1 BJT-2 Basics

E. F.
Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

1
Bipolar junction transistor - Basics

Introduction

Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley invented the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) in 1949, while working for Bell Telephone
Laboratories.

This revolutionary invention changed the world.

The invention of the BJT followed the invention of the point-contact
transistor by Walter Brattain and John Bardeen.

The point-contact transistor has several problems that prevented it from
becoming a viable device.

BJT is a three-terminal device.

BJT is used as amplifier and switch.
E. F. Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003
2
Circuit diagram of pnp transistor consisting of two
diodes

The two n-type regions merge to form a very thin base.

EB junction: Forward bias

CB junction: Reverse bias
3
Band diagram (PNP)

Junction bias?

Major current flows?
4
Basic amplifier circuits

Common-base configuration

E
C
I
I
=
(1)

= current amplification in common base circuit

Typical values: > 0.99 (for state-of-the-art transistor)

5
Common-emitter configuration

= amplification in common-emitter circuit

= =

1
1
1
1
C E
C
B
C
I I
I
I
I
(2)

> 100 for state-of-the art transistors
6
Common-collector configuration

=
B
C
B
E
/
I
I
I
I
(3)
7
Nature of bipolar transistor

BJT is a current amplifier (not a voltage amplifier).

BJT is current-controlled current source.

BJT base current controls the emitter current and thereby the collector
current.
8
Qualitative discussion of pnp transistor

9
Basic ideas

EB junction is asymmetric:

En Ep
I I >>
(4)

The emitter hole current is controlled by EB junction.

The base width is small.

p B
L W <<
(5)

Most holes diffusing into the base will reach the collector if condition of
Eq. (5) is met.

Thus the base current controls collector current.
10
Discussion of currents

EB junction currents (EB junction is forward biased)

(1) Holes diffusing from the E into the B
(2) Electrons diffusing from the B into the E

11
Base currents

(3) Recombination of holes injected into base
(4) Most holes reach C since L
P
>> W
B

BC junction currents (BC is reversely biased)

(5) Electron minority carrier current from C to B
(6) Hole minority carrier current from B to C

We know that current (5) and (6) can be neglected for most practical
purposes.
12
Basic equations

What is the fraction of the emitter hole current that reaches the
collector?

Ep C
I B I =
(6)

B = Base transport factor

B = Probability that a hole injected into B reaches C

B 1
13
What fraction of total emitter current is emitter hole current?

( )
Ep En E Ep
I I I E + = =
(7)

Efficiency Emitter =

E Ep
to of Ratio I I =

1

Ep
En
1
Ep
En
Ep En
Ep
1 1
I
I
I
I
I I
I

+ =
+
=

(8)
14
Current amplification

= = = B
I
I
B
I
I
E
Ep
E
C
(9)

We will later calculate B and in two ways:

1. Approximate calculation
2. Exact calculation
15
Approximate hole distribution in base (PNP)

Long base (W
B
>> L
p
)

( )
P n
/
n
e
L x
p x p

=
(10)
16
Short base (W
B
<< L
p
)

Exponential function can be linearized

( ) 1 e is it 0 At
/
n
BE
0
= =
kT eV
n
p p x
(11)

( )
0
CB
0
n
/
n B n
1 e is it At p p p W x
kT eV
= = =
(12)

( ) 0 is That
B n
= =W x p
(13)

17

Can you identify the diffusion triangle in the figure?

Equation for diffusion triangle:

( )

=
B
n
n
1
W
x
p x p
(14)
18
Note

Diffusion Current:

x
p
D e J
d
d
p p
=
(15)

( ) x p e i. J d / d . slope
p

Short base changes slope (i. e. dp / dx)
19
Approximate calculation: Emitter efficiency (PNP)

Recall the Shockley equation:

( ) 1 e
0 0
p
n
n
n
P
P

+ =
kT eV
n
L
D
p
L
D
A e I
(16)

where first summand within first parenthesis is due to hole injection

where second summand within first parenthesis is due to electron
injection

Emitter is long , and therefore the electron current from base into
emitter is given by

( ) 1
0
p
n
n
En
=
kT eV
e n
L
D
A e I
(17)
20

Base is short , and therefore the hole current from emitter into base is
given by

( )
B
p
n
p
p
Ep
1
0
W
L
e p
L
D
A e I
kT eV
=
(18)

where last term, i. e. ( L
p
/ W
B
), is correction due to increase in slope

21
One obtains the emitter efficiency using Eqs. (8), (17), and (18)

1 1
0
0
n
B
P
p
n
n
Ep
En
p
W
D
n
L
D
I
I
= =
(19)

A
2
i
2
i p
0
using N n p n n = =
(20)

D
2
i
2
i n
0
and N n n n p = =
(21)

one obtains:

A n p
D B n
1
N L D
N W D
=
(22)
22

How can we attain high emitter efficiency?

For a high value of :

1. W
B
must be very short

2. N
A
>> N
D
(23)

That is,

Emitter doping >> Base doping
23
Example:

Problem: Assume a PNP transistor with the following parameters:
Emitter doping: N
A
= 1 10
18
cm
3

Base doping: N
D
= 1 10
17
cm
3

D
p
= D
n

W
B
= 100 nm
L
n
= 1 m
Calculate emitter efficiency.

Solution:
99 0
100
1
1 1
A n p
D B n
.
N L D
N W D
= = =

The problem assumed reasonable parameters. For such reasonable
parameters, we obtain a high current gain.
24
Approximate calculation: Base transport factor (PNP)

Thought experiment: Lets assume that the BC junction would not
influence the hole distribution. Warning: Strictly speaking, this is
incorrect assumption!
25
In this case, the following hole distribution would be obtained:

B 1
/ current ion recombinat Base W p Q
(24)

p 2
/ current Collector L p Q
(25)

(Note: In Eqs. 24 and 25, we use that W
B
<< L
P
)
26
It is

2 1
1
2
1
2 1
2
Ep
C
1 1 Q Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
I
I
B
+ =
+

= =

(26)

Using Eqs. (24), (25), and (26) one obtains:

p
B
1
L
W
B =
(27)

End of thought experiment.

Warning: This thought experiment is an oversimplification and the
result (Eq. 27) must not be used.
27
Exact hole distribution in the base (PNP)

Hole concentration at the emitter side of base

( ) ( )
kT eV kT eV
p p x p p
BE
0
BE
0
e 1 e 0
n n n E
= = =
(28)

Hole concentration at the collector side of base

( ) ( )
0
BC
0
n n B n
1 e p p W x p p
kT eV
C
= = =
(29)

note that V
BC
is negative

Eqs. (28) and (29) are the boundary conditions for the hole
concentration in the base

28
There is no electric field in the neutral region of the base. Therefore,
transport can be described by the diffusion equation

( )
( )
2
p
n
n
2
n
2
d
d
L
x p
x p
x
=
(30)

General solution of this equation is given by

( )
p n p n
e e
2 1 n
L x L x
C C x p

+ =
(31)

29
The constants C
1
and C
2
will be determined by using the boundary
conditions

( )
E 2 1 n
0 p C C x p = + = =
(32)

( )
C 2 1 B n
p B p B
e e p C C W x p
L W L W
= + = =

(33)

Solving Eqs. (32) and (33) for C
1
and C
2
yields
P B P B
P B
e e
e
E C
1
L W L W
L W
p p
C

=
(34)
P B P B
P B
e e
e
C E
2
L W L W
L W
p p
C

=
(35)

30
Insert the constants C
1
and C
2
into Eq. (31)

For
0
C
p
, the hole concentration in the base is given by

( )
P B P B
P n P B P n P B
e e
e e e e
E n
L W L W
L x L W L x L W
p x p

(36)

This function has an exponentially decreasing part and an
exponentially increasing part.

31

32
Discussion of slopes

Recall that the slope
( ) ] d / d [
n n
x x p
determines the diffusion current.

Slope is larger at x
n
= 0 as compared to x
n
= W
B
.

The difference in slope is due to recombination in base.

Approximation for exponential function:

For W
B
<< L
P
, we can expand the exponential function into a power
series:

...
x x
x
+ + + =
! 2 ! 1
1 e
2

33
Inserting this approximation into Eq. (36) and neglecting all quadratic and
higher terms in Eq. (36) yields

( )

=
B
n
E n
1
W
x
p x p
(37)

This equation represents the diffusion triangle in the base.

The strictly triangular shape is valid for negligible recombination in the
base.

34
Mathematics of exponential functions

Exponential function = Natural decay function

For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for
exponential functions and they are summarized below:

... 718 . 2
1
1 lim e =
+ =

n
n
n

...
x x x
x
+ + + + =
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1 e
3 2

Give some examples of natural (i. e. exponential) decays!

35

0
e : Function
0
x x
y y

=

0
0
0
d
d
: Slope
x
y
x
y
x
=
=

0 0 0
0
d e : Integral
0
x y x y
x x
=

36
Mathematics of hyperbolic exponential functions
For the next section, we need some mathematical relations for
hyperbolic exponential functions and they are summarized below:

( )
( )
x x
x x
x
x
+ =
=
e e cosh : function cos Hyperbolic
e e sinh : function sin Hyperbolic
2
1
2
1

(Note: Hyperbolic cos function is also called chain function. Why?)

x
x
x
x
x
x
sinh
cosh
coth : function cot Hyperbolic
cosh
sinh
tanh : function tan Hyperbolic
=
=

37

x
x
x
x
x x
x x
sinh
1
e e
2
cosech
: function cosecan Hyperbolic
cosh
1
e e
2
sech
: function secan Hyperbolic
=
=
=
+
=

38
Exact E, B, and C currents

We have calculated the hole distribution in the base and can now
calculate the currents of the three terminals E, B, and C by using the
equation:

( )
n
n
p
d
x p
x
d
D A e I =
(38)

Emitter current

Emitter current is obtained by using Eqs. (31), (34), (35), (38)

( ) ( )
1 2
p
p
n p Ep
0 C C
L
D
A e x I I = = =
(39)

39
=
P
B
C
P
B
E
p
p
Ep
cosech coth
L
W
p
L
W
p
L
D
A e I
(40)

Collector current

( ) ( )
P B P B
e e
1 2
p
p
B n p C
L W L W
C C
L
D
A e W x I I = = =

(41)

=
P
B
C
P
B
E
p
p
C
coth cosech
L
W
p
L
W
p
L
D
A e I
(42)

40
Base current

C Ep C E B
I I I I I =
(43)

( )
+ =
p
B
C E
p
p
B
2
tanh
L
W
p p
L
D
A e I
(44)

Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) are generally valid, i.e. for any bias
configuration and bias condition of the transistor. The equations can be
simplified for a transistor under regular operating conditions, which are

V
BE
= forward bias

V
CB
= reverse bias

41
Appropriate E, B, and C currents

V
BE
= forward bias p
E
0

V
CB
= reverse bias p
C
= 0

From Eqs. (40), (42), and (44) it follows that

p
B
E
p
p
Ep
coth
L
W
p
L
D
A e I =
(45)

Using
) 3 / ( ) / 1 ( coth x x x +
, one obtains

+ =
p
B
B
p
E
p
p
Ep
3L
W
W
L
p
L
D
A e I
(46)

42
Furthermore

p
B
E
p
p
C
cosech
L
W
p
L
D
A e I =
(47)

Using
) 6 / ( ) / 1 ( cosech x x x
, one obtains

=
p
B
B
p
E
p
p
C
6L
W
W
L
p
L
D
A e I
(48)

43
Finally

C Ep C E B
I I I I I =
(49)
+ =
p
B
p
B
E
p
p
6
1
3
1
L
W
L
W
p
L
D
A e
(50)

It follows that

E
p
B
E B
2
p
p
B
2
2
p
W
A e p W
L
D
A e I
= =
(51)
44
Base transport factor

Using Eqs. (45) and (47) we calculate

p
B
p B
p B
Ep
C
sech
) ( coth
) ( cosech
L
W
L W
L W
I
I
B = = =
(52)

Using
2
) 2 / 1 ( 1 sech x x
, one obtains

2
p
B
2
1
1

=
L
W
B
(53)

We now have a good expression for B.

Compare this to Eq. (27)! (Recall: Do not use Eq. 27)
45

We now have (i. e. the emitter efficiency, see Eq. 22) and B (i. e. the
base transport factor, see Eq. 53).

Since = B, we can calculate the current amplification of a transistor:

= =
2
p
2
B
A n p
D B n
2
1 1
L
W
N L D
N W D
B
(54)

46
Example

Problem: Calculate the Base Transport Factor for W
B
= 0.1 m and for
the following diffusion lengths:

(1) L
p
= 0.1 m and (2) L
p
= 1 m.

Solution: Calculating the base transport factor using

( )
2
p B
/ ) 2 / 1 ( 1 L W B =

yields

(1) B = 0.5 and (2) B = 0.995

47
Summary of operation regimes

Cutoff

V
BE
is too low to provide significant injection

Example:
Given is a transistor with

2 3 10
i
3 17
Base D,
2
p
B p
m 100 100 , cm 10
cm 10 , /s cm 10
m 1 . 0 , m 1
= =
= =
= =
A n
N D
W L

Calculate I
Ep
for V
BE
= 0.3 V!

48
A 10 6 . 1
cm 10 e e
9
B
P
E
P
P
Ep
3 8
D
2
i
n E
0
=
= = =
W
L
p
L
D
A e I
N
n
p p
kT eV kT eV

Calculate I
EP
for V
BE
= 0.7 V!

mA 9 . 8
cm 10 6 . 5
Ep
3 14
E
=
=

I
p

Forward active
Forward biased EB junction p
E
0
Reverse biased CB junction p
C
= 0
Diffusion triangle in base
49
Saturation

CB junction is forward biased as well. Simultaneous transistor action in
both directions, i. e. both diodes are forward biased.

If | V
BE
| > | V
CB
|, one obtains the following hole distribution in the base:

50
It is useful to consider the following thought experiment: Consider a
transistor with V
EB
= 0.7 V = const..

51
Curves are displaced by 0.7 V.

The I-V curves can be identified as a diode characteristic plus a
current from emitter.

52
Bridge between device physics and electrical circuit
Emitter
efficiency
()
Base
transport
factor (B)
Current
amplification
in common
base
configuration
()
Current
amplification
in common
emitter
configuration
()
Circuit parameters Device physics Material parameters
Mobilities
Lifetimes
Diffusion constants
Doping
concentrations
Physical constants
Material constants

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E. F.

Schubert, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2003

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