Hookes Law

Hookes law states that extension is proportional to force. F = ke (k = stiffness constant, e = extension) Hookes law can apply to springs. The extension or compression of a spring is proportional to the force applied. Tensile - stretch spring, Compressive - squash spring. Hookes law stops working when the load is great enough. On a graph, if there is a straight line relationship between load and extension then Hookes law is obeyed. When the graph starts to c rve, this is where point , the !lastic limit is. !ncrease the load past the elastic li"it and the "aterial will be permanently stretched. # stretch can be plastic or elastic $ !lastic - %aterial returns to its original shape when the forces are re"o&ed. 'or a "etal, elastic defor"ation happens as long as Hookes law is obeyed. $ "lastic - %aterial is permanently stretched. # "etal stretched past its elastic li"it shows plastic defor"ation.

(tress and (train

# stress causes a strain. #tress = F$% (F = force, % = cross&sectional area) #train = e $ l (e = extension, l = original length) # "aterial sub)ected to a pair of opposite forms "ight deform. # stress big enough to break the "aterial is called the breaking stress. The maxim m stress the "aterial can withstand is called the litimate tensile stress. On a graph the breaking stress (') would be the end of the line and the ltimate tensiles stress ((T#) would be )ust before it around where the cur&e goes slightly down.

This stretching beha&iour is su""ari*ed in a stress-strain graph such as the one abo&e. #s the stress is increased initially Hooke+s Law is obeyed - the stress-strain relationship for the wire is linear and elastic. ,ust before the plastic region is reached we get the li"it of proportionality - beyond this for a s"all section we see non-linear beha&iour but the stretching is still elastic. #fter the yield strength, the "aterial enters the plastic defor"ation region, which "eans that the stretch of the wire is per"anent. -'or exa"ple, if the wire is stressed to point # on the graph and the stress is slowly decreased, the stress-strain cur&e follows the dotted line instead of the original cur&e to point . and there is a per"anent extension when all stress is re"o&ed./ #t the facture point the wire reaches its snaps. 0ifferences in the shape and li"its of the stress-strain diagra" deter"ines whether a "aterial is considered ductile or brittle, elastic or plastic.

!lastic strain energy is the energy stored in a stretched "aterial. lastic strain energy is gi&en by the area nder a stress&strain graph. 1ou can calculate the energy stored in a stretched wire pro&ided it obeys Hookes law. ! = )$* kx*

1oung %odulus
The +o ng ,od l s is stress$strain. .elow the li"it of proportionality for a "aterial, stress di&ided by strain is a constant, the constant is called the +o ng ,od l s (!). !t is used by engineers to "ake sure "aterials can withstand forces. ! = stress$strain = F$% $ e$l To find the 1oung %odulus you need a very long wire. 2se a rule, "arker and a pulley with so"e weights. The longer and thinner the wire, the "ore it extends for the sa"e force. Take the correct "easure"ents down and you can find the 1oung %odulus. 2se a stress&strain graph to find !. -radient = stress $ strain = ! (+o ng ,od l s) The area nder a stress-strain graph gi&es the stored energy. When Hookes law is obeyed the stress-strain graph will ha&e a straight line so you can calculate the energy per nit vol me energy = )$* x strain x stress

%n experiment to meas re the +o ng.s ,od l s

.eha&iour of solids
$ 'rittle - "aterials break s ddenly without plastically defor"ing. g. chocolate bar, cera"ics $ / ctile - "aterials can be drawn into wires witho t losing their strength. g. 3opper for wires. $ ,alleable - "aterials change shape but "ay lose their strength. g. 4old, gold rings can be changed shape &ery easily but a gold bar wouldn5t. $ Hard - "aterials are very resistant to c tting, indentation and abrasions. g. 3utting tool like a chisel or dia"ond.

$ #tiff - "aterials ha&e a high resistance to bending and stretching. #tiffness is meas red by the +o ng ,od l s & the higher the val e, the stiffer the material. g. Hel"ets. $ To gh - "aterials are really diffic lt to break. 0eally to gh materials can absorb a lot of energy so are very diffic lt to break. g. 6oly"ers. #tress&strain graphs for d ctile "aterials c rve. # straight line shows it obeys Hookes law, the limit of proportionality (") is the point where the graph starts to cur&e, the elastic limit (!) is where the "aterial wouldnt return to its original length and the yield point (+) is where the "aterial starts to stretch without any extra load.

(trea"lines and 'low

#treamlines are stable flowlines. # flowline is the path that a particular fl id ele"ent takes. #treamlines are parallel in laminar flow, this usually occurs when a fluid is flowing slowly. 'lowlines are nstable in t rb lent flow, this usually occurs when a fluid is flowing 1 ickly. !n turbulent flow, the fluid often "o&es around in miniat re whirlpools - called eddy c rrents. 'oth types of flow are used in man fact ring. La"inar flow, s"ooth flow is used in pipes. Turbulent flow, "ixed flow is used in mixing chemicals. 2isco s drag is the force of friction produced by a flowing fluid. 'riction opposes motion, so the force acts to slow the flow. The si*e of the force depends on the viscosity of the fluid 7 the higher the &iscosity, the larger the force. 2isco s drag is "uch larger when the flow is t rb lent.

8iscosity
0ate of flow depends on viscosity. The higher the viscosity of a fluid, the slower its rate of flow 2iscosity depends on temperat re. The &iscosity of "ost fluids decreasess as the te"perature increases, fluids generally flow faster it they+re hotter. 0ate of flow = 2ol me moved $ time taken 2isco s drag acts on ob)ects moving thro gh fl ids. 1ou can calculate the force due to &iscous drag on a spherical ob)ect "o&ing through a fluid using stokes law F = 3 (pi) n r v (n = viscosity (4sm&*), r = radi s (m), v = velocity (ms&)) (pi) is the mathematical symbol and is e1 al to 56)7)896 'luids exert pthr st on immersed ob:ects. (pthr st = weight of fl id displaced6