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Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 316 (2007) 372378 www.elsevier.com/locate/jmmm

Magnetostriction and magnetostrictive materials for sensing applications

Evangelos Hristoforoua,, Aphrodite Ktenab
a

Laboratory of Physical Metallurgy, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou Campus, Athens 15780, Greece b Technological Education Institute of Chalkis, Euboea 34400, Greece Available online 12 March 2007

Abstract In this paper, after an introduction to the basics of magnetostriction and magnetostrictive materials, some of their uses and applications are presented. New position sensors based on the magnetostriction effect and the magnetostrictive delay-line technique are presented with respect to their applicability in engineering systems. It is also shown that the magnetostriction effect can be used in measuring the M(H) and l(H) functions as well as their uniformity response. Finally, the so-called magnetoelectric effect is discussed as one of the major future trends of magnetostriction and magnetostrictive materials for sensing applications. r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
PACS: 75.60.Ej; 72.55.+s; 85.70.Ec Keywords: Magnetostriction; Magnetostrictive delay line; Magneto-electric effect

1. Introduction Magnetostriction, l, is dened as the phenomenon where a magnetic body shrinks or expands in the direction of the magnetization as a function of an applied magnetic eld [1]. It is measured as the % strain, l dl/l0, where l0 is the length of the material in its un-magnetized state, along a given direction, and dl the resulting strain; l can be positive or negative depending on whether the effect is expansive or compressive. The l dependence on H forms the magnetostriction function l(H) of the material and can be hysteretic or anhysteretic, following the magnetization process of the material. In many cases, the slope of l(H) or its eld derivative is more signicant than the saturation or engineering magnetostriction constant, ls, corresponding to the maximum % strain, usually appearing at the saturation eld Hs [2]. For this purpose, it may be useful to introduce one more material parameter, namely the l(H) slope and another constant, its mean value le, dened as the ratio between ls and Hs in ppm Oe1, which can serve

Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2107722178; fax: +30 2107722119.

E-mail address: eh@metal.ntua.gr (E. Hristoforou). 0304-8853/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jmmm.2007.03.025

as an indicator of the materials ability to generate magnetoelastic waves. At the atomic level, magnetostriction is related to the magnetization process with origins similar to those of the anisotropy [3]. It is the result of interactions between atomic magnetic moments in a crystal lattice and the elastic bond length. Inside the magnetic domains, the magnetic moments align with each other along the direction dictated by the local anisotropy under the inuence of the exchange interaction. This results in the maximization of l inside the magnetic domain, due to the shape anisotropy of the atomic volume. Ordinary magnetostriction, viewed as a static or quasistatic effect, reects the displacement of non1801 domain walls during the magnetization process: the new direction of the rotating magnetic moments is not parallel or anti-parallel to their initial state, as for the case of 1801 wall displacement, thus resulting in a spatial change of their atomic volume component along the direction of the applied eld [4]. Magnetostriction also involves rotation of domains, especially in high-frequency regimes, where domain wall motion is highly unlikely. The rotation and the resulting magnetostriction can be hysteretic due to Barkhausen jumps or anhysteretic because of small-angle rotation of magnetization.

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The domain-boundary motion or the domain rotation may force the material to deform along the direction that an effective eld is applied. The term effective eld describes the combined effect of the applied eld and anything, like stress or temperature that can cause a change in the magnetic conguration of the material. Thus, in the inverse magnetostriction effect, the stress effective eld is responsible for the domain-wall displacement or the magnetic-domain rotation along its direction or perpendicular to it, depending on the positive or negative sign of l, respectively. The direct use of magnetostriction or inverse magnetostriction refers to the use of the material deformation or the inuence of the stress effective eld, respectively, to measure a physical parameter involved. Research work took place the last decades towards the understanding of the mechanisms of magnetostriction and using them for sensing applications. The Villari effect is closely related to the inverse magnetostriction effect: the magnetic state of the material changes as a function of an external mechanical stress. It is mostly used in stress and torsion sensors [5]. Magnetostriction also inuences all other inductive or transport magnetic effects. The Matteucci effect refers to the generation of a voltage pulse across a magnetostrictive wire being magnetized by an axial AC eld while torsion is being applied: the application of torsion couples the longitudinal ux Fl to the circumferential ux Fc inducing a voltage drop Vm at its ends. The effect is maximized when helical domain structure is introduced by postmanufacturing treatment. The Matteucci effect is used in mechanical sensor applications [6]. The Wiedemann effect is implemented when a wire inside an axial magnetic eld Hz carries an AC current I, resulting in helicoidal technical magnetization. The magnetization can be depicted as output voltage at the ends of a detecting coil set around the wire. The inverse Wiedemann effect, implemented in several sensing arrangements [7], consists in the appearance of a longitudinal component of magnetization in a twisted wire that is being subjected to a circular magnetic eld generated by an AC current I owing through it. Another example is the domain-wall nucleation and propagation in amorphous wires due to the reversal magnetization process, enhanced by the presence of inner single-directional domains due to the magnetostriction inuence [8], allowing the development of mechanical sensors [9]. Recently, the effect of magnetostriction on the magnetotransport phenomena has been studied, with particular emphasis on the magneto-inductance and magneto-impedance effects [10]. The conrmation of the stress dependence of the magneto-impedance effect has given rise to miniaturized stress sensors [11]. There are cases where magnetostriction is undesirable, because it may introduce additional power losses, like in electrical machines and transformers [12], or increased level of noise in inductive or magneto-transport sensors [13]. For this purpose, proper thermal, eld, stress-eld or stress-

current treatments are suggested targeting the minimization of magnetostriction [14]. 2. Magnetostrictive materials All magnetic materials are essentially magnetostrictive, and can be classied either according to their magnetostriction constant ls or according to the underlying deformation mechanism. Classical magnetostrictive materials in the shape of wires, tapes, lms and bulk alloys, have l values from as low as a few ppb up to a few decades ppm and include FeCoNi-rich alloys [15]. They are characterized by a hysteretic or anhysteretic l(H) response, which can be controlled by the composition and the post-manufacturing treatment. Macroscopically, a non-hysteretic l(H) function and relatively high levels of le and ls are required for magnetostriction-based sensors. For this purpose, amorphous phases including FeCoNi as well as metalloids, such as Si, B or P and sometimes other early transition metals are preferred. In these materials, especially after the post-manufacturing treatment, the domain wall motion may take place reversibly, offering an almost anhysteretic l(H) response with quite high ls and le constants. Such a typical amorphous magnetostrictive material is the Fe78Si8B15 alloy in ribbon, wire or glass covered wire form with ls up to 100 ppm and le as high as 100 ppm Oe1. Nanocrystalline materials grown out of an amorphous phase, through the addition of Al, Cu and Nb, have controllable magnetostriction values that usually can decrease down to a few ppb [16]. They are purposefully designed with high remanence, low coercivity and magnetostriction, in order to be used in electromagnets, electric machines and transformers as well as sensing cores in inductive sensors like uxgates [6]. On the contrary, a large hysteretic response accompanied by uncommonly high levels of saturation elds may also be desired for given types of magnetic bar codes for security systems or position sensors [17]. Magnetostriction as high as 10002000 ppm has also been observed in another class of materials namely the rare-earthmetalloid compounds, with Terfenol (TbFe) being a characteristic representative of this family [18]. The big localized magnetic moments of the 4f element occupy sites of Fe pinning the domain wall propagation and leading to large expansions of magnetic volumes at high H values. This is the reason why any treatment of the material cannot signicantly affect the hysteresis in magnetostriction behavior, focusing their use in magnetic actuators. They are employed as the actuating cores of the sonars used in sub-sonic under-water detection [19], as speakers and antivibration controllers as well as in microactuators, sensor devices based on cantilever effect [20]. (Ferro)magnetic-shaped memory alloys (MSMAs) are alloys yielding deformations up to 10%. They combine the

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high material strength and elasticity of classical SMAs with the contact-less and high-frequency and efciency control allowed by the magnetic eld actuation. They are relatively new materials with possible applications more in the eld of actuation and switching rather than sensing. The magnetostriction in this case is due to a martensitic to austenitic phase transformation and vise versa, under the effect of an applied eld in the order of several kOe in a large range of frequencies [21,22]. The last two categories of magnetostrictive materials are the composite and synthetic materials. Composite materials consist of magnetic particles with shape anisotropy embedded in an elastomer matrix. The magnetostrictive effect in these materials depends on the magnetic inclusions and their interactions. The application of an applied eld stretches or shrinks the elastic material through the change in orientation of the magnetic particles. Alternatively, the application of stress alters the magnetization of the composites. These materials may nd applications in stress sensing and actuating [23,24]. Synthetic magnetostrictive materials are heterostructures consisting of rare earth/ transition metal sandwiches, e.g. YCo/GdCo/YCo or TbCo/NdCo/TbCo. The layers of about 100 nm each are antiferromagnetically coupled. The magnetization processes are dominated by the extended domain-wall mechanism [25]. 3. Magnetostrictive delay lines The dynamic deformation of a material due to the magnetization process results in the generation, propagation and detection of magnetoelastic waves throughout the medium, a phenomenon utilized in the magnetostrictive delay line (MDL) technique. The parameters affecting the MDL operation are the pulsed excitation eld He, the biasing elds at the point of origin and the search point as well as the applied stresses on the MDL. Changing one of these parameters can result in the modication of the amplitude of the received pulsed output voltage and therefore in a sensing element. All kinds of positive and negative magnetostrictive materials, like ribbons, wires, glass-covered wires, thin lms and composites may be used in the MDL arrangements. Details of such the MDL operation and the corresponding sensing applications can be found in Ref. [26]. 3.1. A universal position sensor based on MDLs MDL position sensors have been thoroughly investigated in the past, with interesting results in the eld of sensing the position of either a permanent magnet [27] or a soft magnetic disk [28] or a conducting disk [29]. All the above-mentioned sensors are cordless and exhibit a monotonic and anhysteretic response and some of them can be realized in 2-D set-ups. The commercially available MDL position sensors mainly refer to the permanent magnet position measurement:

a straight and usually cylindrical conductor is covered by a magnetostrictive material, usually being in a tubular shape, serving as an MDL. When pulsed current is transmitted through the conductor, and in the presence of a permanent magnet, a transverse elastic pulse is generated. The delay time required for the detection of this pulse determines the position of the permanent magnet [30]. Such a device does not fulll the requirements of a universal position sensor, able to detect the position of various kinds of moving magnets and various ranges of measurement. The most signicant problem is that for given amplitudes of biasing eld corresponding to certain types of permanent magnets, as well as given geometries of the MDL waveguide, the above-mentioned transverse elastic pulse results in the generation and propagation of pseudo-longitudinal elastic pulses, which travel faster than the transverse elastic waves and therefore give wrong information for the position of the permanent magnet. To face these problems, we have developed the following sensor [31], illustrated in Fig. 1. The sensing element comprises of a magnetostrictive ribbon or wire, in the shape of an acoustic waveguide, acting as an MDL. A pair of parallel conductors is set parallel to the MDL in a way to include the MDL between them; because they are used to transmit pulsed current, they are called pulsed current conductors. The two pulsed current conductors and the MDL are forming a at level, on top of which a soft magnetic ribbon or tape is set, acting as ux concentrator and eddy current generator. The sensing core is a permanent magnet, which is moving parallel to the at arrangement of the MDL, i.e. the pulsed current conductors and the soft magnetic material. A conductor connects the one-side ends of the two pulsed current conductors at the one end of the sensing element, to allow pulsed current transmission. The other end of the sensing element is connected to the electronic circuitry, including the circuitry for the transmission of pulsed current to the pulsed current conductors, as well as the search coil surrounding the MDL, connected with the circuitry for the conditioning, digitization and transmission of the output signal. The sensor operates as follows: pulsed current is transmitted through the pulsed current conductors, invoking

Fig. 1. The new position sensing element: (1) pulsed current conductor, (2) magnetostrictive delay line, (3) soft magnetic material, (4) moving permanent magnet and (5) search coil.

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transverse-pulsed magnetic eld along the magnetostrictive element. Such a transverse-pulsed magnetic eld does not generate elastic pulses into the magnetostrictive element, but induces eddy currents into the soft magnetic ribbon or tape. In the absence of the moving permanent magnet, these eddy currents are equally spread in the soft magnetic material and generate microstrains along the MDL, which cancel each other everywhere except at the boundaries of the soft magnetic material. Hence, two elastic pulses are generated and propagate along the MDL, received by the search coil as two discrete pulses, dening the two edges of the effective area of the position sensor. In the presence of the moving permanent magnet, an amount of magnetic ux is induced at a given volume of the soft magnetic ribbon or tape, changing (usually decreasing) the magnetic permeability at this volume. Therefore, the variation of the penetration depth of this volume gives rise to a local eddy current asymmetry, inducing a local pulsed eld along the length of the MDL. Thus, a longitudinal elastic pulse is generated propagating along the MDL, which is detected by the search coil as a pulsed voltage with a delay time proportional to the distance between permanent magnet and search coil. The speed of motion of the permanent magnet depends on the period of the transmitted pulsed current. The amplitude of the detected pulsed voltage may also inform about the proximity of the permanent magnet to the MDL. Typical sensor output waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 2. The soft magnetic tape or ribbon is rmly set on top of the at conductorMDL arrangement. Thus, the jittering of the moving magnet, being at a larger distance than the soft magnetic tape or ribbon from the MDL, causes a

10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Measuring length (mm) ribbon wire 16 18 20

Fig. 3. Uncertainty measurement of the position sensor using as-cast amorphous Fe78Si7B15 wire and magnetically annealed Ni3Fe polycrystalline ribbon.

smaller jittering of the above-mentioned pulsed eddy currents. Thus, the uncertainty of the position of the eddy currents is smaller than the uncertainty of the position of the moving magnet. This allows for lower uncertainty level of our sensor. Indeed, the obtained uncertainty of our setup is of the order of 10 mm, as illustrated in Fig. 3, compared to the 100 mm uncertainty level obtained with the given state of the art [32]. The sensing element can be manufactured in a continuous production line by using extrusion techniques, polycrystalline Fe-rich wires as MDLs and enamelled copper wires as pulsed current conductors, thus allowing for a production speed of the order of 100 km/h, a typical extruder speed. The diameter of these wires is of the order of 100150 mm, allowing for the use of commercially available CD driver reading coils. When a sensor of a given length is asked, the sensing element assembly is cut at the required length and the one end of the pulsed current conductors is connected to the excitation circuitry, followed by the insertion of the corresponding MDL end in the search coil, while the pulsed current conductors of the other end are electrically connected. The sensor can be used as a position and displacement sensor in pneumatic devices, since they usually have a permanent magnet at the ends of their pistons. It can also serve as a level indicator in liquids and absolute ground velocity sensor. Such possible applications are illustrated in Fig. 4. 3.2. Using MDLs for the measurement of magnetic properties The MDL technique can also be used for the determination of magnetic properties of magnetostrictive materials. According to a model developed in the past [33], the determination of the static M(H) and l(H) loops as well as their uniformity becomes possible by using the MDL technique. According to this model, the dependence of the MDL output voltage Vo on the bias eld at the search coil

10 s
Fig. 2. Typical sensor output waveform: (a) using amorphous Fe78Si7B15 wire as MDL and Fe74Co4Si7B15 amorphous ribbon after magnetic annealing as soft magnetic material, (b) using amorphous Fe78Si7B15 wire as MDL and Ni3Fe polycrystalline ribbon after magnetic annealing as soft magnetic material, (c) using polycrystalline Fe wire as MDL and Fe74Co4Si7B15 amorphous ribbon after magnetic annealing as soft magnetic material and (d) using polycrystalline Fe wire as MDL and Ni3Fe polycrystalline ribbon after magnetic annealing as soft magnetic material.

Uncertainty (microns)

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1

3
Normalized M(H) loop

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 -2000 -1500 -1000 0 -500 -0.2 0 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 Biasing field (A/m) 500 1000 1500 2000

3 3 1 2 1 -v C A B v 3

1 6

5 C 4 A

Fig. 5. Normalized magnetization loop of a Fe78Si7B15 amorphous wire after stress-current annealing.

30 25 Magnetization (a.u.) 20 15 10 5

Fig. 4. Applications of the sensor: (a) measuring position of a moving pneumatic piston, with respect to a steady position sensor, (b) measuring the absolute ground velocity of a moving magnetic body and (c) measuring liquid level. (1) Moving permanent magnet, (2) moving piston, (3) groove able to hold the sensor and the electronic board, (4) tank with liquid, (5) surface of liquid of the tank, (6) oater on top of liquid. (A) Position sensing element, (B) sensor electronic board and (C) sensor terminations.

Hr is proportional to the magnetic permeability dependence m on Hr and the Vo dependence on the biasing eld at the excitation region Ho is proportional to the l(H) function. Figs. 5 and 6 show indicative results concerning the dependence of the magnetization on the biasing eld H, for amorphous Fe78Si7B15 wire, after stress-current annealing under 400 MPa and 0.5 A for 10 min and for partially crystalline Fe78Si7B15 ribbon. The peculiar bi-stable response of the as-cast Fe78Si7B15 wires has also been observed. Figs. 7 and 8 illustrate the DC and AC normalized l dependence on H, respectively, of an as-cast amorphous Fe78Si7B15 ribbon. The method can be considered as an alternative vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) technique, the MDLVSM technique. The main advantage with respect to the classic VSM is the by-design ability of measuring the nonuniformity of M(H) and l(H) function. There is also no need to cut the sample in pieces as in the case of the VSM. The described technique can also be used to measure the M(H) loop of any magnetostrictive element, by gluing it on a glass substrate [34]. Controlling the temperature of the set-up, the dependence of the m(H), M(H) and l(H) loops on temperature can be determined. Changing the biasing eld with a frequency less than 1 kHz, corresponding to the pulsed current excitation period, the dependence of m(H), M(H) and l(H) loops on frequency may also be determined. Temporal dependence tests of m(H), M(H) and l(H) loops may also be performed. Future work is under way to improve and calibrate the instrument with greater precision.

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Biasing field (A/m)

Fig. 6. Magnetization loop (in a.u.) of a partially crystalline ribbon.

1.2 Normalized (H) function

0.8

0.4

0 -1000 -500 0 Biasing field (A/m)

Fig. 7. Normalized DC l(H) loop for as-cast amorphous Fe78Si7B15 ribbon.

500

1000

4. Future trends of magnetostriction 4.1. Combination of electrostriction and magnetostriction Although the magnetostriction has been successfully used for the realization of load cells [35], torque meters

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1.2 Normalized (H) function 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -500 0 500 Biasing field (A/m)

material can be the sensing core of an inductive arrangement, used for blood coagulation and resin curing time measurement. 4.2. Using magnetostriction for the understanding of magnetics Magnetostriction may also be useful as a complementary tool towards the studies of basic magnetism and the development of a complete atomic level theory of magnetism and magnetic materials. Static and dynamic magnetostrictive measurements, together with magneto-inductive and magneto-transport measurements are the basic tools for the determination of magnetic properties. Using these data together with structural and microstructural characterization of magnetic substances may offer a new rst principles theory of magnetism and magnetization process [49]. References
[1] E. du Tremolet de Lacheisserie, Magnetostriction: Theory and Applications of Magnetoelasticity, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994. [2] A.P. Thomas, M.R.J. Gibbs, J.H. Vincent, S.J. Ritchie, IEEE Trans. Magn. 27 (1991) 5247. [3] S. Chikazumi, Physics of Magnetism, Wiley, New York, 1964, p. 265. [4] J. Olivera, M. Provencio, V.M. Prida, B. Hernando, J.D. Santos, rez, P. Gorria, M.L. Sa nchez, F.J. Belzunce, J. Magn. Magn. M.J. Pe Mater. 294 (2005) e163. [5] A. Biekowski, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 215/216 (2000) 231. [6] P. Ripka (Ed.), Meas. Sci. Technol. 13 (2002). [7] E. Pulido, R.P. del Real, F. Conde, G. Rivero, M. Vazquez, E. Ascasibar, A. Hernando, IEEE Trans. Magn. 27 (1991) 5241. [8] M. Takajo, J. Yamasaki, F.B. Humphrey, IEEE Trans. Magn. 35 (1999) 3904. [9] M. Vazquez, C. Gomez-Polo, D.X. Chen, A. Hernando, IEEE Trans. Magn. 30 (1994) 907. n, A. Hernando, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 268 (2004) [10] J.M. Barandiara 309. [11] L.V. Panina, K. Mohri, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 157/158 (1996) 137. [12] A. Makino, T. Bitoh, A. Kojima, A. Inoue, T. Masumoto, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 304306 (2001) 1083. nchez, G.V. Kurlyandskaya, B. Hernando, V.M. Prida, J.D. [13] M.L. Sa Santos, M. Tejedor, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 106 (2003) 195. [14] A.P. Thomas, M.R.J. Gibbs, P.T. Squire, IEEE Trans. Magn. 26 (1990) 1403. [15] R. Hasegawa, in: R. Hasegawa (Ed.), Glassy Metals: Magnetic Chemical and Structural Properties, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1983. [16] G. Herzer, IEEE Trans. Magn. 26 (1990) 1397. [17] T. Reininger, F. Welker, M. von Zeppelin, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 129 (2006) 270. [18] A.G. Jenner, J.P. Hayes, L.A. Stone, H.V. Snelling, R.D. Greenough, Appl. Surf. Sci. 138/139 (1999) 408. [19] R. Chung, R. Weber, D.C. Jiles, IEEE Trans. Magn. 27 (1991) 5358. [20] M.R.J. Gibbs, E.W. Hill, P.J. Wright, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 37 (22) (2004) R237. [21] O. Heczko, V.A. Lvov, L. Straka, S.-P. Hannula, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 302 (2006) 387. [22] M. Pasquale, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 106 (13) (2003) 142. [23] G. Ausanio, A.C. Barone, C. Hison, V. Iannotti, C. Luponio Jr., L. Lanotte, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 129 (2006) 25.

-2000 -1500 -1000

1000

1500

2000

Fig. 8. Normalized AC l(H) loop for as-cast amorphous Fe78Si7B15 ribbon.

[36,37], pressure gauges [38], tensile stress sensors [39], thinlm thickness sensors [40] and dynamic stress sensors [41], a recently developed technique often referred to as the magnetoelectric (ME) effect may be of importance, opening up a new research area [42]. The history of the ME effect and related materials starts in 1894, when Curie stated that an asymmetric molecular body may be polarized directionally under the inuence of a magnetic eld [43]. In 1940, Landau and Lifshitz [44] proved the presence of the ME effect in antiferromagnetic Cr2O3. Rado and Folen demonstrated the electric polarization due to the presence of the magnetic eld [45]. The ME effect can also be realized by coupling the thermal interaction in pyroelectricpyromagnetic composites [46]. The necessary requirement for the ME effect is the coexistence of magnetic and electric dipoles in two separate phases without mismatching between the different grains belonging to the two different phases. There has to be no leakage from the electrically charged grains to the magnetostrictive phase and of course optimization of the ME effect is gained by optimizing the coefcients of the magnetostrictive and the piezoelectric phase. There are two main categories exhibiting the ME effect: single-phase or ordered materials and composites. In ordered structure lms, separate ferroelectric and ferromagnetic thin-lm layers offer an ME voltage coefcient of the order of 120 mV Oe1 cm1. In properly developed composite materials, this coefcient may be over 100 times larger than in ordered structure ME materials [47]. At present, various families of composites have been reported such as Ni(Co,Mn)Fe2O4BaTiO3, CoFe2O4BaTiO3, NiFe2O4BaTiO3, LiFe5O8BaTiO3, CoFe204Bi4Ti3O12, etc. [48]. The realization of the ME effect by using magnetostrictive materials may result in the development of very sensitive stress sensors. The blood coagulation and chemical liquids curing time measurements can be better implemented using such a material. One can develop a sandwich of electrostrictive and magnetostrictive layers or a composite material including both phases, in order to realize a structure sensitive to surface stresses. Such a

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