Chapter 6 Paragenesis and Zoning

An ORE-BEARING FLUID will gradually change as it migrates away fr m a magmatic s urce! It will react the wall r c"s# changing in chemical c m$ siti n and $% & it will tra'el int regi ns f l wer $ressures & and it will l se heat t the c ler c untry r c"s! As these $hysical and chemical changes ta"e $lace# the relati'e sta(ilities f any metals (eing trans$ rted will reach critical 'alues and cause a se)uential de$ siti n f re minerals that will (e regulated al ng ( th time and s$ace c rdinates! Each f these de$ siti nal dimensi ns-time and s$ace-will (e rec rded in the re de$ sit# lea'ing the ge l gist detailed e'idence f the e' luti nary trends in an re-f rming s luti n! *he time se)uence f mineral de$ siti n is "n wn as the $aragenesis f a de$ sit & the s$atial distri(uti n is descri(ed as + ning! *he $aragenesis# r chr n l gic rder f mineral# is determined (y studies f mineral relati nshi$s# with the em$hasis n micr sc $ic te,tural features! - ning $atterns are manifested (y mineral gical changes al ng ( th 'ertical and h ri+ ntal tra'erses acr ss minerali+ed areas! *he + nes may (e defined (y differences in mineral s$ecies # differences in ty$es f metal# differences in sulfur c ntent# r e'en su(tle differences in the rati s (etween certain elements! But whate'er the relati nshi$ used t define a + ne# in each case the + ning and the $aragenesis will (e c genetic# (ecause they are merely tw different as$ects f the same $hen men n! Fr m a th r ugh study f carefully ch sen sam$les made int thin secti ns and $ lished secti ns# in c n.uncti n with detailed field ma$$ing# the ge l gist may (e a(le t de'el $ a reas na(ly c m$lete $icture f the re and wall r c"s# including changes al ng the three s$ace c rdinates and th se that t " $lace as the re was em$laced! Details in the character f minerali+ati n/c rrelated with the structure# with the character f the wall r c"s and their alterati n $r ducts# with such fact rs as $ermea(ility and $ r sity f the h st r c"s# and with the chemical reacti ns in' l'ed-will lead t a (etter understanding f the $r cesses f re genesis and hence t s und e,$l rati n f r new de$ sits!

Paragenesis
0tudies f mineral se)uences are $ractically restricted t the micr sc $e# (ecause micr te,tures and micr structures are used t decide which f rmed first-th ugh relati nshi$s (etween minerali+ed 'eins that cut acr ss ne an ther are als 'alua(le clues t mineral $aragenesis! In the study f any single mine r minerali+ed district# the ge l gist will rec rd the relati'e ages f each distinguisha(le mineral $air! %e may find# f r e,am$le# that chalc $yrite always f rmed earlier than s$halerite and that s$halerite f rmed either earlier r at the same time as galena# (ut that s me galena definitely f rmed later than s$halerite! %e may find# further# that $hyrite was u(i)uit s! 0uch results w uld (e $l tted t sh w the relati'e se)uence f mineral de$ siti n# and the gra$h w uld (e a $aragenesis diagram similar t the ne gi'en in fig! 1-2 *he w r" f many ge l gists# studying c untless $ lished secti ns thr ugh ut the w rld# has esta(lished a general se)uence f mineral de$ siti n in re de$ sits! *his se)uence is (ased u$ n the mineral sta(ility ranges and is fairly c nstant f r m st de$ sits# regardless f the de$th and tem$erature f f rmati n# and regardless f rigin-whether direct magmatic# $egmatitic# hydr thermal# $neumat lytic# r metam r$hic! 0ince the character f an re-(earing fluid gradually changes as it m 'es# different minerals will (e f rmed al ng different $arts f the 'ein & while n mineral is (eing de$ sited under certain c nditi ns at ne

$lace r le'el# ther minerals will (e f rming elsewhere# under different c nditi ns! *hus it is li"ely that the de$ siti n f ther minerals# ( th in s$ace and in time! 0light changes in tem$erature $ressure# r chemistry f the trans$ rding fluids may als alter the n rmal c urse f de$ siti n and cause re'ersals r ther interru$ti ns in the $r cess! Furtherm re# the $aragenesis f each stage in a multi$le $ulsati n system will (e a chr n l gic se)uence f its wn# hence the rder f mineral de$ siti n in any tw $uises may n t agree e,actly! F r e,am$le# a minerali+ed fissure may (e re$eatedly re $ened (y tect nic acti'ity 3 a c mm n $hen men n4# all wing disc ntin us surges f re-(earing fluids t enter & and since the chemistry f the fluids may change in time# the mineral gy f each surge may (e different! *he rder f de$ siti n is theref re seld m sim$le# and the true $aragenesis can rarely (e ascertained fr m the study f a few sam$les & it re)uires an e,aminati n f many thin secti ns and $ lished secti ns fr m sam$les ta"en at widely scattered l cati ns within the de$ sit!

TABLE 6-1 Paragenesis in Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

2! 5uart+3c ntinued4# chl rite# t urmaline# lime-ir n silicates# sericite# al(ite# adularia# (arite# flu rite# siderite# rh d chr site# an"erite# calcite 3c ntinued4 6! 7agnetite# s$ecularite# 3s metimes later4# uraninite 8! 9yrite# arsen $yrite# c (alt and nic"el arsenides :! ;assiterite 3s metimes $receding $yrite4# w lframite 3scheelite4# m ly(denite <! 9yrrh tite# $entlandite# chalc $yrite# stannite# (ismuthinite 1! 0$halerite# enargite# tennantite# tetrahedrite# chalc $yrite# ( rnite# galena# chalc cite# str meyerite# argentite# ru(y sil'er# $ ly(asite# chalc $yrite# lead-sil'er sulfantim nides# nati'e sil'er# nati'e (ismuth# electrum# tellurides# nati'e g ld =! 0ti(nite# cinna(ar 0 urce > After Lindgren32?8=4 *he esta(lished mineral se)uence# as determined first (y Lindgren and later (y Edwards is gi'en in *a(les 1-2 and 1-II! *he minerals within each gr u$ are listed in the rder f their de$ siti n# the earliest-f rmed minerals (eing listed first! It must (e em$hasi+ed that alth ugh the mineral se)uence h lds in general# there are many e,ce$ti ns# re'ersals# and e,am$les f 'erla$$ing de$ siti n! *he agreement (etween Lindgren@s and Edward@s $aragenetic m dels suggests that we can f rmulate s me generali+ed statements a( ut the se)uence f re de$ siti n! *hus we n te that the ,ides are de$ sited early sulfides and arsenides f ir n# nic"el# tin# and m ly(denum are generally c ntem$ rane us with r slightly later than ,ides & +inc# lead!

TABLE 6-II Paragenesis in Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

O E !I"E AL# 2! 6! 7agnetite# ilmenite# chr nite# hematite ;assiterite# tantalite# w lframite# m ly(denite

8! 9yrrh tite# $entlandite# l llingite# arsen $yrite# $yrite# c (alt and nic"el arsenides :! ;halc $yrite# s$halerite 3interchangea(le4# ( rnite <! *etrahedrite# galena# lead sulf salts# sil'er sulf salts# nati'e (ismuth and (ismuthinite# tellurides# sti(nite# cinna(ar $A"$%E !I"E AL# 2! 6! 5uart+# t urmaline# t $a+ 0iderite 3 ften manganifer us4# flu rite# calcite# (arite# chalced ny

0 urce > After Edwards 32?:=#2?<64 0il'er# and c m(ined c $$er-ir n sulfides are intermediate in the $aragenesis and are mi,ed with r slightly lder than the c $$er# lead# and sil'er sulf salts & nati'e metals and tellurides are ty$ically late & and antim ny and mercury sulfides are the latest!

Zoning
*he $aragenesis f mineral f rmati n in m 'ing re fluids $r duces changes in re mineral gy al ng the c urse f de$ siti n! 0uch changes are descri(ed as + ning# and are f und in sedimentary de$ sits as well as in magmatic and metam r$hic res! In the ideal case f a radiating hydr thermal r $neumat lytic fluid# changes in chemistry# tem$erature# and $ressure al ng the fissures result in the de$ siti n f different minerals in c ncentric + nes at increasing distances fr m the magmatic s urce! 0yngenetic de$ sits# h we'er# may (e + ned $arallel t a c ntem$ rane us sh re line r al ng a stream channel leading away fr m the s urce r c"! Any detecti n f a + nal $attern-e$igenetic r syngenetic-is im$ rtant t ec n mic ge l gy# (ecause it hel$s t $redict changes in minerali+ati n as a de$ sit is de'el $ed and mined! *he the ry f + ning was $r (a(ly stated first as a generali+ati n (y 0$urr 32?A=4# th ugh many w r"ers had $re'i usly rec gni+ed the $hen men n 3de la Beche# 2B8?&%enw d#2B:8&; llins#2?A6&Caller#2?A:&de Launay#2?AA4! At the $resent time# + ning is widely rec gni+ed and is acce$ted as aw r"ing hy$ thesis! Det the causes f + ning are still (eing de(ated# and it is difficult t e,$lain why certain de$ sits are + ned and thers are n t 3;+ech sl 'a" Acad!0ci!# 2?184! - ning in re de$ sits is c n'eniently di'ided int three intergradati nal classes# (ased u$ n si+e (ut inde$endent f the rigin! *hese classes are > 2! Regi nal + ning-+ ning n a 'ery large scale# as e,em$lified (y the 0 uthern 9iedm nt regi n f the s utheastern United 0tates and (y re de$ sits ass ciated with the 0ierra Ne'ada (ath lith 39ar"#2?<<4& 6! District + ning-the + ning sh wn (y cl sely gr u$ed mines# a categ ry which includes the well-"n wn mining districts f Butte# 7 ntana 30ales and 7eyer#2?:?4# ; rnwall# England 3Da'is n#2?6=&Lilley#2?864# and Bingham# Utah 39eac c"#2?:B4& and 8! Ore-( dy + ning changes in the character f minerali+ati n within a single re ( dy r a single re sh t 3Riley#2?814> many 'ein de$ sits in the ' lcanic r c"s f Ea$an# as well as many single re ( dies within + ned districts# are in this categ ry! Because f the great dis$arity in si+e (etween minerali+ed regi ns and indi'idual re ( dies# c nfusi n ften arises in the discussi n f + ning! *his c nfusi n led 0am$s n 32?814 t suggest that the term + ning (e limited t districts! But restricting the term in this way further c nfuses the usage! *he additi n f ad.ecti'es t indicate the relati'e scale-regi nal# district# and re-( dy/is

$refera(le! *his dimensi nal classificati n f + ning is n t uni'ersally acce$ted (y Eur $ean ge l gists# s me f wh m feel that re de$ sits usually result fr m disc ntin us surges r $ulsati ns f minerali+ing s luti ns# resulting in a c m$licated 'erla$$ing f + nes & they suggest that + ning sh uld (e classified acc rding t whether the de$ sits were de'el $ed (y a single $ulsati n r (y many# and whether they are in n rmal r re'ersed se)uence 3Futina#2?<=4 F r + ned de$ sits f all scales# field (ser'ati n has sh wn that gr u$s f minerals were f rmed in m re r less c nstant se)uence fr m the s urce f re fluids utward! By gradually $iecing t gether the field data n relati'e + ning in indi'idual regi ns# districts# and re ( dies# ge l gists ha'e (een a(le t c nstruct a the retical 'ein system againts which any single de$ sit may (e c m$ared! Early (ser'ers n ted that tin minerals characteristically lie dee$er r cl ser t the magma cham(er than c $$er minerals# and that c $$er minerals# in turn# ccur inside the sil'er + ne! E,$ansi n f these (ser'ati ns led t the relati'ely detailed m del 'ein system re$r duced in *a(le 1-III! N single e,am$le c ntains all f the mineral gr u$s gi'en in the m del# (ut the 'ein system in the study and understanding f + ning! N te the similarity (etween this system and the m dels f $aragenesis gi'en (y Lindgren and Edwards!

TABLE 6-III A e&onstr'&ted (ein #ystem) *rom the #'r*a&e Do+n+ard

2! 6! 8! :! Barren > ;halced ny# )uart+# (arite# flu rite! 0 me 'eins carry small am unts mercury# antim ny# r arsenic f

7ercury > ;inna(ar de$ sits# c mm nly (earing chalced ny# marcasite# Barite-flu rite 'eins! Antim ny > 0ti(nite de$ sits# l cally $assing d wnward int galena with antim nates! 0 me carry g ld G ld-sil'er > B nan+a g ld de$ sits and g ld-sil'er de$ sits! Argentite with arsenic and antim ny minerals c mm n! *ellurides and selenides in $laces! Relati'ely small am unts f galena# adularia# alunite# with calcite# rh d chr site# and ther car( nates Barren > 7 st nearly c nsistent (arren + ne& re$resents ( tt m f many *ertiary $reci us-metal 'eins! 5uart+# car( nates# and small am unts f $yrite# chalc $yrite# s$halerite# and galena 0il'er > Argentite 'eins# c m$le, sil'er minerals with antim ny and arsenic# sti(nite# s me arsen $yrite& )uart+ gangue# in $laces with siderite Lead > Galena 'eins# generally with sil'er&s$halerite usually $resent# increasing with de$th& s me chalc $yrite! Gangue f )uart+ and car( nates -inc > 0$halerite de$ sits& galena and s me chalc $yrite generally $resent! Gangue is )uart+ and# in s me de$ sits# car( nates f calcium# ir n# and manganese ; $$er > ;halc $yrite 'eins# m st with $yrite# many with $yrrh tite! *he gangue is )uart+ and# in s me $laces# car( nates and felds$ar! Orth clase and s dic $lagi clase

<!

1! =! B! ?!

n t rare# (ut high-calcium $lagi clase 'ery rare! Generally carry $reci us metals! Uranium & $r (a(ly main h ri+ n f uraninite 2A! 22! 26! 28! 2:! 2<! 21! ; $$er > *etrahedrite# c mm nly argentifer us & chalc $yrite $resent! 0 me $ass d wnward int chalc $yrite! Enargite 'eins# generally with tetrahedrite Arsenic > Arsen $yrite with chalc $yrite Bismuth > Bismuthinite# nati'e (ismuth# )uart+# and $yrite *ungsten > Geins with tungsten minerals# arsen $yrite# $yrrh tite# $yrite# chalc $yrite! *ungsten ccurs in higher + nes in fairly large am unts# (ut this is the main h ri+ n *in > ;assiterite# with )uart+# t urmaline# t $a+# felds$ar Barren > 5uart+# felds$ar# $yrite# car( nates and small am unts f ther minerals G ld > De$ sits with $yrite# arsen $yrite# )uart+# car( nates# and s me with felds$ar gangue! * urmaline! *ellurides n t unc mm n and at $laces a(udant! 0 me de$ sits ha'e + nes 2A and 22 re'ersed

0 urce > After Emm ns 32?814 As w uld (e e,$ected# there are many discre$ancies (etween the (ser'ed and the the retical 'ein system! Irregularities and re'ersals result fr m ra$id de$ siti n and the 'erla$$ing f + nes# am ng ther fact rs! Discre$ancies and $ rly defined + ning are caused (y the 'erla$$ing f de$ sits fr m tw r m re magmatic centers# (y the retreat r ad'ance f magmatic centers during ne $eri d f de$ siti n# (y re$eated $eri ds f minerali+ati n in a single area# and (y ther causes n t underst d! Chere the minerals f ne + ne 'erla$ th se f an ther # the de$ sit is said t (e telesc $ed! Near the surface# magmatic fluids are su(.ected t stee$ tem$erature and $ressure gradients# causing ra$id de$ siti n f the re minerals and a sh rtening# r telesc $ing# f the re + ne! At de$th# the tem$erature and $ressure gradients are gentle& under these c nditi ns de$ siti n ta"es $lace sl wly# and the se$arati n f minerals is well defined! *elesc $ing is hence restricted largely t de$ sits f rmed under shall w c nditi ns# where changes in tem$erature and $ressure are ra$id 3B rchert#2?<24!Chere c nditi ns change gradually# as in the high-tem$erature# high$ressure de$ sits# + ning is generally min r and is e,$ressed# f r e,am$le# (y 'ariati ns in the fineness f g ld 39ry r#2?684 r in the am unts f min r c nstituents! 7any districts and mines sh w n rec gni+a(le + ning & re fr m the l wer le'els is a$$arently identical with re fr m the u$$er le'els! 9r (a(ly the (est e,am$les f un+ ned de$ sits are s me f the dee$er g ld mines# th ugh any ty$e f metal mine may lac" + ning! At 7 rr Gelh # Bra+il# f r e,am$le# the re in the ( tt m w r"ings# at a de$th f a( ut B<AA feet 'ertically- r a( ut 28#AAA feet d wn the di$-is# as far as has (een determined# identical with re fr m the u$$er w r"ings! *he 7 ther L de district f ;alif rnia is an ther e,am$le f a high-tem$erature# high-$ressure g ld district that sh ws n + ning# either in the district r in indi'idual er ( dies! Det when all the mineral de$ sits 3including th se in Ne'ada4 ass ciated with the 0ierra Ne'ada (ath lith are $l tted n a ma$# they sh w a regi nal $attern! De$ sits f the ;alif rnia c $$er (elt# as well as ther (ase-metal de$ sits# are farther fr m the intrusi'e c m$le, than are the g ld de$ sits! *he *ungsten res f Bish $# Fings ;any n# and ther areas# als fit int the + nal $attern & they are cl ser t the intrusi'e than are the g ld de$ sits! Anal g us regi nal + ning may (e $resent in Bra+il near the 7 rr Gelh de$ sits# (ut n t en ugh is "n wn f the area t $ermit definite c nclusi ns!

#O%THEA#TE " PIED!O"T P O(I"CE

An e,am$le f regi nal + ning is furnished (y the re de$ sits f the 0 uthern A$$alachian-9iedm nt $r 'ince fr m Cashingt n#D!;!# s uthward t the ; astal 9lain f Ala(ama 39ardee and 9ar"#2?:B4! In this regi n the metallifer us de$ sits are + ned ar und the central c re f the 9iedm nt regi n# where ( th late 9ale + ic and 9recam(rian intrusi'e are a(undent! *he central $art f the regi n c ntains de$ sits f $yrite and g ld! East f this central g ld-$yrite + ne# 7es + ic ; astal 9lain sediments c 'er the e'idence & regi nal + ning is well sh wn nly t the west f the c re! ;l sely ass ciated with the g ld res # (ut slightly t the west# are de$ sits f $yrrh tite and $yrite# as at the G ssan Lead# Girginia! Farther westward are $yrrh tite-chalc $yrite res f the ty$e f und at Duc"t wn# *ennessee & west f the c $$er + ne are the lead-+inc de$ sits at Austin'ille# Girginia# and in the 7asc tEeffers n ;ity district# *ennessee! *he uterm st + ne is defined (y (arite# which has (een mined fr m se'eral areas west f the lead-+inc res! Figure 1-6 sh ws the + nal arrangement f these de$ sits in relati n t the intrusi'e masses! It is un"n wn whether the res and the intrusi'es are $r ducts f metam r$hism dee$ within the A$$alachian ge syncline! *hese studies f regi nal + ning ha'e c nsidera(le ec n mic 'alue! In the 0 uthern 9iedm nt# f r e,am$le# generally fa' ra(le sites f r the disc 'ery f lead-+inc de$ sits lie in the area (etween s uthwestern Girginia and s uthwestern *ennessee# as well as n rth and s uth f the "n wn limits f minerali+ati n! If there are any mineral de$ sits in the eastern $art f this regi n# they are (uried under ; astal 9lain sediments & as ge $hysical meth ds are de'el $ed and refined# additi nal res may (e f und (eneath these materials!

CO ",ALL-DE(O") E"$LA"D
*he tin-c $$er district f ; rnwall and De' n ; unties# England# has l ng (een rec gni+ed as ne f the classic e,am$les f district + ning! *he mines ha'e (een a(ly descri(ed (y many ge l gists since the early c m$rehensi'e re$ rt f de la Beche 32B8?4# and the literature descri(ing the ge l gy f the district is ' lumin us! Alth ugh ther are many e,cellent descri$ti ns f the de$ sits# n m dern detailed studies ha'e (een $u(lished discussing the causes f + ning! *he acce$ted hy$ thesis is that + ning was the result f re de$ siti n away fr m an igne us center# and that the c ntr l was largely caused (y decreases in tem$erature and $ressure! 7uch f the ; rnwall-De' n area is th ught t (e underlain (y granitic intrusi'e materials# as e'idenced (y fi'e st c"-li"e masses and ass ciated satellitic $lut ns# which are e,$ sed at the surface 3Fig 1-84! *he granites intrude a se)uence f intricately f lded and faulted 9ale + ic strata c nsisting f slates# sandst nes# grifts# limest nes# and greenst nes 3Da'is n#2?62#2?61#2?6= & Dewey# 2?6<#2?8<4! 7any min r $egmatite di"es and ther small intrusi'es f )uart+ $ r$hyry andHtra$H are $resent! Fi'e $rinci$al ty$es f hydr thermal alterati n are ass ciated with the intrusi'est urmalini+ati n# greiseni+ati n# chl riti+ati n# silificati n# and "a lini+ati n! *he t urmaline is generally (lac" and is a(undantly de'el $ed at $laces! 9arts f the granite itself are altered alm st c m$letely t (lac" t urmaline3sch rl r c"4# and in the l wer le'els f the tin l des a r c" c m$ sed f )uart+ is c mm n! *he e)ui'alent facies in r c"s that are rich in alumina and lime is re$resented (y a,inite! Greiseni+ati nis essentially restricted t the granites# which are changed int r c" c m$ sed f )uart+ and t urmaline! ;hl riti+ati n is intense ar und s me high-tem$erature res# at $laces resulting in an alterati n $r duct made u$ entirely f

chl rite and )uart+! Fa lini+ati n is limited $rinci$ally t the granitic r c"s! In $arts f the area# alterati n was s th r ugh that it f rmed s me f the w rld@s largest and m st $ure "a lin de$ sits! 0ilificati n acc m$anied all ther ty$es f alterati n# s me f the )uart+ (eing $r duced as a (y-$r duct during the (rea"d wn f wall-r c" minerals and s me (eing $rimary silica 3% s"ing#2?<24! *he metals yielded (y the ; rnish mines were d minantly tin and c $$er# th ugh lesser am unts f arsenic# tungsten# lead# +inc# sil'er# uranium# radium# ir n# manganese# (ismuth# nic"el# and c (alt ha'e (een $r duced! *he res are in l des al ng fissures that tra'erse ( th the granite and the near(y slates! As a rule# the l des in slates di$ away fr m the granite# and th se which stri"e east-west# $arallel t the sedimentary r c"s# are cut (y th se trending n rth-s uth! *he res are genetically ass ciated with the granite# and 'eins in the slates at s me distance fr m the granite ty$ically c ntain small am unts f granitic material intruded with them al ng the same fissures! *he $resence f t $a+ and (lac" t urmaline# which f rm m st readily under high tem$erature and $ressure# als indicates a cl se ass ciati n (etween the res and an intrusi'e s urce! 7any w r"ers ha'e em$hasi+ed the relati n (etween the res and the igne us r c"s! E nes32?824 stated that granite masses are t s me e,tent stannifer us# and that as far as c uld (e determined# the cassiterite was genetically and intimately related t the granites! ;assiterite als a$$ears t (e as much an indicati n f the c mm n $arentage f the different igne us masses as any ther mineral c mm n t them! 7 st# (ut n t all# f the c mmercial re is rec 'ered fr m 'eins r l des! In a few $laces greisen c ntains en ugh metallic c nstituents-chiefly tin-such that it can (e mined! 7inerali+ed greisen c nsists f many tiny 'einlets scattered thr ugh the r c" & it is a ty$ical st c"w r"# r net f small 'einlets! Acc rding t 7acAlister 32?AB4# the intrusi ns# and the acc m$anying minerali+ati n# t " $lace in three gradati nal stages > 324 intrusi n f granitic magma with acc m$anying thermal metam r$hism in the r c"s near the intrusi'e masses & 364 intrusi n f )uart+ $ r$hyry di"es al ng clea'age $lanes f the metam r$h sed sedimentary r c"s & and 384 de$ siti n f the res in ( th sedimentary and igne us h st r c"s! Gariati ns in minerali+ati n 3that is# + ning4 f the l des has (een "n wn f r many years and has (een used as a t l f r e,$l rati n! ;hanges in minerali+ati n are rec gni+ed n t nly al ng the stri"es f the l des# (ut als at de$th!