Fibre Bragg Gratings in Structural Health Monitoring-Present

Sensors and Actuators A 147 (2008) 150164
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ sna
Review
Fibre Bragg gratings in structural health monitoringPresent
status and applications
Mousumi Majumder
, Tarun Kumar Gangopadhyay, Ashim Kumar Chakraborty,

Kamal Dasgupta, D.K. Bhattacharya
Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute (CSIR), 196 Raja S.C. Mullick Road,
PO: Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 August 2007
Received in revised form 15 April 2008
Accepted 15 April 2008
Available online 22 April 2008
Keywords:
Fibre-optic sensor
Fibre Bragg gratings
FBG strain sensor
Sensor for structural monitoring
Sensor for composite
a b s t r a c t
In-service structural health monitoring (SHM) of engineering structures has assumed a signicant role
in assessing their safety and integrity. Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have emerged as a reliable, in
situ, non-destructive tool for monitoring, diagnostics and control in civil structures. The versatility of FBG
sensors represents a key advantage over other technologies in the structural sensing eld. In this article,
the recent research and development activities in structural health monitoring using FBG sensors have
been critically reviewed, highlighting the areas where further work is needed. A few packaging schemes
for FBG strain sensors are also discussed. Finally a few limitations and market barriers associated with
the use of these sensors have been addressed.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2. Principle of operation of FBG sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1. Strain measurement using FBG sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.2. Straintemperature cross-sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3. FBG interrogation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4. FBG encapsulation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5. Applications of FBG strain sensors in structural sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.1. Strain monitoring in civil infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.1.1. Strain monitoring in reinforced concrete beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1.2. Strain monitoring in smart beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.1.3. Pile load monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.1.4. Early-age cement shrinkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.5. Moisture/humidity measurement in civil applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1.6. FBGs in geodynamic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.7. Ultrasonic non-destructive testing of structural health using FBG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Corresponding author. Fax: +91 33 24730957.

E-mail address: mousumi@cgcri.res.in (M. Majumder).
0924-4247/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sna.2008.04.008
M. Majumder et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 147 (2008) 150164 151
1. Introduction
Structural integration of bre-optic sensing systems represents
a new interdisciplinary branch of engineering which involves the
unique combination of laser-optics, bre-optics, optoelectronics,
microelectronics, articial intelligence, composite material science
and structural engineering. Fibre-optic sensors have a number of
advantages over their electrical counterparts and are the primary
candidates for complete sensing systems.
Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have undergone a rapid
development in the recent years following the observation of
very-narrow-band reection in the photosensitive core-region of
Ge-doped silica optical bres [1] and its rst successful fabrication
on bre-core by exposure of a coherent two-beam UV interference
pattern in 1989 [2]. FBGs are immune to electromagnetic inter-
ference (EMI) and ground loops. They are lightweight and have
small physical dimensions, suitable for being embedded into, or
attached to a structure. No wires are required to connect sensors to
the control system as the bres themselves act as both the sensing
elements and the signal propagation conduit. FBG sensors offer a
unique advantage of single ended connection to control systems
because only reected signals from the FBGs are important for
demodulation. FBGs possess excellent resolution and range, water
and corrosion resistance, ability to be multiplexed, immunity to
harsh weather conditions, compact sensor and harness size, and
reasonable cost per channel. Besides, wavelength encoded infor-
mationis givenby FBGs. Since wavelengthis anabsolute parameter,
signal fromFBGmaybeprocessedsuchthat its informationremains
immune to power uctuations along the optical path. Thus, they
offer a self-referencing, absolute measurement scheme. The FBG
sensing technology shows great potential for applications within a
variety of industries [3]. FBG sensors have attracted interest from
the civil structure communities over the past decade for structural
health, vibration and seismic response monitoring. FBG sensors
have been embedded in concrete for deformation monitoring and
trafc load assessment in bridges and buildings.
FBGsensors havebeenestablishedas amajor leadingtechnology
as compared to other competing bre-optic sensor technologies.
A major share of the papers presented at the 17th Optical Fibre
Sensors Conference (OFS-18) held at Cancun, Mexico in 2006 were
on bre Bragg gratings. The main advantages of FBGs over other
bre sensor schemes are its low cost, good linearity, wavelength
multiplexing capacity, resistance to harsh environments and the
transduction mechanism, which eliminates the need for referenc-
ing as in interferometric sensors. FBG sensor technology is now on
the verge of maturity after almost two decades of active research
and development in this eld. Efforts are now concentrating on
delivering complete FBG sensor systems including front-end elec-
tronics.
Strain studies in civil structures are pivotal in avoiding unex-
pected catastrophic failures. Long-term strain study of structures
also helps in freezing the design limits of similar structures. Con-
ventionally, most structures rely on maintenance schedules, visual
inspection and a fewconventional sensors for the purpose of dam-
age monitoring. But the high cost of maintenance, lack of precision
in visual inspection and susceptibility of sensors to harsh environ-
mental conditions has made structural health monitoring (SHM)
a necessity. Over the past few decades, Fibre Bragg grating sen-
sors have emerged as a suitable, accurate and cost-effective tool in
SHMof civil structures like high-rise buildings, bridges, tunnels and
dams. For existing structures, FBGsensors can be attached onto the
structure surface, whereas for newstructures, these sensors can be
embedded into the structure during the construction phase with-
out any serious effect on the structural integrity. The information
from such SHM systems can provide early warning for compro-
Fig. 1. Transmission and reection spectra from an FBG.
misedintegrityof structures andthus helpavoidsevere losses. Such
information is also helpful to adapt and update newer designs of
similar structures.
Several review papers on applications of FBGs have been
published [411]. Strain and temperature have so far been the
dominating measurands of interest. These reviews have primarily
focused on the various usages of the FBG sensors in different sens-
ing areas. This paper aims to provide an overviewof the application
of FBG sensors for strain measurement, particularly in the eld of
structural sensing. Various applications as instructural healthmon-
itoring for bridges and concrete structures, moisture sensing, strain
sensing of smart structures using FBGFRP bars andultrasonic non-
destructivetestingusingFBGsensors havebeendiscussed. Practical
aspects like packaging of the sensors and demodulation techniques
suitable for the use of FBG sensors in structural health monitoring
have been discussed in detail. This review is expected to provide
useful insight to researchers in the eld of structural sensing using
a reliable and effective strain sensing platform.
2. Principle of operation of FBG sensors
FBGs are obtained by creating periodic variations in the refrac-
tive index of the core of an optical bre [2]. Fig. 1 shows the internal
structure of an optical bre with an FBG written in it.
When light is made to pass through the grating, at a particular
wavelength, called the Bragg wavelength, the light reected by the
varying zones of refractive indices will be in phase and amplied.
The Bragg wavelength is expressed as
z
B
= 2n
eff
/ (1)
where z
B
is the Bragg wavelength, n
eff
is the effective refractive
index of the FBG and / is the grating period.
2.1. Strain measurement using FBG sensors
When strain is induced in an FBG, the relative change in Bragg
wavelength is expressed as
^z
B
z
B
= (1
e
) (2)
where is the longitudinal strain on the FBG and
e
is the effective
photo-elastic constant of the bre core material.
e
=
n
2
eff
2
[p
12
v(p
11
+p
12
)] (3)
where p
ij
are the silica photo-elastic tensor components and is
the Poissons ratio. For an FBG of central wavelength of 1550nm,
typical strain sensitivity is approximately 1.2pm/microstrain [9].
152 M. Majumder et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 147 (2008) 150164
Table 1
Temperature compensation techniques in FBG interrogation
Schemes of temperature compensation Remarks
Two separate FBGs (one for strain measurement
and the other for temperature measurement)
[12,13]
The most simple and straightforward technique for temperature compensation. However, resolution of the technique
is low and interrogation of two bres is cumbersome
Two closely spaced gratings of different
wavelengths inscribed in the same bre [14]
Interrogation is easier. In a measurement range of 0900microstrain and 25120
C, error reported is 5%
One LPG and two FBG scheme [15] This technique relies on the fact that LPGs have a much higher temperature response but lower strain response
compared to short period FBGs. Resolution reported is 9microstrain and 1.5
C
Two FBGs with entirely different wavelengths
[16]
In a measurement range of 600microstrain and 50
C, error reported is 10microstrain and 5
C. However, this
technique requires two light sources and two interrogation units, thereby increasing the overall cost of the system
Two FBGs of varying diameter spliced together
[17,18]
System is illuminated from a single broadband source and interrogated using a single interrogator. In a measurement
range of 2500microstrain and 120
C, maximum error reported is 17microstrain and 1
C
Single FBG with an EDFA [19] The amplied spontaneous emission power of the EDFA source has a linear relation with temperature and is used to
measure temperature. This reading is subtracted from the combined strain temperature response of the Bragg
wavelength to get pure strain readings. Experimental r.m.s. deviation values of strain and temperature reported were
18.2microstrain and 0.7
C, respectively
Single FBG inscribed in erbiumytterbium bre
[20]
In a measurement range of 1100microstrain and 50180
C, error reported is 55.8microstrain and 3
C
FBG embedded in composite material [21,22] This technique utilizes the birefringence property of the gratings when embedded. Wavelength separation of the two
peaks provides an estimate of temperature, whereas average wavelength between such separations provide the strain
value
Athermal packaging of the bre using metal
coating of the FBG [23]
By controlling the thickness of the metal coating, the effective thermal expansion coefcient and the Youngs Modulus
are controlled. For a temperature change 3080
C, Bragg wavelength shifts by about 50pm

FBG glued to a bimetal alloy strip used as a
cantilever beam [24]
In a temperature range of 20 to 60
C, thermo-opto coefcient reported is 0.4pm/
C
2.2. Straintemperature cross-sensitivity
The Bragg wavelength z
B
is also affected by temperature
changes. The relative change in the Bragg wavelength due to tem-
perature change is expressed as
^z
B
z
B
= ( +) ^1 (4)
where ^T is the change in temperature experienced at the FBG
location, is the thermal expansion and is the thermo-optic
coefcient. For an FBG of central wavelength of 1550nm, typical
temperature sensitivity is approximately 13pm/
C [9]. Combining
Eqs. (2) and (4), we get the effective Bragg wavelength shift due to
strain and temperature and are expressed as
^z
B
z
B
= ( +) ^1 +(1
e
) (5)
For pure strain measurements, effects of temperature change
on the Bragg wavelength has to be suitably compensated. Several
techniques to offset this behavior are available in literature. Table 1
shows a few competing techniques to achieve the purpose of tem-
perature compensation of FBGs.
3. FBG interrogation techniques
Various interrogation techniques of FBGs have been proposed
in literatures [2560]. The interrogation units are responsible for
reading the Bragg wavelength shift of the FBGs induced by various
physical parameters like strain, temperature, etc. Optical spectrum
analyzers are unsuitable for this purpose due to their high cost and
low scanning speed.
The choice of the interrogation method depends upon several
factors like type and range of strain being measured, accuracy and
sensitivity required, number of sensors being interrogated and cost
of the instrumentation.
The FBG interrogation schemes commonly used are tabulated
(Table 2).
4. FBG encapsulation techniques
Owing to the large span and long service period of civil
structures, the durability, reliability and robustness of its health
monitoring system is a key issue. Bare FBGs being very fragile
in nature, require suitable encapsulation before being put into
regular monitoring service. Various encapsulation techniques for
FBG strain sensors have been proposed in literatures [6167].
Fig. 2(a)(e) shows some of the encapsulated FBGs from literature
as referencedandusedfor strainmeasurement onconcretesurfaces
and mental surfaces, respectively.
Fig. 2(a) shows a capillary encapsulated FBG sensor for use in
concrete structures. The mental holder ring is attached on the
surface of the concrete structure and it faithfully transmits the
deformation of the structure to the FBG sensor. Fig. 2(b) shows an
FBGsensor encapsulated in slice base by gluing. This type of encap-
sulated FBG sensors can be very well used in mental and concrete
structures. Fig. 2(c) shows smart FRPFBG sensors. The FRP bars
are embedded with FBG sensors thus utilizing the dual properties
of FRPs mechanical strength and the FBGs sensing ability. Fig. 2(d)
shows another encapsulated FBG for use in cement structures. The
bre is placed inside a steel tube, which is further enclosed in
a concrete-proof plastic hose. This protects the bre from strong
alkaline environment of the cement as well is effective in faith-
ful transmission of strain to the sensor. Fig. 2(e) shows a packaged
Table 2
FBG interrogation schemes
Types Technologies Reference
Passive
detec-
tion
scheme
Linearly wavelength-dependent device [2529]
CCD spectrometer [3033]
Power detection [3437]
Identical chirped-grating pair [38]
Active
detec-
tion
scheme
Fabry-perot lter [3941]
Unbalanced Mach-Zehnder interferometer [4249]
Fibre Fourier transform spectrometer [50,51]
Acoustic-optic tunable lter [5254]
Matched FBG pair [5558]
Michelson interferometer [59]
LPG pair interferometer [60]
Fig. 2. (a) Mental capillary encapsulated FBG sensor [62]. (b) Mental slice encapsulated FBG sensor [62]. (c) FRPFBG sensors [62]. (d) FBG encapsulated in a steel tube [92].
(e) Long-gage FBG sensor with surface mounting facility [61]. (f) Schematic of FBG embedded coaxially in a cylindrical polymer package [63]. (g) Athermally packaged FBG
strain sensor.
FBG for civil structure applications where we require to monitor a
considerably macrostrain value. The FBG is encapsulated in a tube
where the distance between the tie points dene its effective gage.
Optional brackets are also provided to enable surface mounting of
thesensors. This techniquethus, is effectiveinincreasingtheoverall
gage of the sensor. Another packaging technique proposed by Ngoi
et al. [63] is to embed the FBG coaxially in a cylindrical silicone
rubber tubing as shown in Fig. 2(f). This packaging is specically
useful for sensing lateral loading. FBGs have been known to suffer
from a phenomenon called peak splitting under the inuence of a
lateral load. Peak splitting occurs due to the effect of birefringence
of the FBGs when subjected to lateral loading, i.e. unequal load-
ing along the two perpendicular axes of the bre. This issue has
been taken care of by packaging the FBG in silicone rubber which
is known to have a low elastic modulus and high Poissons ratio.
It is also thermally stable in the temperature range from 100 to
320
C. Experimental data obtained fromFBGsensors reveal agree-

ment withthe nite element simulationresults. This packaging has
served to increase the lateral pressure sensitivity of the FBG sensor
without inducing birefringence. However, the system suffers from
aninherent time lagdue tothe typical viscoelastic nature of silicone
rubber. Upon applying a load, the packaged FBG sensor shows an
abrupt rise in wavelength, which gradually settles down to a stable,
lower value within a few seconds. Authors propose readings to be
taken once this spurious response settles down, approximately 5s
after the application of the load.
Leng et al. in 2005 have proposed various designs of FBG sensor
protection depending upon the usage area. These include sensors
for metallic surfaces, CFRP composites andconcrete structures [64].
Designs include FBGs embedded inside steel tubes, steel rebars,
CFRP prepegs, etc. The packaged sensors have been evaluated for
optimum strain transfer between the sensor and test specimen by
using non-linear nite element analysis. Concrete cylinders instru-
mented with FBG sensors and electrical resistance strain gauges
have been subjected to compressive loading and the results found
from both type of sensors to be in proper agreement. Authors also
claim that due to higher resolution, FBG strain sensors would be
able to detect the initiation of failure of structures earlier than the
strain gauges.
Dawood et al. have described in detail a procedure to embed
FBG sensors between the foam core and cross-ply laminate of
GFRP sandwich material using vacuum infusion technique [65].
The sandwich structure consisted of a single layer of polymer foam
sandwiched between two layers of GFRP skins. An array of six mul-
tiplexed FBG sensors was used. The area of the gratings was left
uncoated to provide better mechanical coupling to the GFRP. The
FBGs were to be embedded between the core and the skin of the
sandwich. The optical bre was then aligned and laid up along the
center line of the foamcore. The prepared sandwich specimen was
then placed in a vacuum bag and resin/hardener mixture infused
inside. The specimen was cured for 15h at room temperature. This
type of packaging is useful in sensing microscopic localized defects
like debonding of the GFRP material. The FBGbeing fully embedded
inthe test specimenis able todetect the internal defects of the spec-
imen at an early stage. However, the embedding process is involved
and requires a greater degree of precision and care. Accuracy and
repeatability have been found to be satisfactory under static and
dynamic loading conditions.
Lu and Xia have used FBG sensors directly embedded into CFRP
sheets for real-time monitoring of RCbeams [66]. The authors claim
that in this case there is no need of a protective coating or adhe-
sive layer between the bare FBG and the CFRP sheets. Thus, the
measured strain fromthe FBGCFRP composite provides the actual
strain measured without incurring any dampening effect. This is a
distinct advantage over other encapsulation technique. RCC beams
instrumented with FBG-embedded CFRP sheets were subjected to
compressive load. A theoretical calculation of strain at different
loading conditions using the dimensional values and Youngs Mod-
ulus of the RCC beams was done. The measured values were in
good agreement with the theoretical strain values. Another very
commonly used and simple packaging technique of FBGs for strain
monitoring in concrete structures is to install the sensors in a steel
rebar and then use the rebar at the site of measurement.
Chung and Kang [67] have used such a technique where they
have placed a six-FBG multiplexed bre in a groove cut in a steel
rebar and used a fast curing adhesive to bond the bre to the rebar.
This FBG embedded rebar has been used at the site of strain mon-
itoring. However, before using this type of packaging it is essential
to study the strain transfer characteristics of the adhesive and the
rebar material for accurate strain measurement.
Two major issues associated with the use of FBG sensors as
health monitoring tool in civil structures are their high fragility
and cross-sensitivity to more than one measurand. Special ather-
mal encapsulated FBGs that take care of the straintemperature
cross-sensitivity are available [23,68,69]. Lo andKuo have proposed
athermal packaging of FBGs using a metal coating that serves as
thermal compensator [23]. An FBG1cmin length is written using a
phase mask. It has a central wavelength of 1532.93nmat 30
C. The
bre substrate is quartz and a copper coating of 5-m thickness
is deposited onto the substrate using electroless plating technique.
Quartz having a much lower thermal expansion coefcient than
copper, any rise in ambient temperature results in a greater expan-
sion of the copper than that of the FBG. This compresses the FBG
and creates a negative strain on it, thereby compensating for the
temperature-induced wavelength shift of the FBG. This proposed
technique of temperature compensation thus involves a simple bi-
material that is reliable and feasible for mass production.
Moyo et al. have reported a packaged FBGthat is suitable for use
in the harsh conditions of the construction industry and also takes
careof thetemperaturecompensationof thesensors [69]. Thepack-
aged sensor is dumb-bell shaped and consists of two FBGs placed
closely. One FBG, sandwiched between two layers of carbon com-
posite material, is epoxied on the dumb-bell surface and is prone
to both strain and temperature changes. Another FBG, encased in
a metal tube is prone only to temperature perturbations. Several
tests were performed on these packaged FBG sensors and the data
comparedagainst conventional foil straingauges. Tensile tests were
reported on steel rebars and the sensor response was found to be
linear and closely correlated to those of foil gauges. Static test on
simply supported reinforced concrete beams instrumented with
the sensors also showed approximately linear response, thus jus-
tifying the packaging and installation procedures of the sensors.
Dynamic tests on the beam were carried out using an impulse
hammer and the maximum strain thus recorded by the FBG and
foil gauges were respectively 55 and 58microstrain. The packaged
sensor was also embedded inside a concrete cylinder, which was
subjected to compressive load. Only the strain sensor showed a
high sensitivity whereas the temperature-monitoring sensor was
almost unaffected.
It may be noted that in most cases, the strain sensitivity of an
encapsulatedFBGis signicantlydifferent fromthat of thebareFBG.
Hence calibration of the encapsulated FBG sensor must be carried
out before it is put into real-world application.
5. Applications of FBG strain sensors in structural sensing
5.1. Strain monitoring in civil infrastructure
A major application of FBG strain sensors is in the eld of
real-time online health monitoring of bridges and civil structures
[7073]. FBG sensors have a major advantage over conventional
non-destructive techniques in that they are capable of remotely
monitoring the condition of the test structure. The interrogating
instrumentation being located off-site results in higher efciency
of the system and better safety of the personnel.
Twenty-six FBG strain sensors have been reported to be moni-
toring the Horsetail Falls Bridge in Oregom successfully for 2 years
[74]. The bridge was originally built in 1914 and in 1998 it was
strengthened by placing composite wraps over the concrete beams.
Long-gage FBGstrainsensors are placedingrooves cut into the con-
crete and in the wraps as well. This is done with a view to assess
the actual strengthening provided by the wraps to the bridge. The
long-gage sensors provide a relativelymacroscopic strainvalue that
can measure several kHz of dynamic strain with a resolution as low
as 0.1microstrain and hence are very useful in structural monitor-
ing. A similar test is reported on the Sylvan Bridge with fourteen
long-gage sensors.
Saouma et al. [75] have used FBG sensors on aluminum as well
as concrete specimens to monitor the strain and have validated
the results against electrical strain gauges. They have extended the
laboratory work by instrumenting six beams and six columns of a
newly constructed building with FBG sensors that can be used to
monitor the strain of the beams and columns online.
Monitoring of the prestressing tendons of the Beddington Trail
Bridge, Canada using Bragg grating strain sensor array has been
done by Maaskant et al. [76]. Three types of prestressing tendons
have been used in this bridge, namely steel strand, carbon bre
Fig. 3. Packaged FBG-based strain sensor used in the health monitoring of West Mill
Bridge [78].
composite cable and leadline rod. The main objective behind this
work was to study the long-termlosses in the tendons due to stress
relaxation and creep. FBGsensors were bonded to each type of ten-
don and then embedded in concrete girders. A total of 18 sensors
were placedstrategically onthe girder inorder to monitor the point
of maximum strain generation. Proper cabling of the sensors min-
imizes the effect of moisture and alkalinity of the medium on the
sensors andalsoreduces pinchingandmicrobendingphenomenaof
the bre. Static strain measurements of the girders with a precision
of 40microstrain have been done. A comparison of data collected
over 19 months reveal that the loss of prestress in CFRP tendons is
almost 25% lesser compared to that in steel tendons thereby jus-
tifying some merit in the use of CFRP material in bridges. Besides,
dynamic strain monitoring on various positions of the girder were
studied by passing vehicles with known loads. Strain resolution of
1microstrainover a range of 10,000microstrainhadbeenachieved.
This information can be useful from the end of trafc monitoring,
bridge designing and its maintenance.
FBGs have been used in the structural health monitoring of the
Tsing Ma Bridge in China [77]. At 1377m, this is the longest sus-
pension bridge in the world. It has a double deck conguration, one
for highway trafc and the other for railway. The deck is of hybrid
arrangement using both truss and box forms. This bridge is in ser-
vice from 1997 and a structural health monitoring system, wind
and structural health monitoring (WASHM) has been monitoring
its healthfrominception. Inthis report, the response of FBGsensors
has been checked against the WASHM system under specic load-
ing conditions. FBGs were fabricated in-house, suitably packaged
and installed on the bridge. Tests were carried out at three specic
locations viz., hanger cables, rocker bearing and supporting struc-
ture on a section of the lower deck using 21 FBG sensors. Separate
FBGs were used to monitor the instantaneous temperature of the
structure and compensate accordingly in strain readings. When-
ever a heavy trafc load was subjected on the bridge, the response
of the FBG monitoring system peaked which was in close agree-
ment to the response of the resistive strain gauge sensors of the
WASHM system.
Gebremichael et al. in 2005 have reported the use of 40 FBG
sensors to remotely monitor the real-time strain on Europes rst
all-bre reinforced composite bridge, The West Mill Bridge [78].
Fig. 3 shows the packaged FBG sensor used in the structural health
monitoring of this bridge. The main objective behind this study
was to collect real-time, in situ strain data from the bridge and to
analyze this data for assessment of its structural integrity, main-
tenance scheduling and validation of design codes. The authors
have developed a dedicated FBGinterrogation systembased on the
WDMtechnique for use in this work. Cost per channel of the instru-
mentation is reported to be comparable to those of conventional
strain sensors, if used in multiplexed sensor scheme. The moni-
toring system was rst tested inside the laboratory on structural
test elements instrumented with FBG and strain gauge sensors.
The structural elements were subjected to both quasi-static and
dynamic loading. The tests reveal that response of the FBG sen-
sors was linear, repeatable and without any signicant hysteresis.
Finally the two-lane bridge, which is fully made of glass and carbon
brereinforcedpolymer, is carefullyandstrategicallyinstrumented
with 40 FBG and 11 strain gauge sensors. The FBG sensors were
coated with moisture-proong silicon compound and consecu-
tively with composite stripes that minimize birefringence effect in
bres due to transverse loading. On-site testing was done with a
30-ton lorry positioned at different points on the bridge. The strain
monitored in the different channels conforms to the relative posi-
tioning between the sensors and the loading point. The strain data
obtained from FBGs and resistive gauges were found to be closely
correlated and the technique has been established as a long-term
condition monitoring of the all-bre composite bridge.
As a very signicant continuation of this work, Kister et al. have
evaluated the performance of the adhesive and protection system
used with the FBG sensors installed on the West Mill Bridge [79].
Unpackaged FBG sensors were installed on the bridge structure
using cynoacrylate glue, which is the primary adhesive. Beads of
epoxy adhesive were also deposited on top of the bres to ensure
added anchorage. Strips of glass bre composite material were
bonded on both sides of the bres using the two adhesives. Silicone
sealant was then applied from top to seal the package from mois-
ture. Composite covers were then used to envelope the complete
sensor package. The dimensions of the nal packaged sensor were
1.8mm in thickness and maximum 1m in length. The interfacial
bond strength developed between the adhesive layers and the opti-
cal bre were evaluated by the modied bre pull-out test [80]. It
was reported that whereas unstripped bres failed due to debond-
ing and sliding of cladding, stripped bres failed due to fracture of
the cladding close to the glue edge or due to rupture of the glue
length. It was also observed that cynoacrylate-glued bres could
withstand a higher failure load than the epoxy-glued bres. Hence
cynoacrylate had been chosen as the primary adhesive for bond-
ing the optical sensors on to the bridge structure. The durability of
the sensor protection system was assessed by immersing coupons
embeddedwithpackagedsensors inwater for a durationof 90days.
Results show negligible inuence of water absorption on the sen-
sors. Sensor survival rate while bonding on the bridge structure has
been reported as 100%. Integrity of adhesives and durability of the
sensors has been assured and the sensors on the West Mill Bridge
have been providing continuous satisfactory performance over the
last 3 years.
5.1.1. Strain monitoring in reinforced concrete beams
Number of strain studies of reinforced concrete beams
instrumented with FBG sensors have been reported in liter-
atures [8183,64,67]. Maher and Nawy [82] have compared
the response of FBG strain sensors and conventional resistive
strain gauges on reinforcing bars. The bars having dimension of
305cm25.4cm30.5cmwere subjected to three-point bending
tests. Few FBG sensors were carefully embedded into V-grooves
cut into the reinforcing bars and a few others were simply epox-
ied on the back surface of the bars alongside the conventional
strain gauges. For test duration of 7 days, the nominal compressive
strength of the concrete was found to be 76MPa and data collected
from FBG sensors and strain gauges were in agreement.
Davis et al. have reported the use of embedded wavelength divi-
sionmultiplexedFBGsensors inmonitoringthestrainonreinforced
concrete beams and decks till their failure [83]. An 8-ft long beam
was instrumentedwiththe Braggsensors at different strategic loca-
tions and subjected to four-point bending. The bre sensors were
bonded to rebars using ordinary foil gauge adhesives and coated
Fig. 4. Schematic of testing of CFRP wrapped concrete cylinder with FBGs and strain
gauges [64].
with adhesive for protection. The sensor at the center showed a
maximum strain at 47,500lbs. Similar results were obtained for
the decks at a maximum load of 48,000lbs. Interestingly, all FBGs
survived till the failure of the test specimens.
FBG sensors and strain gauges were surface mounted on CFRP
wrapped concrete cylinders along both axes and subjected to com-
pressive loading [64] (Fig. 4). At a compressive force of 56MPa, the
failure strain in longitudinal direction is 4600microstrain, which
is considerably higher than that along the hoop direction. Below
a strain value of 43MPa, both strain gauge and FBG sensors in the
hoop direction show a close match. However, along the longitudi-
nal direction, FBGsensors showhigher strain values than the strain
gauge sensor.
A prestressed concrete box girder of dimensions 205cm
140cm was subjected to four-point bending and loaded till failure
[67]. FBGsensors embeddedonsteel rebars have beenusedtomon-
itor the failure behavior of the girder. The initiation of crack occurs
at the bottomof the girder at a load of 1500kN at midspan and the
initial yielding is observed at 2200kN. Yielding measured by strain
gauge was 2000kN, which is comparable to the FBG sensor.
Laboratory trials of measuring the internal strain generated
inside concrete structural components have been reported [75].
The bre was embedded inside a prismatic specimen while a strain
gauge was mounted on the surface. Strain readings obtained from
the two sensors show close agreement with each other.
5.1.2. Strain monitoring in smart beams
Sandwich composite materials like glass bre reinforced poly-
mer (GFRP) and carbon bre reinforced polymer (CFRP) have
emerged as a promising load-bearing material in the civil engi-
neering industry. FRP materials are non-metallic and thus have a
distinct advantage over steel and other metallic building materials,
which are highly susceptible to corrosion. They have high strength,
high stiffness and low weight. However, one drawback of the FRP
materials is their weak shear strength. Creep and brittle nature
of the FRP materials have made it necessary to study their inter-
nal failure at an early stage by embedding suitable strain sensors
in them. Towards this end, FBGs have come up as an interesting
strain sensing tool due to its small dimensions, light weight and
ability to be multiplexed. Kalamkarov et al. have described the use
of pultrusion technique to manufacture smart carbon and glass FRP
composites embedded with FBG sensors [84]. The technique com-
bines the strengthening properties of bre reinforced plastic and
the sensing properties of optical bre Bragg grating. It is shown
that polymide coating; instead of acrylate coating on the bre, pro-
vides better bonding with the host material. The pultruded smart
tendons thus produced were subjected to quasi-static and cyclic
tensile tests whereby they showed similar results to those of an
extensometer.
Another interesting work reported the application of smart
FRPFBGbars in reinforced concrete beams [85]. The FRPFBGbars
are embedded in 12 concrete beams to monitor the strain of FRP
bars andcracking of the concrete. The beams are subjectedtothree-
point bending tests. The monitored strain provides information on
the status of cracking of the concrete and also the slip between FRP
bars and concrete. The strain range monitored and resolution of the
sensor are 1200microstrain and 12microstrain, respectively. The
FRPFBGbars canhence be conveniently usedinreinforcedcement
concrete structures both as sensors as well as reinforcing bars.
Health monitoring of smart alumina-bre reinforced plas-
tic embedded with FBG sensors under tensile loading has been
reported [86]. In a test coupon, one FBG sensor was located at the
center and coated with polymide. The resolution of the interroga-
tion setup was 1microstrain. On observing the wavelength pattern,
it is found that the spectrum pattern changes with the initiation
of the cracks. It is seen that the FBG sensors were able to detect
the cracks adjacent to the sensing region of the bre. However, for
detectionof exact locationof failure inthe entire specimen, anarray
of several Bragg grating sensors is suggested.
Real-time strain monitoring of RC beams using FBG-embedded
CFRP has been reported [66] (Fig. 5). Beams were 2m in length
andhave cross-sectional dimensionof 12cm25cm. Internal rein-
forcement was provided by 2 bars and 19 stirrups. The concrete
surface was washed with water jet, vacuumed and a layer of primer
applied. CFRPFBG was bonded to the concrete using a resin coat-
ing. The beams were tested using a 500kN hydraulic actuator and
both FBGs and strain gauges were used as strain sensors. At the ini-
tial cracking of the beams, the calculated load and the measured
load by the FBGs are comparable. However, after the yield point,
the theoretical and calculated values differ. This is explained by
the slipping at the steelconcrete interface, and debonding at the
CFRPconcrete interface.
5.1.3. Pile load monitoring
One of the fundamental issues in designing any sound civil
infrastructure is proper designing and load monitoring of piles at
the construction stage. Since piles carry the weight of the foun-
dation and transmit the load of the structure to the subsoil, it is
essential to monitor the strain generated on themto prevent catas-
trophic failure of the structure. A few of the important pile design
considerations are compression, tension and bending moment of
Fig. 5. RC beam instrumented with smart FRPFBG sensors [66].
Fig. 6. FBG-based sensor for strain monitoring in concrete piles [79].
pile material, nature and magnitude of expected load to which the
structure will be exposedduring its lifetime, soil characteristics and
ground water level. Bragg grating sensors have recently been used
successfully by fewresearchers in the civil engineering community
to monitor the strain in concrete piles [79,8789]. Fig. 6 shows the
sensor protection scheme employed in concrete pile monitoring.
Li et al. [87] have reviewed the use of optical bre sensors in the
strain monitoring of piles for composite marine applications [90]
and for a concrete pile [91].
A 13-storey building in Bankside, London was instrumented
with FBG strain sensors and monitored for pile loading under the
conditions of pouring of concrete into borehole, curing of the con-
crete and construction of the building oors [88]. The aim of this
study was to provide a realistic assessment of integrity of the
foundation piles for future use. The building was supported on 67
foundation piles, out of which two were instrumented with the
FBG sensors. The piles were 46m in depth and 1.5m in diameter.
A circular, three section steel cage was used to reinforce the con-
crete piles. The pile type used was bored augered, which is suitable
for clayey soil of London. The piles were designed with a factor of
safety of 3. The optical bres were glued to rebars using cynoacry-
late adhesive and the rebars were then welded on to the three cage
sections. The bres were protected using a carbon bre compos-
ite packaging. The different cage sections were lowered one by one
into the pile bore and clamped to each other. After the clamping
procedure, the lead-out optical bres were connected to the inter-
rogation unit. Concrete was then poured into the borehole and the
strain of the piles monitored as a function of the height of concrete
in the borehole. It was observed that initial compressive strains
changed into tensile strains. Assuming a value of 11.5
C
1
as the
thermal expansion coefcient of the steel rebars, the average ten-
sile strain in the bottom, middle and top sections were found to
be 123, 51 and 67microstrain, respectively. The effect of concrete
curing was also studied by monitoring the online strain of the FBGs
every 7 days over a period of 4 weeks. As expected, the sensors
showed an initial rise in tensile strain, which was attributed to the
curing of the concrete, and the resultant rise in temperature of the
steel rebars due to the exothermic reaction. Once the reaction sub-
sides, the sensors also detected a gradual decrease in the strain
values. Another effect to be studied was that of the construction of
the building oors. The construction of the ground oor was under-
taken after a period of 48 days from the pouring of concrete in the
borehole. The strainmonitoredby the FBGsensors differedwiththe
increasing number of oors and results showed a similar trend of
the vibrating wire strain gauges installed on the pile cages. Authors
have provided explanations for all observed phenomena from the
structural engineering view. To overcome the problemof measure-
ment of localized versions of structural strain by the FBG sensors,
use of long-gage Bragg grating sensors has been suggested.
5.1.4. Early-age cement shrinkage
The curing process of cement is affected by the water to cement
ratio, the curing temperature, humidity and type of cement used.
Hydration is responsible for the hardening (strength) of the con-
crete. For concrete, the gain in strength continues for a long time,
and theoretically for an indenite period of time. However, the
strength of the concrete reaches a peak within 7 days of cast-
ing. During this process water in the concrete mixture evaporates,
resulting in a decrease in the volume of the concrete. The volume
of concrete also decreases due to re-arrangement of ner parti-
cles within the larger ones. The result of the volume change is
strain, also known as shrinkage strain, and this is responsible for
the small cracks that may appear after the curing process. At times,
the thermal stresses induced during the curing process due to the
exothermic nature of the curing reaction may cause cracks within
the structure, thus weakening it. These cracks can grow in size
and penetrate the structure at a later stage. However, the effect
of how the temperature, inner pressure and strain changes within
the concrete affect the structure is still not very clear.
FBG strain sensors have been used to study early-age cement
paste shrinkage (between 0 and 12h after mixing) [92]. A major
practical problem in laying concrete oors is associated to early-
age cracking due to shrinkage of young concrete. Capillary water
trapped inside nds a way out of the hardening concrete thereby
giving rise to ne cracks within the rst 24h of casting, i.e. the plas-
tic stage. In this stage major reactions accompany the transition
of cement water suspension phase to cement paste phase. Mea-
suring early shrinkage of cement using conventional strain gauges
is difcult because most gauges can be attached to the concrete
only after it has attained a minimum strength. FBG strain sen-
sors resolve this problem and are embedded in the cement paste
specimens right from the beginning of casting. FBG strain sensors
have revealed early-age shrinkage of cement paste under various
drying conditions. Prismatic specimens of Portland cement of size
9cm3cm3cm were cast into a form. The form chosen had a
low stiffness in order to allow maximum shrinkage of the sample.
An impermeable layer of plastic placed between the form and the
cement, prevents any transport of water to the form. The FBG sen-
sors, protected with an acrylate coating were embedded parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the specimen along the center line. Ther-
mocouples were also embedded in the cement specimens to take
care of the straintemperature discrimination. As a test of bond
strength between the cement paste and the optical bres, the bres
were subjected to bre pull-out test at different ages. A typical
bond slipping of the bres was observed at an age of 6h. FBG sen-
sors show that for a w/c ratio of 0.45, signicant shrinkage occurs
between 3 and 6h after mixing. This high shrinkage in the early age
is attributed to the capillary transport of trapped water towards the
specimen surface. After the high shrinkage phenomenon occurs a
rise in internal temperature due to the exothermic nature of the
hydration reaction. Total strain observed by the early-age detection
scheme after 12 days was 2700m/m as compared to 2000m/m
as measured by the conventional tests, i.e. monitoring beginning
after 24h of mixing. The total water loss at early age was seen to
be almost linear. One of the specimens was re-saturated with water
after 16days of initial drying. As expected, the strainincreasedonce
the drying action set in. It was proved that phenomenon of dry-
ing shrinkage of cement is reversible. Differing shrinkage results
for different material composition of cement and different drying
conditions showed that the early-age shrinkage is a function of
composition and environmental factors. Early-age shrinkage was
also shown to be dependent on the geometry of the specimen.
This report provides a comprehensive insight into the early-age
shrinkage of cement under various inuences.
Camara et al. have studied the temperature change associated
with the early-age curing of Portland cement [93]. A sample holder
of size 9cm3cm3cmwas lled with Portland cement paste in
the w/c ratio of 0.5. A FBG sensor was used to monitor the tem-
perature of the paste for a period of 55h. Noticeable temperature
variation occurs between 10 and 25h after mixing of the cement
paste. This temperaturechangeis ascribedtotheexothermic hydra-
tion reaction between the components of cement and water. This
study reveals that appreciable temperature rise of the cement paste
initiates 10h after the mixing. However, the study does not include
direct measurement of shrinkage property of the cement inits early
age.
Wong et al. have studied the shrinkage and temperature change
behavior of reactive powder concrete (RPC) in the early age using
FBGsensors [94]. RPC as well as normal concrete have been used in
the construction of road bridges [95,96]. RPC as construction mate-
rial has certain advantages like ultra-high compression strength
(200800MPa), high exural strength (40MPa), lightweight and
better homogeneity. In monitoring the early-age shrinkage of
RPC, similar problems were encountered as with normal concrete
wherebyconventional straingauge sensors couldnot be attachedto
the specimens before hardening. As a result, FBGsensors were used
as suitable candidates for monitoring the shrinkage and tempera-
ture. In the early age, RPC shrinkages are mainly due to autogenous,
thermal and drying effects. The FBG sensors were suitably placed
inside the casting moulds before the pouring of RPC mixture. The
mixture prepared had a w/c ratio of 0.31. Moulds of two sizes were
placed on vibrating table and the mixture poured inside. The vibra-
tion enabled even distribution and compaction of the RPC. The
shrinkage and temperature monitoring was started immediately
after the pouring of the mix into the mould. The total shrinkage
for 7 days was 488microstrain, out of which 377microstrain was
recorded in the rst 24h. This shows that the maximum shrinkage
of RPC(approximately77%) occurredinthe early-age, i.e. withinthe
rst 24h. Temperature monitored showed a double peak behavior
and the maximum temperature rise (4.7
C) was observed 7h after

casting. This was concluded as the setting time of RPC. Also RPC
specimens of two different sizes were evaluated for shrinkage and
temperature and it was observed that smaller dimension prisms
have a higher overall shrinkage andlower temperature change. This
study provides useful data of the plastic shrinkage of RPC and could
be helpful in improving the mix proportion of RPC in future work.
5.1.5. Moisture/humidity measurement in civil applications
Relative humidity (RH) detection is an important criterion
in many civil engineering applications. For example, it provides
information about soil moisture content or water ingress in civil
structures like seepage in walls. It may also help to detect leaks in
concrete tanks or water pipes. Recently bre Bragg grating sensors
have been reported for RH measurement [97100]. These sensors
essentially rely on a measurand-specic material that produces
either a strain or temperature variation effect on the FBG. Corro-
sion resistance, small dimensions and insensitivity to EMI are the
primaryadvantages of usingFBG-basedsensors for humiditydetec-
tion in civil applications. Fig. 7 shows the schematic of a FBG-based
moisture sensor reviewed by Leung [11].
FBG-based RH sensors were rst reported by Giaccari et al. in
2001 [97]. Bare silica bres are unperturbed by change in RH. How-
ever, a chemical polymer called polymide is hygroscopic in nature
Fig. 7. A FBG-based distributed water/moisture sensor [11].
and swell with the absorption of water molecules. The effect of
RH sensitivity of polymide was also observed to be reversible in
nature. This property of polymide had been made use of in these
sensors tocoat themsuchthat theyswell inthepresenceof aqueous
media and thereby cause a shift of the characteristic Bragg wave-
length. The group has studied the effects of RH and temperature
variation on these sensors and results showed a linear dependence
of FBG center wavelength on these two measurands. The relative
Bragg wavelength shift ^z/z of the sensor is given by the following
equation:
^z
z
= S
RH
^RH+S
1
^1
where S
RH
and S
T
are the RH and temperature sensitivities of the
FBG sensor, respectively.
In extension of this work in 2002, Kronenberg et al. have studied
the effects of coating thickness of the polymide layer on the FBG-
based sensors RH and temperature sensitivities [98]. Eight FBGs
coated with varying thickness of polymide (ranging from 3.6 to
29.3m) were tested incontrolled climatic chamber under varying
conditions of RH and temperature. The RH was increased in steps
from10 to 90% at ve temperature values ranging from13 to 60
C.
Data has been presented for the eighth sensor (one with maximum
coating thickness) and values for S
RH
and S
T
have been reported
as (2.210.10) 10
6
/%RHand(7.790.08) 10
6
/K, respectively.
Sensors also showed an almost linear relationship of their S
RH
and
S
T
with the coating thickness and saturated asymptotically. Val-
ues of thermal and hygroscopic expansion coefcient of polymide
have been calculated as 5.510
5
/K and 8.310
5
/%RH, respec-
tively. Authors have suggested a separate FBG temperature sensor
to take care of the straintemperature cross-sensitivity and have
also pointed out on the possible use of such sensors as multipoint
RH sensors capable of distributed sensing in real-world cases.
Relative humidity measurement of a climatic chamber using
polymer-coated FBG strain sensors have also been reported by
Yeo et al. [99]. FBGs used in this work were inscribed on
borongermaniumco-dopedphotosensitiveoptical bres usingthe
phase mask technique. They were then dip-coated with a polymide
solution to a desired thickness. PI is chosen as the coating mate-
rial because of its sensitivity, linearity and reversibility to humidity
change.
The sensing principle relies on the swelling of the moisture sen-
sitive polymer coating, which in turn produces a strain on the FBG.
The Bragg wavelength shift due to relative humidity and tempera-
ture is expressed by
^z
B
^z
= (1
e
)
RH
+(1
e
)
T
+ ^1 (6)
where
RH
and
T
are the humidity and thermal expansion experi-
enced by the bre which leads to inducing a strain in it.
x
=
/
p
p
/
p
p
+/
j
(
p(x)
j (x)
) ^x (7)
where x denotes either RHor T, p and f represent the two materials
viz., polymer and bre, A is the area of cross-section of the material,
E is the Youngs Modulus of the material, is the coefcient of
moisture expansion (CME) or the coefcient of thermal expansion
(CTE).
FBG sensors were exposed to an airtight climatic chamber hav-
ing controlled RHand temperature conditions. Six different coating
thickness of the polymide have been reported and the sensor was
tested at different humidity levels whereby the maximumsensitiv-
ity achieved was 5.6pm/%RH for a coating thickness of 42m. The
CME value reported was in the range between 82 to 104ppm/%RH.
The response time and recovery time of the sensors with different
coating thickness when subjected to a variation of the RH between
33and75%inthechamber wereseentobeintherangeof 1845min
and428min, respectively. Hysteresis was reportedtobe within5%
of RH. These sensors could be well used in civil engineering appli-
cations for RH measurement where slightly lower resolution and
response time are not very critical.
Huang et al. have proposed a low-cost RHsensor by coating FBG
sensors with inexpensive thermoplastic polymide solution [100].
The sensors were dip-coated in the solution for 510min and dried
in a drying cabinet. The coating thickness was reported to be 8m.
A copper sleeving was used to protect the sensors from exter-
nal mechanical damages. Coarse wavelength division multiplexing
(CWDM) technique was used to interrogate the sensors. RH was
measuredintherangefrom11to98%at constant roomtemperature
and the results fromthe FBGsensors were found to be linear, repro-
ducible and reversible. RH sensitivity and response time measured
were 0.000266V/%RH and 5s respectively, which is an apprecia-
ble improvement over similar previous sensors. However, sensors
were perturbed by temperature variation and some temperature
discrimination scheme should be built-in.
Yeo et al. have reported an effort to optimize the response of
the RH sensors [101]. In order to ensure repeatability of the sensor
response, authors have used a silicane coupling agent between the
silica bre and polymide coating layer. This is claimed to ensure
uniformadhesion of the coating on to the bre surface and thereby
allow for identical amounts of strain to be transferred from the
coatingtothe FBGsensor under exposure tosimilar moisture levels.
5.1.6. FBGs in geodynamic studies
FBGstrainsensors alsohaveanimportant applicationintheeld
of geodynamical monitoring [102]. Typical cases could be the study
of rock deformation, bre-optic geophone, vertical seismic prol-
ing, etc. Ground stress and strain regime study in seismic areas has
been proved to be an effective aid in forecasting major hazards. A
dense arrayof sensors is requiredinsuchstudies toprovide not only
localized measurements of ground strain, but also some data about
the origin of the disturbance. The main advantage of FBG sensors
in the geodynamical eld is its low cost, ruggedness in harsh envi-
ronments and distributive nature of sensing, enabling monitoring
of a wide frequency range. However, the major limitations of this
sensor are its low sensitivity (10
7
strains) in quasi-static domain
as compared to volumetric strain meters (10
12
strains) and its
temperature-straincross-sensitivity. Several approaches [103105]
have been suggested to overcome these limitations.
FBG strain sensors have been used to measure dynamic defor-
mations in rock masses and the results thus obtained are validated
against conventional geophone data [106]. Rock bolts made of steel
are used in structures inside underground cavities. Rock bolts are
capable of 20% elongation whereas the FBGsensors reported in this
study can monitor a maximum strain of 1%.
Application of FBG strain sensors for long-term surveillance of
tunnels has beenpresented[107]. TheFBGs wereembeddedinglass
bre reinforced polymers (GFRPs) of two different diameters. The
Fig. 8. Positioning of FBG sensors in critical strain points in a prototype of offshore
platform [112].
rockbolts were made of this GFRP and tested in a tunnel in Switzer-
landfor a periodof 1year. The straingeneratedonthemwas studied
and a comparison made for the two sensors. Maximum range of
strain that could be measured was 1.6%.
Ground strain conditions during an earthquake have been stud-
ied using FBG sensor systems [108]. A patent for the use of FBG
sensors for vertical seismic proling in earth boreholes has been
granted [109].
Liu et al. have reported the use of FBG sensor system to moni-
tor the underground seismic signals in rock masses with a dynamic
strain resolution of 10
9
at 1.7kHz [110]. The sensor is epoxied onto
the glass bre reinforced polymer (GFRP) made rockbolt. Several
tests, both in laboratory conditions as well as in actual test sites
have been conducted. Seismic signal was generated on the labora-
tory prototype by using metallic ball excitation, whereas inthe eld
tests byusingahammer andthenbyexploding50gexplosivemate-
rial. Seismic signals thus obtainedarefoundtobepronetonoisedue
to instability in the interrogating laser wavelength, disturbances in
theoptical cables, connectors, etc. Thedatais adaptivelteredusing
a combination of windowed discrete Fourier series (DFS) and dis-
crete autocorrelationfunction(DACF) andthe ltereddata is almost
noise-free and in good agreement with the data obtained from
a conventional geophone. For maximum sensitivity of the bre,
wavelength is optimized at 1549.87nm and 1550.07nm. However,
for better sensitivity of the FBG-based geodynamic sensors, opti-
mization of wavelength of the laser source as well as that of the
sensors is required.
Wu et al. have reported a temperature-controlled FBG sensor
system for use in monitoring the dynamic strain on geotechnical
structures [111]. The grating is glued to the sensor head, which is
made of composite material. For testing purpose the sensor head
and a conventional geophone are installed along the axial direc-
tion in a rock mass of 1.5m length. Seismic signals in the range of
1002500Hz are generated on the rock mass using a metallic ball
impact. The grating placed inside the sensor head, namely FBG1 is
illuminated from a broadband light source and the reected signal
fromit is feddirectly intoa log ratioamplier. The other input of the
ratio amplier comes from the light reected by the second grat-
ing namely, FBG2, which is glued onto a peltier chip. The peltier
chip is maintained in a closed loop whereby the drift in working
temperature is constantly being monitored and compensated by
means of a PID programmer. The ratiometric approach leads to
reductioninundesiredbackgroundnoise. Theresults obtainedfrom
the FBG sensor system and the geophone are within acceptable
agreement. 15dB and 620microstrain are respectively the signal-
to-noise (SNR) and resolution of the system reported.
FBG sensors have also been reported to be used in the health
monitoring of offshore platform models [112]. Fig. 8 shows a
prototype of an offshore platform instrumented with FBG sensors
for its healthmonitoring. Incomparisonto other civil structure, off-
shoreplatforms aresubjectedtomechanical shocks fromseawaves,
ice, storms and accidental collisions from vessels. Other aggravat-
ing factors include continuous corrosion, erosion and scour from
the seawater. FBG strain sensors having the advantages of ability
to function in harsh environment, to be multiplexed and remote
sensing are suited in such situations. Authors have prepared a pro-
totype of the offshore platform of Shengli oil eld in Yellow Sea,
China in the scale of 1:14. FBG sensors packaged in a steel tube
were mounted on the prototype and used to monitor the strain
generated on it. An underwater shaking table was used to simu-
late the vibration on the prototype. An extra FBG sensor served as
a temperature sensor and readings from it used for temperature
compensation of the FBGstrain sensor. The maximumworking fre-
quency of the FBGsensor was calculated to be 5.625kHz, while that
of the shaking table was 50Hz. Thus, the sensors were judged to be
capable of measuring the dynamic strainresponse of the prototype.
The prototype was subjected to sine wave, El centro wave and Tian-
jin wave and in all cases it was observed that readings obtained
from the FBG sensors and conventional strain gauges showed a
high correlation. Besides, FBG sensors were much less affected by
noise (1microstrain) as compared to straingauges (10microstrain).
Since FBGsensors have beenable to monitor the strains onthe plat-
form prototype satisfactorily, the work may be suitably extended
for similar real-world applications.
5.1.7. Ultrasonic non-destructive testing of structural health using
FBG
Ultrasonic inspection of structures is one important method
for monitoring the health of structures. Propagation of ultrasonic
wave is affected while passing through damaged area of structures.
So far piezoelectric type transducers are used for generation and
detection of ultrasonic wave in structures. Recent studies showed
that bre Bragg grating sensors can be effectively used as ultra-
sound sensors for monitoring the health of metallic (stainless steel)
[113115], composite (CFRP) [116118] structures. Fig. 9 shows the
experimental setup for ultrasonic non-destructive testing using
FBGsensors for the healthmonitoring of cross-ply CFRP. Incompos-
itestructures FBGultrasoundsensors caneffectivelydistinguishthe
ultrasonic wave passing throughthe undamagedanddamagedarea
where as the conventional piezoelectric type ultrasound sensors
cannot distinguish the same. Moreover, piezoelectric type ultra-
sonic detectors are inuenced by electromagnetic interferences
and therefore the use of such type of sensors is inconvenient in
areas of high EMI. FBG being immune towards EMI can be a bet-
ter alternative to piezoelectric type ultrasonic sensors. As FBGs are
characterized by very lowinsertion loss they are suitable for multi-
plexing in series along a bre and are thus ideal for multiple sensor
applications, where time and wavelength division multiplexing
can be applied. FBG sensors are characterized by great spatial and
temporal resolution. Unlike other optical interferometric sensors,
FBG sensors are wavelength encoding type self referencing sensors
and so its operation is immune to uctuating light levels, source
power and connector losses. Further FBG sensors are environmen-
tally more stable and durable with high corrosion resistance and
used in unapproachable and dangerous environments (in explosive
zones). Due to these advantages FBGs are considered to be promis-
ing ultrasound sensors in structural health monitoring. However,
FBGs have limitations in the temporal bandwidth due to radial res-
onances in the bre which will constrain its sensitivity (over a few
tens of MHz).
Several studies have already been done in recent years to
investigate the possibility of using FBG as ultrasonic sensors
during ultrasonic inspection of structural health monitoring
Fig. 9. Experimental setup in the ultrasonic non-destructive testing of structural
health in cross ply CFRP and schematic illustrating the variation in reectivity of
the FBG sensor with applied strain (a) using broadband light source and (b) tunable
laser source.
[113,114,116118]. Tsuda studied ultrasonic inspection method
using small diameter FBG sensors for determining impact damage
in CFRP plate. The FBG sensors so used have typical gage length
of 510mm and typical grating period of 0.5m. In his work, the
author has described two types of FBG-based ultrasonic sensing
system using broadband light source and tunable laser source for
damage detection in cross-ply CFRP [116]. A piezoelectric device
is used as an ultrasonic transmitter to generate shear waves (fre-
quency 250Hz). In the rst technique (Fig. 9) light from a broad
band light source travels to FBG1 via an optical circulator and the
reected light is detected by a photo detector after being ltered
by FBG 2. The Braggs wavelength of the sensor FBG1 (1550.28nm)
is slightly longer than that of the lter FBG2 (1550.18nm). Dur-
ing varying strain, the change in reectivity of FBG1 with respect to
transmissivity of FBG2 is detected by the photo detector, the output
of which increases during tension and reduces during compression
(Fig. 9a). In the second technique the broad band light source is
replacedbyatunablelaser source(1550.38nm) withthelaser emis-
sion wavelength set to z
out
in such a way that at this wavelength
the reectivity of the sensor FBG at strain free is reduced to half as
shown in Fig. 9(b). In this case also the intensity of light reected
from the FBG sensor directly corresponds to ultrasonic response.
The author have further compared the techniques with that using
the S mode waves of piezoelectric shear wave transmitter (central
frequency 250kHz) and found that the FBG sensing systems pro-
duced better detection of damage in the composite structures than
piezoelectric sensors.
In another work, Takeda et al. have used FBG sensing systemfor
detection of lamb waves in CFRP laminate using high speed opti-
cal wave length interrogation system [117]. They had shown that
in order to receive the lamb wave, the gage length of the FBG sen-
sor should be shorter than 1/7th of the ultrasonic wavelength. The
technique was used by the authors for detection of delamination
in the CFRP cross-ply laminate and debonding in the CFRP bonding
structure using small diameter FBGsensor embedded in double lap
type coupon specimen and was found to be very effective.
In their work, Lee et al. investigated the birefringence effects of
FBGsensor duringultrasonic measurements inbothsurfacemount-
ing and embedded congurations [118]. They had shown that glue
induced low-birefringence results in loss of sensitivity in ultrasonic
measurement by FBG sensors and proposed simple and effective
solutions with respect to respective installation congurations for
removing the birefringence effect.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents a review of recent research and devel-
opment activities in structural health monitoring using FBGs.
High-quality FBG interrogation systems; practical encapsulation
(packaging) techniques and practical applications are the cores for
FBGs to be widely popularized in infrastructures. Due to the inher-
ent properties of FBG sensors such as lightweight, immunity to
electromagnetic interference and harsh environment and ability to
be multiplexed for distributive measurement, these sensors have
emerged as a suitable solution in longitudinal strain measurement
instatic anddynamic strainsensing andacousto-ultrasonic sensing
in a number of application areas.
In this paper, rstly, the principle of FBG sensor in strain
measurement and the effect of temperature in strain measure-
ment are briey discussed. Several temperature compensation
techniques to correct the effect of temperature during strain
measurement are reviewed form the literature and their advan-
tages/disadvantages are pointed out. Commonly used schemes of
FBG interrogation are reviewed. Secondly, several practical FBG
encapsulation (packaging) techniques published in the literatures
are reviewed highlighting the advantages/disadvantages of the
techniques. Thirdly some of the salient areas in structural health
monitoring for the application of these sensors have been reviewed
in this paper. Finally few techniques for ultrasonic non-destructive
testing of damage in composite materials using FBG are reviewed
explaining the ultrasonic sensing methods.
This report has presented the state-of-the-art in strain monitor-
ing of different application areas related to civil structures using
bre Bragg grating sensors. Works of various researchers have
undoubtedly proved the suitability and reliability of these sensors
in strain monitoring of both laboratory specimens and real struc-
tures. Fromthese studies some unique advantages of Bragg grating
sensors in strain monitoring of structures have emerged. These
include immunity from emi and harsh environment, capability of
distributed sensing and small sensor and harness size, etc.
Yet in real-world applications of SHM, conventional sensor
system still outnumber their FBG-based competitors. A possible
explanation for the FBG sensors not reaching their full market
potential is perhaps due to the non-standardization of these sen-
sors. Even after much active research in this eld, no standards for
the sensor packaging and their usage in SHM have been arrived at
by any international governing body. Another disadvantage associ-
atedwiththe use of FBGsensors is the highcost of the interrogation
system currently available in the market. As such, there seems to
be some hesitancy of the civil engineering community to entirely
replace conventional strain sensors with FBG sensors for a critical
issue like structural health monitoring.
Besides, a fewremaining issues inthe applicationof FBGsensors
need to be addressed. In composites, where these sensors are to be
embedded, wavelength shift compensation due to the temperature
effect is still not possible without compromising the bres resolu-
tion. Besides, the multi axis measurement of strain in structures
is still an active area of research [119]. During the service-life of
a structure, several types of defects are generated on it (warping,
cracks, delamination, etc.). In order to be a useful tool in SHM, it
is necessary to carefully analyze the FBG sensor response to these
different types of defects. Moreover, for all practical situations, due
to their brittle nature, it is necessary to encapsulate the bare FBG
sensors before mounting themon any structure. However, the pro-
tective layer and the adhesive layer absorb a part of the strain and
the indication given by the FBG is not the true strain on the struc-
ture. Lau et al. have done a theoretical modeling of the bonding
characteristics at the interface of bare bre and coating, coating
and adhesive layer, adhesive layer and host material and validated
the results using FEMtools [120]. The study concludes that for bet-
ter strain transfer from the host material to the FBG sensors, a thin
layer of adhesive, a high modulus coating material and a sufcient
embedding length of the sensor is necessary.
A recent market overview of FBG sensors by Mendez estimates
the present global FBG market size at 1535 million USD per year
with an annual growth rate of 1525% [121]. However, to achieve
the full market potential, technologists have to ensure reliability,
cost-effectiveness and standardization of the FBG-based sensors.
It is expected that in the near future the demand for these sen-
sors will increase both in conventional and niche markets. On one
hand there will be applications concerning distributed sensing in
monitoring of bridges, tunnels, pipelines, etc. On the other, newer
applications of these sensors in chemical and biomedical sensing
is also envisaged.
After almost three decades of research in FBGs, technology for
SHMusing FBGsensors is on the verge of maturity. The main thrust
of technology development at present should be focused on the
various application areas of civil infrastructure monitoring using
FBGs and the standardization of the procedure. Hence, the optical
bre community should collaborate more with domain specialists
like civil engineers and architects to extend the use of FBG strain
sensors into newer avenues in structural health monitoring.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support and guid-
ance provided by the Director, Central Glass & Ceramic Research
Institute, Kolkata, India. The work has been carried out under the
project Technology for Engineering Critical Assessment (TECA),
CORR 0022.
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Biographies
Mousumi Majumder obtained her B. Tech in Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering from the North-Eastern Hill University, India in 1997. She had joined
the Council for Scientic and Industrial Research, India in 1998. Presently she is
employed as a Scientist in the Instrumentation Division at Central Glass & Ceramic
Research Institute, Kolkata, India. She has participated in several research projects
like the Technology for Engineering Critical Analysis and Technology for Assess-
ment and Refurbishment of Engineering Materials and Components. Her current
professional interests lie in material characterization, and usage of various strain
sensing platforms in Structural Health Monitoring and Refurbishment.
Tarun Kumar Gangopadhyay graduated Bachelor of Electrical Engineering in 1989
and Master of Electrical Engineering in 1991, both from the Jadavpur University,
Calcutta, India. He completed his Ph.D. in December 2005 in the eld of bre-optic
sensor from the University of Sydney, Australia. He has authored several journal
papers and international conference papers. He is currently employed as a Scientist
in the Optical Fibre Division at Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata,
India. His area of expertise lies in optical bre sensors, FBG sensors for smart struc-
tures, FBG sensors for power line application, bre fabrication and characterization,
bre-optic amplier and bre-optic components such as bi-directional coupler,
WDM coupler, etc. His current research interests are development of Fibre Bragg
Grating sensors, bio-medical sensors and PM bre coupler for Gyro application. He
is a member of IEEE, and Optical Society of America (OSA), USA.
Ashim K. Chakraborty has obtained his M.E. (Hons.) degrees in Instrumentation
and Electronics from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India in 1990. He served Simon
Carves Limited, India before joining as a scientist in the Instrumentation Section of
Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute (CSIR), Kolkata, India in 1987 where
he is presently a senior scientist and the head of the section. He has active inter-
est in technology development and has participated in a number of sponsored
research projects. He has served as the research project leader for development of
FBGstrain sensors under Technology for Engineering Critical Analysis (20042007),
a network project among CSIR laboratories, India. His current research interests
are in the area of technology development for specialty glasses and optic bre
sensors.
Kamal Dasgupta is a senior Scientist and is presently heading the Optical Commu-
nication Fibre Division at Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata, India.
His professional interests lie in different kinds of specialty bre sensors.
Dipak K. Bhattacharya, a graduate in Metallurgy obtained his doctoral degree from
the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India in 1995 working on the subject
of correlation of Barkhausen Signal and magnetic hysteresis loop parameters with
microstructures in steels. His professional interests lie in materials processing &
characterization, andR&Dproject management. He has workedinvarious NDT tech-
niques for the evaluation of remaining life assessment of engineering materials and
structures in the power and petrochemical plants. He is presently heading the Ana-
lytical Facility Division and Programme Management Division in Central Glass &
Ceramic ResearchInstitute, Kolkata, India. He has more than60publications inInter-
national Journals. He is the Chief Editor of the Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation
published by the Indian Society for NDT.

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Sensors and Actuators A 147 (2008) 150164

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

, Tarun Kumar Gangopadhyay, Ashim Kumar Chakraborty,

Corresponding author. Fax: +91 33 24730957.

C, error reported is 10microstrain and 5

C, maximum error reported is 17microstrain and 1

C, error reported is 55.8microstrain and 3

C, Bragg wavelength shifts by about 50pm

C, thermo-opto coefcient reported is 0.4pm/

C. Experimental data obtained fromFBGsensors reveal agree-

C) was observed 7h after

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