Photosynthesis

Turning sunlight into cellular energy

Photosynthesis only LOOKS like the opposite of Respiration!

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

Photosynthetic Organisms
Prokaryotes: Plasma Membranes Eukaryotes: Chloroplasts

Why are plants Green?

Light Chlorophyll Green pigment Absorbs red, violet, blue light Reflects green light

Where does photosynthesis happen?

Leaves Pigments

Chlorophyll a (blue green) Chlorophyll b (olive green) Carotenoids (yellow and orange) By absorbing slightly different s, increase the amount of visible light that can be harvested for energy

Chlorophyll

Absorption and Action Spectra

1883!

What happens to excited electrons when light hits a chlorophyll molecule?

Fluorescence Photosynthesis

What happens in Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a redox process in which H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced

Steps in Photosynthesis
Light Reactions
Water

Calvin Cycle
CO2

e- + H+ + O2

sugar in the stroma

Occurs

in thylakoid membranes

Occurs

ATP

made by chemiosmosis and photophosphorylation

Also called Carbon Fixation or the Dark Reactions

A. Light Reactions
1: Light Energy Splits Water

A. Light Reactions
2: NADP+ reduced, ATP made, O2 released

Which mechanism is used to make the ATP?

B. Calvin Cycle
1: ATP and NADPH used to fix carbon

B. Calvin Cycle
2: carbon turned into sugar, NADP+ recycled

Sugar exported to rest of plant

Chlorophyll a captures light energy

Photosystems 1 and 2

Photosystem structure

A photosystem (PS) has a reaction-center complex surrounded by lightharvesting complexes Both have chlorophyll a

different environments absorb best at different s

Reaction Center Chlorophyll

Photosystem 2: P680 Photosystem 1: P700

Linear Electron Flow (1)

Light activates an e-, which eventually reaches P680 P680 transfers the e- to the primary e- acceptor in the reaction-center complex

Linear Electron Flow (2)

P680+ (missing an electron) is very strong oxidizer H2O is split and P680+, reduced O2 is by-product

Linear Electron Flow (3)

The electrons fall down e- transport chain (PS II PS I) H+ pumped across thylakoid membrane ATP synthesized

Linear Electron Flow (4)

P700+ accepts e- OR excited by light

Linear Electron Flow (5)

Another e- transport chain transfers e- to NADP+ to create NADPH

PSII and PSI work together

NADPH carries e- to Calvin Cycle

Making ATP by Chemiosmosis

The Light Reactions: All Together

Carbon Fixation: CO2 from the atmosphere is reduced (fixed) to form sugars REQUIRES the ATP and NADPH made during light reactions Takes three rounds of the cycle (and 3 CO2 molecules) to make 1 sugar

Carbon Fixation

Rubisco adds CO2 to RuBP: most abundant protein in chloroplasts; PROBABLY most abundant on Earth

Reduction

ATP and NADPH from light reactions Regenerates NADP+ 3 CO2 make one new sugar

Regeneration

 To

make 1 G3P molecule: 9 ATP + 6 NADPH

The

energy comes from the light reactions (i.e., the sun) enters many biosynthetic pathways to be turned into other organic molecules

G3P

Compare Metabolic Cycles

Citric Acid Cycle Catabolic pathway Oxidizes glucose to CO2 and water Synthesizes ATP Calvin Cycle Anabolic pathway Reduces CO2 to make complex carbohydrates Uses ATP (made in the light reactions)

 (almost)

ALL THE FOOD ON EARTH COMES FROM PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chemical

Energy Carbon Skeletons (to make all organic molecules)

Chloroplasts
About

make billions of tons of carbohydrate each year

50% is burned in plant mitochondria Rest is transported in plant as sucrose or turned into cellulose and starch

Cell Communication
Exchanging information between cells

All Cells Communicate

Processes arose early in evolution Same molecules found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Recognition Mating Development

Direct communication between cells

Cell junctions

Cell-cell recognition

Communication via secreted signals

Local signaling Long distance signaling

Signal Transduction
Reception Transduction Response Reset

Reception
ligand binds receptor

Transduction
Signal is amplified by a series of molecules (second messengers)

Response
Cell reacts to signal, then it resets the signal transduction cascade back to the starting point

Reception requires receptors

Ligands are secreted molecules that bind receptors on or in cells Ligand Receptor interaction is specific:

Only cells with proper receptor can receive the signal Receptor changes shape when ligand binds - activation

Receptors can be in plasma membrane OR cytoplasm

Common Receptors
Receptors Plasma membrane
G

Mechanisms

protein-coupled receptors kinase receptors

Activate another protein Dimerize; gain P groups Open or close a channel

Tyrosine Ion

channel receptors

Cytosolic

Steroid hormone receptors

Move to nucleus and bind DNA

G protein-coupled receptors
Structure Function

Tyrosine Kinase Receptors

Ligand-gated Ion Channels

Cytoplasmic Receptors

Signal Transduction Cascades Amplify Signals

1 signal molecule can generate 100,000,000 response molecules in a few seconds or minutes

Phosphorylation Cascades

Adding/removing phosphate groups can activate/inactivate proteins Kinases: add phosphates (usually on ser or thr) Phosphatases: remove phosphates There is a specific kinase and phosphatase for each molecule in the cascade!

Cytoplasmic Organization: Scaffolding proteins

Second Messenger Systems

cAMP Ca++ and IP3

Cellular Responses

Turn genes on or off Activate or inactivate proteins Stimulate cell division Stimulate apoptosis

Signals interact to fine-tune responses:

Same molecule can have different effects in different cells

Review of Cell Communication