; K = Kh = Kv = 74 10,3 m2 :
40
a = L=2 0:5 + 0:25 + 2Reh=L4 0:5 q = 305=2 0:5 + 0:25 + 2 321:64=3054 0:5 = 340:19m; Jh =
0:543Kh H=B H ln H=2R + L ln w 0 : 543 74 50 = 0 : 62 1:34 p = 340:192 ,3052 + 50 ln 50=2 0:11 ln 2340:19+ 4305 305 = 1038m3 =day:MPa:
2 +
4 2
a ,L2 L
0:543Kh H=B
= 1129m3 =day:MPa:
41
p E = p305 + 50 , 50 = 0:7214;
2 2
3052 + 502 + 50
7 Formula 4.85: 0:652KL=B Jh = ln 4 H= w Rw + ln tan z 2H 0:652 74 305=0:62 1:34 = 1425 ln 4 50=3:14 0:11 + ln tan 3:2 50 = 2782m3 =day:MPa: According to the above calculations, we may nd that the results calculated by 2D formulae 4.91, 4.92, 4.93, 4.94 are smaller than the results calculated by our 3D formulae 4.3, 4.85. There is a horizontal well in Liu-Hua Reservoir, South China Sea. The well and reservoir's parameters are as follows 39 : The length of the horizontal well is 600 m; the drainage radius is 500 m; the wellbore's radius is 0.1098 m; the formation's horizontal permeability is 569 10,3 m2 ; and the vertical permeability is 280 10,3 m2 ; the formation's e ective thickness is 63 m; the crude oil's formation volume factor B is 1.031; the viscosity is 65 mPa:s; the distance between the horizontal well and the bottom boundary is 56.86 m; when the producing pressure drawdown is 4.57 MPa, the actual productivity is 1288 m3 =day; when the producing pressure drawdown is 5.90 MPa, the actual productivity is 1516 m3 =day. The pressure is the wellhead pressure, it means the pressure measuring point is the endpoint. The horizontal well has additional pressure drop because of formation damage. Now, we use the above formulae to calculate the productivity of this horizonta well and compare it with the actual productivity data. Because some formulae such as 4.91, 4.92, 4.95 can not account for anisotropic permeability reservoir, we may use the e ective permeability of the formation if applicable.
42
Formula Number 4.13 4.91 4.92 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96 4.79 Productivity when Pw = 4:57 1468 555 592 630 696 1004 994 1294 Productivity when Pw = 5:90 1896 716 764 813 898 1296 1278 1568 = Kh =Kv = 569=280 = 1:4255 Taking the unit conversions into consideration, we have the calculation results in Table 4.2. In Table 4.2, the unit of productivity is m3 =day, the unit of pressure drop is MPa, the rst row contains the productivity formula number; the second row contains the productivity calculated by the formula in the rst row under the pressure drop 4.57 MPa; the third row is the productivity calculated by the formula in the rst row under the pressure drop 5.90 MPa. Because this horizontal well is in the pollutant reservoir, it has additional pressure drop, the computational results should be bigger than the actual productivity 4, 29, 30 . But we observe that in Table 4.2, only our formulae 4.13 and 4.79 satisfy this criterion. This indicates that the 3D formulae here are more reliable than those based on 2D model. and
q q
Chapter 5
5.1 where Ct is total compressibility coe cient see equation 2.18 , and the dimension of both sides of equation 5.1 is ML,1 T ,2 . The initial condition and outer boundary condition are Pt=0 = Pi; P x; y; z = Pi ; x; y ! 1: 5.2 We de ne xD = 2x=L; LD = 2; 5.3
x =L; z = 2z Kx =L; yD = 2y K D Kz Ky q Kx t ; P = 4L K K P , P =qB ; tD = 4 D y z i Ct L2
s s
5.4 5.5
43
44 5.6
The above dimensionless forms are di erent from dimensionless forms 4.15, 4.21, 4.20. Note that if c is a positive constant, cx = x=c 106 , consequently, equation 5.1 becomes
D , 8 x , x y , y z , z ; = @P D 0D D 0D D 0D @t D
5.7
and according to 5.2, the initial condition and outer boundary condition become PD = 0; tD = 0; PD = 0; xD ; yD ! 1: Using Convolution Theorem and Laplace transform formulae 52, 106 , the dimensionless pressure at point xD ; yD ; zD is 28 Z t 2 D exp ,RD =4tD , d 8 p PD = 2p3 tD , 3 0 i.e., 1 U t H t ; 5.8 PD = p D D where
Taking the Laplace transform of the equation 5.8 with respect to tD , and note that p 1=2 ,d s 2 e 2 3=2 Lfexp ,d =4t =t g = ; where s is Laplace transform variable, thus we have p p 2 d b b PD = U H = pR s exp ,RD s : Using inverse Laplace transform method, there holds p PD = R2 erfc RD =2 tD ;
D
q
H tD = 1:
k g = e ; Lferfc 2p s t
D
,k ps
where
and erfcx is complementary error function 40 . Equation 5.10 is the dimensionless pressure formula of a point in a single porosity reservoir, i.e., point convergence pressure distribution formula.
45
PwD =
Z 1
,1
2erfc RD =2 tD dx : 0D R
D
5.12 5.13
Because erfcx = 1 , erf x, where erf x is error fuction 40 , and RwD 0, therefore
Z 1
We have
2 2 + 4 + RwD
and Thus
erf y =
Z 1
k=0
y ,1k k!2 k + 1 :
2 +1
=ptD 1 X
0
k=0
Combining the above equations, if the horizontal well is in an in nite reservoir, the dimensionless pressure of endpoints is E = ,2 lnRwD =4 , p 4 + q4 + PwD 5.14 tD 9 t3 D
46
5.15
Thus
Z 1
D X 1
k=0
Then for the horizontal well in an in nite reservoir, the dimensionless pressure of midpoint is M = ,2 lnRwD =4 , p 4 + q1 + 5.16 PwD tD 9 t3 D Formulae 5.14 and 5.16 show that if time is su ciently long, the pressure of wellbore tends to become steady. This conclusion is consistent with well testing practice 4, 8, 30, 91 . Formulae 5.14 and 5.16 are the dimensionless pressure formulae for horizontal wells in in nite reservoirs.
5.17
In this subsection, we will derive the well testing formulae for horizontal wells in nite height reservoirs with impermeable boundary conditions. If the horizontal well is in the reservoir with impermeable boundary conditions at z = 0 and z = H , we apply the method of images, and according to Prolongation Theorem 24, 100, 101, 102 , the dimensionless pressure of point x0D ; 0; zwD is 83, 84
1 ,u2 2z e du = p
1 ,zv2 e dv:
2 2 When i = 1; 2, we let z = RD + zni =tD =2; then 2 2 erfc RD + zni =tD =2 1 Z 1 exp ,R2 + z 2 v2 =4t dv: q p = D D ni 2 2 tD 1 RD + zni
5.21
b = HD v;
2 PD = H
11
Ei x =
et dt; ,1 t
x
and when x 0.01, Ei x can be approximated as 52 Eix , lnx , ; where is Euler's constant, 0.5772, and
,Ei,x =
Z
1
1 e,xt
t dt:
2 Let ,RD =4tD = x, according to equation 5.28, we have 1 E ,R2 =4t = 1 Z 1 1 exp ,R v2 =4t dv2 = Z 1 1 exp ,R v2 =4t dv: ,2 i D D D D D D 2 1 v2 v 1
48 5.29 5.30
I0 =
Z
1
11
d exp, , x 4 ;
2
v if we let x = nRD =HD , = R4D tD , then d= = 2dv=v, according to equation 5.30, there holds
K0 nRD =HD =
Z
0
11
RD v2 , n2 tD dv: exp , v 4 tD HD v2 5.31 5.32 5.33
Now we de ne In1 and In2 as follows: Z 1 1 exp , RD v2 , n2 tD dv = K nR =H ; In1 = 0 D D v 4tD HD v2 0 1 exp , RD v2 , n2 tD dv: 4tD HD v2 0 v Therefore, when n 1; we de ne In and we have below relation Z 1 1 exp , RD v2 , n2 tD dv = I , I : In = n1 n2 v 4tD HD v2 1
In2 =
Z 1
In2 =
And we have
1 exp , RD v2 , n2 tD dv 4tD HD v2 0 v Z 1 2 1 exp , RD nu2 tD du = , 2 2 u 4tD u HD 1 Z 1 1 exp , nu2 tD du
Z 1
n=1
49
and we should integrate equation 5.18 or 5.25 with respect to x0D from ,1 to 1, according to equation 5.25, we have
E = PwD
5.34
J0 =
,1
I0 dx0D ; Jn1 =
Z 1
,1
Z 1
,1
In2dx0D ;
5.35
zD + zwD 2zwD ; J0 =
Z 1
zD , zwD = RwD :
,1
I0 dx0D
p1 t
Z
0
In order to obtain the equation 5.36, we have used transformation parameters and integration by parts method 59 . When time is su ciently long tD is large enough , because there hold formula 5.27 and the following formula 52 p p lim tD erf 1= tD = 2; t !1
D
J0 ,Ei,1=tD + 2 2 , + ln tD 1:4228 + ln tD :
When time is su ciently short tD is small enough , we have ,E ,1=t 0; erf p1 1;
i D
tD
J0 tD :
50
y = K0zdz , =2;
0
Jn1 =
=
Z 1
Z 1
,1 ,1 ,1
Z 1
D = H n
n=HD
0
K0 zdz:
n=HD
0
K0 z dz =2;
5.37
thus and
Note that relationships 5.35 and formula 4.61, then cosnzD =HD cosnzwD =HD and there holds formula 4.58, thus we de ne 1 fcosnR =H + cos nz + z =H g; =2 wD D D wD D
X
,1
In2 dx0D 0:
T=
n=1
5.38
51
=
so
5.39 Combining equations 5.34, 5.36, 5.38 and 5.39, if the horizontal boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both impermeable, the dimensionless pressure of the endpoints is P E = 2 J + 2T :
wD
Simplify the above equation, we have E = 2 ,Ei ,1=tD + ptD erf p1 , lnf4 sin RwD =2HD sinzwD =HD g: PwD H t When time is su ciently long, equation 5.40 becomes E 2 1:4228 + ln t , lnf4 sin R =2H sinz =H g: PwD D wD D wD D HD When time is su ciently short, equation 5.40 becomes E 2 ptD , lnf4 sin RwD =2HD sinzwD =HD g: PwD H In order to nd the dimensionless pressure of midpoint, we let
2 RD = x2 0D + RwD x0D ;
HD
and let
L0 =
Z 1
,1
I0 dx0D
,1
p = ,Ei ,1=4tD + 4 tD
p1t
exp,x2 dx
52 5.43
Ln1 =
=
Z 1
Z 1
,1 ,1 ,1
Z 1
By the analogy of the above arguments, if the horizontal boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both impermeable, the dimensionless pressure of the midpoint is 1 , 2 lnf4 sin R =2H sinz =H g: 5.44 M = 2 ,Ei ,1=4tD + 2ptD erf p PwD wD D wD D HD 2 tD When time is su ciently long, equation 5.44 becomes 5.45 P M 2 2:8091 + ln t , 2 lnf4 sin R =2H sinz =H g:
wD
When time is su ciently short, equation 5.44 becomes M 4 ptD , 2 lnf4 sin RwD =2HD sinzwD =HD g: PwD H
D
HD
wD
wD
5.46
Formulae 5.40, 5.41, 5.42, 5.44, 5.45, and 5.46 are dimensionless pressure formulae, i.e., the well testing formulae for horizontal wells in nite height reservoirs with impermeable boundary conditions. In this subsection, we will derive the well testing formulae for horizontal wells in nite height reservoirs with bottom water or gas cap. If the horizontal well is in the reservoir with constant boundary conditions at z = 0 and H the reservoir with bottom water and gas cap , the pressure of the horizontal wellbore tends to become steady when time is su ciently long 50, 69, 71 . In such case, the dimensionless pressure at point x0D ; 0; zwD is 1 X K nR =H sinnz =H sinnz =H : 5.47 P = 1
D
HD n=1
wD
53
so
4 n fcos nzD , zwD =HD , cos nzD + zwD =HD g n 1 4 fln 2 sinzwD =HD , ln 2 sinRwD =2HD g;
=1
1 1 1X
D n=1
,1
According to the de and 5.5, formula 5.48 is equivalent to formula 4.71. If the boundary condition at z = 0 is impermeable while the boundary condition at z = H is constant the reservoir with gas cap , the pressure of the horizontal wellbore tends to become steady when time is su ciently long 50, 69, 71 . In such case, the dimensionless pressure at point x0D ; 0; zwD is 1 f PD = H
X
5.48
D n=1
K0 2n , 1RD =2HD cos 2n , 1zD =2HD cos 2n , 1zwD =2HD g: 5.49 W=
Z 1
We de ne then
,1
n,1=HD
K0 zdz
Thus, according to formula 4.59, the steady dimensionless pressure of the endpoints is
1 1 1X 2 n=1 2n , 1 fcos 2n , 1zD + zwD =2HD + cos 2n , 1zD , zwD =2HD g 1 4 fln cotzwD =2HD + ln cotRwD =4HD g; then we have E 1 fln cotR =4H + ln cotz =2H g: 5.50 PwD wD D wD D 4
E 1 f cos 2n , 1zD =2HD cos 2n , 1zwD =2HD W g PwD HD n=1
54
Similarly, if the boundary condition at z = H is impermeable while the boundary condition at z = 0 is constant, the reservoir with bottom water , the dimensionless pressure at point x0D ; 0; zwD is 1 f PD = H
X
D n=1
K0 2n , 1RD =2HD sin 2n , 1zD =2HD sin 2n , 1zwD =2HD g; 5.51
thus the steady dimensionless pressure at the endpoints is E 1 fln cotR =4H , ln cotz =2H g: PwD 5.52 wD D wD D 4 Considering that the de nition of PD in 4.21 is di erent from the de nition of PD in 5.5, thus we may conclude that 5.47 is equivalent to 4.42, 5.49 is equivalent to 4.37, 5.50 is equivalent to 4.69, 5.52 is equivalent to 4.65. In summary, if the horizontal well is in the reservoir with bottom water or gas cap, the pressure of the wellbore will become steady when time is su ciently long. The well will produce oil at a constant rate.
Chapter 6
56
FRACTURE ACTUAL
Figure 6.1: Warren and Root's Sketch of a Naturally Fractured Reservoir. The material with the primary porosity is contained within a systematic array of identical rectangular parallelepipeds. The secondary porosity is contained within an orthogonal system of continuous uniform fractures which are oriented such that each fracture is parallel to one of the principal axes of permeability. Flow can occur only between the primary and secondary porosities but not through the primary porosities. Applying the continuity equation to this geometry, Warren and Root 49, 87 camp up with the following equations in dimensionless forms @ 2PfD + 1 @PfD = 1 , ! @PmD + ! @PfD ; 6.1
mD 1 , ! @P 6.2 @tD = PfD , PmD ; where ! and are two parameters characterizing the particular reservoir under study. These two parameters are su cient distinguish a ssured reservoir from that of a homogeneous porous medium. Probably the most important contribution of this model is that it considers a variety of sedimentological cases and, the matrix contributes to the production through the fractures, i.e., the model considers the general case of a ssured reservoir. Also, a homogeneously distributed porosity is considered as a limiting case in the model when ! =1, = 1. As de ned by Warren and Root, ! and are given by: ! = Cf f =Cf f + Cm m ; 6.3 2 = Km rw =Kf ; 6.4 ! is the storativity coe cient, is the uid transfer coe cient.
and
@rD 2
rD @rD
@tD
@tD
57
According to the mass conservation and Darcy's laws, if the point convergence intensity at point x0 ; y0 ; z0 is q, taking Warren-Root Model into account, we have to solve the equations below to get the point convergence pressure distribution formulae.
m Cm f Cf
@Pm + K P , P = 0; @t m m f
6.5
and Let
@Pf , Kfx @ 2 Pf , Kfy @ 2 Pf , Kfz @ 2 Pf @t @x2 @y2 @z 2 = Km Pm , Pf , qB x , x0 y , y0 z , z0 ; Pt=0 = Pi ; P x; y; z = Pi ; x; y ! 1: yD = 2y Kfx=Kfy =L;
q
6.6
xD = 2x=L;
q
Then we have
6.11
! = Cf f =Cf f + Cm m ; = Km L2 =4Kfx ; 6.12 and ! is the storativity coe cient, is the uid transfer coe cient, is interporosity ow shape factor, its dimension is L,2 49, 87 . And we point that in this chapter, the f subscripts refer to fracture medium, m subscripts refer
to matrix porous medium. Taking the Laplace transform of the above equations with respect to tD , we obtain
d d d @2P fD + @ 2 P fD = sf sP fD + @ 2 P d + 8 x D , x0D yD , y0D zD , z0D ; fD 2 2 @xD @yD @zD 2
where
6.13
6.14 and s is Laplace transform variable. The elementary solution of equation 6.13 is 40, 101 2 exp , sf sRD ; d = P fD sR
p
where
6.15
58
lengths of the reservoir are in nite, i.e., the boundaries of the reservoir in the horizontal directions are so far away that the pressure disturbance does not travel far enough to reach the boundaries during the well testing. The well is parallel to the the top and bottom boundaries. The two endpoints of the horizontal well are ,L=2; 0; zw ; L=2; 0; zw , and 0 zw H . The Laplace transform image of the dimensionless pressure of the horizontal well is 11, 25, 36
Z 1 uRD dx ; 2 PfwD = s exp , 0D R b
6.16 RD = xD , x0D 2 + yD , y0D 2 + zD , z0D 2 ; s s K fx fx RwD = Rw K + K 6.17 Kfz =L: fy As Figure 3.1 shows, the horizontal well is in a reservoir of height H , and the lateral, longitudinal
,1
6.18
where
6.19 Application of the method of images, the Laplace transform image of dimensionless pressure of the wellbore is 11, 24, 25, 84
b P fwD = Z 1
u = sf s:
,1
6.20
and if the boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both impermeable, by the method of images and the point-source solution given by equation 6.15, we have
F s; x0D = 1 s
+ X
1 exp ,
n=,1
6.21
6.22
When ! ! 1, ! 1, the double porosity reservoir would become to the single porosity reservoir 49, 87 , and f s = 1; u = s: 6.23 Recall the well known Laplace transform formula 106 ,
k g = e,k s ; Lferfc 2p s t
6.24
59
then combining equations 6.21, 6.23 and 6.24, leads to the formula 5.18. We may use formula 5.22 to similify equation 6.21. Recall the following Laplace transform formulae 106
,dps 2 e Lfexp ,d =4t = t g = d ; p 2 K 0 d s 2 Lfexp ,d =4t =btg = ;
2 1 2 3 2
bp Lfexp ,d2 =4t , ct =tg = 2K0 d s + c; where b; c and d are constants, s is Laplace transform variable.
Let in formula 6.25, and let
d = j 2 + a , 2nb2 ; c = n=b2 ;
6.29 in formula 6.27. Multiplying both sides of equation 5.22 by exp ,j 2 =4t =1=2 t3=2 , taking the Laplace transform of the resulting expression with respect to tD , and applying equations 6.25, 6.26, 6.27, 6.28, 6.29, we obtain the summation formula 1 + 1 exp ,psj 2 + a , 2nb2 q X 1 K j ps + 2 X p = K s + n=b2 cosna=b : 6.30 0 j 0 2 2 b j + a , 2 nb n=,1 n=1 If we use the summation formula given by 6.30, let u take the place of s, and let j = RD ; a = zD zwD ; b = HD ; 6.31 then use formula 4.61, we have cos nzD + zwD =HD + cos nzD , zwD =HD = 2 cosnzD =HD cosnzwD =HD : 6.32 According to 6.30, 6.31 and 6.32, the pressure distribution for a continuous point source located at x0D ; 0; zwD in a laterally in nite reservoir bounded by two impermeable planes, given by equation 6.21, can be written as: 1 X p F s; x = 2 K R u + 2 K R cosnz =H cosnz =H ; 6.33
0
sHD
where
n=1
wD
1 = u + n=HD 2 : Similarly, if the boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both at constant pressure, then the F s; x0D = 1 s
+ X
1 exp ,
n=,1
6.34
60
D n=1
6.35
corresponding is given by
If the boundary condition at z = 0 is impermeable while the boundary condition at z = H is at constant pressure, then the pressure distribution for a continuous point source solution
2 2 2 2 + zn + zn exp , uRD exp , uRD 1 1 2 n q q F s; x0D = s ,1 f + g: 2 2 2 2 RD + zn RD + zn n=,1 1 2 + X
2 = u + n=HD 2 :
6.36
If we note that 84
+ X
+ X
then, with the aid of formula 6.30, we can recast equation 6.36 in the form
1 X 1 F s; x0D = sH f K0 RD 3 cos 2n , 1zD =2HD cos 2n , 1zwD =2HD g;
D n=1
n=,1
n=,1
6.37
6.38
where
0 is at constant pressure, then the pressure distribution for a continuous point source solution corresponding is given by
1 X 1 F s; x0D = sH f K0 RD 4 sin 2n , 1zD =2HD sin 2n , 1zwD =2HD g;
D n=1
3 = u + 2n , 1=2HD 2 : If the boundary condition at z = H is impermeable while the boundary condition at z =
6.39
4 = u + 2n , 1=2HD 2 : As we have stated before, when ! ! 1, ! 1, the double porosity reservoir model becomes to a single porosity reservoir model with f s = 1; u = s. By the inverse Laplace transform method,
where
we can reduce 6.35 to 5.47, reduce 6.38 to 5.49, reduce 6.39 to 5.51. Therefore, we have obtained formulae 5.47, 5.49 and 5.51 from a di erent approach. According to formulae 6.35, 6.38 and 6.39, we come to the conclusion that when time is su ciently long, the pressure of the wellbore tends to become steady. Therefore, formulae 5.48, 5.50 and 5.52 are also suitable for the horizontal wells which are in the double-porosity reservoir.
61
D ,1
p K RD u + 2
0
n=1
and
Z 1
6.41
1 = u + n=HD 2 n=HD ;
then when n 1, we de ne
Z 1 1 Jn s = s K0 RD 1 dx0D c
,1
62
Z 2 = 1 s K0 ny=HD dy
0
1 s
Z 1
,1
Jn tD HD =2n:
Similar to equations 5.38, 5.39, we have
X
6.42
n=1
Therefore, if horizontal boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both impermeable, and time is su ciently long, the endpoints' dimensionless pressure of the horizontal well in a double-porosity reservoir is E = 2 f1:4228 + ln t + E ,tD , E ,tD g PfwD D i !1 , ! i 1,! H In order to nd the dimensionless pressure of midpoint, we let
2 RD = x2 + RwD x0D : 0D
6.43
6.44 Formulae 6.43 and 6.44 are dimensionless pressure well testing formulae for horizontal wells in nite height reservoirs with impermeable boundaries. Again, when ! ! 1, ! 1, the double porosity reservoir model becomes a single porosity reservoir model, and formula 6.43 reduces to formula 5.41, formula 6.44 reduces to formula 5.45.
Similarly, if the horizontal boundary conditions at z = 0 and H are both impermeable, and time is su ciently long, the midpoint's dimensionless pressure of the horizontal well in a double-porosity reservoir is M = 2 f2:8091 + ln tD + Ei ,tD , Ei ,tD g PfwD H !1 , ! 1,!
Appendix A
Conclusions
Now, we may come to the following conclusions: 1 The productivity formulae based on 2D model can not satisfactorily characterize horizontal wells. In order to get the reasonable and reliable productivity formulae, we must use 3D model; 2 If taking a horizontal well as a uniform line source in 3D space, the equipotential surfaces are a family of ellipsoids of revolution which focuses are the two endpoints of the well, and the well has not in nite conductivity; 3 Our well testing formulae of horizontal wells are concise and explicit, they have higher precision than the formulae in the literatures.
63
Appendix B
Nomenclature
English A = drainage area B = formation volume factor Cf = uid compressibility CR = rock compressibility Ct = total compressibility Ei x = exponential integral function erf x = error function erfcx = complementary error function H = reservoir e ective thickness K = absolute permeability K0 x = modi ed Bessel function of second kind and order zero L = well length P = pressure Q = well productivity, well ow rate Rw = wellbore radius Re = drainage radius s = Laplace transform variable t = time V = drainage volume x; y; z = lateral,longitudinal,vertical coordinate. Greek = interporosity shape factor = permeability anisotropic factor t = Dirac function. = uid transfer coe cient,fraction. = uid viscosity = density = uid potential = porosity,fraction ! = storativity coe cient,fraction. 64
APPENDIX B. NOMENCLATURE
Superscripts = Laplace transform e = e ective A = average E = endpoint M = midpoint
b
65
D = dimensionless e = external f = fracture h = horizontal i = initial m = matrix v = vertical w = well x; y; z = coordinate indicators
Subscripts
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Vita of Jing Lu
Jing Lu was born in Chengdu, China on May 8, 1969. He graduated from Chengdu No. 7 high school in 1987. He received the B.S. degree in geology at Southwest Petroleum Institute in 1991 and got the Master degree in petroleum engineering at Chengdu Institute of Technology in 1994. He worked in the Institute under Huachuan Petroleum, Natural Gas Exploration and Development Company from 1994 to 1995. He worked as a research assistant in the Institute of Math Sciences, Chengdu Branch, Academia Sinica from 1995 to 1996. He came to America in August, 1996 and studied in the Mathematics Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He is a member of Americian Mathematics Society and ; M; Mathematics Society.
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