SOME CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT OVERFLUXING IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

Carlos A. de Moura Saraiva

Electrical and Mechanical Engineer - Consultant

1.0 – Introduction

The literature on this subject is extensive and written mostly from the system protection point of view:
what protective system shall be used, what are the applicable relays to be used, etc (1). In writing these
considerations our aim is mainly to inform what happen to the transformer during the occurrence of an
overexcitation condition in an emergency situation like a load rejection or load shedding. On the other
hand gathering practical information on this matter is relatively time consuming and difficult to get since
usually it is published in conference proceedings, seminars, etc, many times not easily available to get
by the practicing engineer. Many of these papers are from research work of transformer manufacturers
and other institutions.

More serious concern about this problem started by the end of 1965 when a great number of power
transformers failures occurred during a blackout in the northeastern part of the United States. After this
event, from 1966 to 1968, many papers appeared in the literature in USA and abroad, bringing some
light over their basics, causes and how to cope with it, how to protect transformers against it and most
important introducing in the applicable standards some recommendations over the magnitudes and
duration of the overvoltages, under or over frequency that the transformers should be subjected and
withstand followed a condition of overexcitation (3,4).

2.0 – Understanding the problem

During a power system emergency disturbance, for instance, a load rejection or load shedding, the
transformers may be subjected to overvoltage or underfrequency resulting in a condition usually called
overexcitation, also known as overfluxing, or a state of greater than rated flux density in the transformer
core exceeding the maximum allowed limit set by the equipment designer. In our opinion the term
overfluxing is more appropriate than overexcitation. The causes of overfluxing are mainly due to 60 Hz
temporary overvoltages accompanied by over or underfrequency in cases of sudden loss of load
especially in step up transformers. Ferroresonance due to inrush currents and harmonics can cause
severe overvoltages that can result in overfluxing. It is good practice to be borne in mind that
overexcitation is a rather common condition during the operation of a transformer as very well explained
in the paper of Eberth, J. A(2).

Normally transformers are designed for flux densities ranging usually between 1,55 T to 1,75 T at rated
voltage and frequency.

Saturation flux density in the core happen when flux density reach values equal to or greater than 1,9 T
depending on the design criteria, type and grade of silicon steel used etc. Experiments shows that if the
flux density is increased to 2.1 T the temperature of pressed clamps plates of the core reach value of
100 °C in approximately 1 minute.

Once the transformer core gets into saturation the flux density B remains constant and the excitation
current increases as voltage rises. Remembering that for silicon steel core we have: B=μ.H, where B is
the flux density in Tesla, μ is the permeability of the core material in SI units, H is the field intensity in
A/m. The permeability is the property of the magnetic material that allows increasing the flux density
produced by the current within the magnetic material. The higher the permeability, the higher the flux
density for a given magneto-motive force F. In accordance with Ampere law the total magneto-motive
force along any closed path, like a transformer core, is equal to the total current enclosed by that path:
F= ∫ Hdl = NI
Where F is the total magneto-motive force (in Amperes) along a path of length l (m), H is field intensity
(A/m), and I, is the total current enclosing the N turns of the path.

The plot of the saturation curve B=μ.H is a straight line passing through the origin and the permeability is
the slope of the straight line portion of the curve from the origin up to the saturation point or knee point.
Above the knee point B remains constant no matter how much you increase H or the exciting current.
See figure below7. The higher the slope of the straight line the higher will be the permeability. Above the
knee point the core is in a saturation state and the core no longer performs its function and the
transformer fail to do its work.

The flux density in the core B is directly proportional to the applied voltage U to the winding and inversely
proportional to the frequency f of the excitation voltage, to the number of turns N of the corresponding
winding and to the cross section A of the core. From the expression of the induced voltage in the
transformer winding:
U = 2πf NAB / 2 = 4,44 B N f A, we can easily find an expression for B such as:

U 1
B ≅ . (1)
f N .A

With this expression turns out easy to find the value of B for any voltage and a given frequency and
ampere-turn chose. This is the starting expression for calculation of a transformer.

Let us see what is the effect of an increase in voltage followed by a decrease in frequency in the
operation of a transformer. Suppose we have a transformer with rated voltage of 230 kV, 60 Hz and the
system voltage increase to 245 kV. Assume also that the frequency drop by 6% in relation to the rated
frequency of 60 Hz to 56.4 Hz. What will be flux density in the core in this case?

245 1
B56,4 Hz = xK (2) , where K =
56,4 N. A

230
B60 Hz =
B .K (3)
60

245 60
Dividing (2) by (3) we get: B56,4 Hz = . . B60 Hz = 1.065 x 1.064 x B60 Hz = 1.133 x B60 Hz
B

230 56,4

Assuming B60 Hz = 1,7 T, we have: B56,4 Hz = 1.133 x 1.7 = 1.93 T, and the transformer is in a saturation
state.

As you can see the above example shows how easy a transformer can get into saturation. Let us explore
a bit more what happens once the saturation occurs.

The magnetic field in a transformer can store energy and the energy density in joules/m3 is given the
expression w = ∫ H .dB , where B is flux density in T. Note that the energy is equal to the area of the
 1
curve B = f (H). Since B=μ.H, dB = μdH and we have w = μ HdH = ∫ 2
μ0 H2 joules/m3, where μ0 is the

permeability of free space equal to μ0 = 4π x 10 −7 units in SI system. If the magnetic circuit volume is
1
A. l , where l is the mean length of circuit, the total energy in the volume is W = μ0 H2 A. l . But since
2
1
H l = NI we have W= μ0 N2I2 A/ l . This energy is stored in the core air gaps, insulation between
2
conductors and anywhere in the flux path. If the core saturates the permeability is close to zero and an
increase in excitation voltage increases the excitation current far beyond acceptable limits and as
consequence the leakage or stray flux as well. Therefore since the total energy in the magnetic circuit is
proportional to the current squared the energy transformed in heat can damage the transformer due to
overheating of the core clamps and other structural parts, which if is in contact with insulation can burn it
and a failure may occur. In saturation state the stray flux also increases and cause an increase in the
transformer core losses.
1 2
The total energy in the magnetic circuit can also be expressed by W = LI where L is the winding
2
inductance. Equating this expression to the total energy equation above we can derive an expression for
the winding inductance:
L = μ0N2 A/ l .

If the core saturates the permeability is very close to zero and as consequence the reactance of the coil
decreases. This drop in reactance will increase the current, which may cause overheating in the
conductors. If in addition to the overvoltage the frequency also drops below the rated frequency the
expected effect is more severe since the inductive reactance will decrease with frequency, which in turn
will increase the current even more.

With the current rise due to the overvoltage following a load rejection, for instance, the stored energy in
the magnetic field may cause over temperature mainly in non laminated parts of the core structure such
as pressure core or winding clamps, bolts and nuts, etc. The increase of temperature on these parts is
very fast and may reach easily more than 130 °C in a few seconds. If there is insulation adjacent to
these parts like pressboard, insulated paper or tapes damages can occur. Another consequence of
overheating at this temperature is oil gassing which can be detected in gas in oil analysis.

Core overheating due to circulating currents and stray flux usually generates H2, CH4, C2H6 and C2H4.
Therefore is good practice to monitor the presence of these gases after evidence of overfluxing due to
load rejections and load shedding of system and generator transformers.

Since overfluxing occur for short periods of time the heat produced in the metallic parts of the
transformer is stored in those parts and is not thermally dissipated to the cooling media. Therefore the
bad thing about overfluxing is that the transformer may be subjected to thermal damage, which is a
cumulative process and, what is worse is that the thermal damage once occurred do not regenerative,
i.e. the damage is permanent. Transformers can operate on a short time basis during overexcitation
conditions, but damages may occur in a relatively short period of time therefore necessitating urgent
protective actions. On the other hand core laminations is seldom damaged for the inter laminar insulation
can easily withstand high temperatures in the region of 800 °C, that is the annealed temperature used in
manufacture of silicon steel. On the other hand insulation adjacent to core like pressboard and paper,
which have insulation classes A (105 °C) and B (130 °C) may be damaged. The exciting current of the
core in saturation state is rich of harmonics. These harmonics increase the eddy current losses and
temperature in windings.

Eddy currents are the currents induced in conductors in a magnetic field - such as the iron core. The
inside of a conductor looks like a shorted transformer turn to the magnetic field, so the currents can be
large, and can cause substantial heating, as in the core losses.

Of equal importance is the increase of the stray loss due to the leakage flux in the windings, core clamps
and other parts. Stray loss can be a very serious problem in large GSU transformers. The stray loss is
composed of the hysteresis plus core loss. The applicable expression for the hysteresis loss is given by:
 Ph = K1 f Bn, where n = 1.6 to 2.

The eddy current loss is given by: PE = K2 B2 f2 t2, where t is the thickness of the core laminations and B
and f are flux density and frequency, respectively.

As can be seen both losses varies with flux density and frequency and therefore increases if the core is
in the overfluxing state.

The Hysteresis loss can be reduced with the use of low core loss silicon steel and the Eddy loss is
reduced choosing low lamination thickness silicon steel plates.
The study of the above mentioned losses in a very complicated issue and object of a lot of research
work. To the interested reader ref. 5 and 6 treat the subject with quite depth.

3.0 – Standard Requirements

According to present standards such as IEC, ANSI and others, transformers capability shall be as
follows:

a) Operating continuously above rated voltage or below rated frequency, at maximum rated kVA for any
tap, without exceeding the limits of observable temperature rise in accordance with the applicable
standard with all of the following conditions satisfied:
1) Secondary voltage and volts per hertz do not exceed 105% of rated values;
2) Load power factor shall be 80% or higher;
3) Frequency is at least 95% of rated value. In the case of 60 Hz the minimum frequency is 57 Hz;

b) Operating continuously above rated voltage or below rated frequency, on any tap at no load, without
exceeding limits of observable temperature rise when neither the voltage nor volts per hertz exceed
110% of rated values.

For system voltage and load current other than these limits the transformer can be operated in
accordance with the formula given below:

I 2
U = [1.1 – 0.05( ( ) ]. UN
IN
Where:
UN is the rated voltage of the primary winding;
I is the actual load current of the secondary winding;
IN is the rated current of the secondary winding.

From the above expression it can be seen that if the load current is greater than the nominal the
corresponding voltage shall be less than the rated voltage. Note that the above expression is valid for
any tap, therefore care shall be taken to avoid overexcitation of the transformer if the tapping voltage is
greater than the nominal. Very frequently, with high secondary voltages, the system operators don’t
change the tap of the DETC and thus cause core overexcitation. This is a very common situation, which
deserve great attention to avoid failure due to overheating. For more detailed information on this
particular ref. 2 can be very useful.

In the Standards on transformers the overvoltages appearing across the transformer terminals are
classified according to their duration. For overfluxing IEC 60076 – Part 1 states that the transformer shall
withstand an overvoltage of 1.4 pu for 5 s. Depending on system study conditions on the power system
users different figures, such as 1.5 pu for 2 s and others. Care shall be exercised if this happen because
this may increase the transformer cost. As a Guide for permissible overfluxing of transformer a curve plot
of expression (1) given above can be useful. See figure 1(8).

The standards do not set limits for the core induction. The maximum induction limit is usually of 1.93 T
for the step lap cores and 1.9 T for non-step lap cores made with CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented)
silicon steel and 1.95 T for Hi-B material according to many authors (6).
The maximum saturation flux density is a design parameter that is up to manufacturer to decide based
on the customer specifications and we think that is the reason why the standards do not set limits for this
subject.

Another point, which deserves attention from the users, is regarding the maximum temperature allowed
for the core surface and maximum hot spot temperature inside the core. In one study committee of the
IEEE transformer standards there is a proposal to limit to 125 °C the core surface temperature at rated
load and to 130 °C in the highest overfluxing condition at full load for transformer filled with mineral
insulating oil in order to avoid the generation of gasses in the core. The predicted location of the core hot
spot is its center, or between cooling ducts of the upper part of the core. The purpose to set the above
limits is to avoid gas generation is this area caused by overheating. As we said the above information as
far as we know is only a proposal. The actual fact is that no standards at present, IEC, ANSI and our
ABNT Standards set limits for the above.

References:

1- Transformer overfluxing protection.

Report of Study Committee nº 34 – Electra nº 31 – CIGRÉ;

2- Power Transformer Operation at Over and Underexcitation, Benefits and Consequences;

John A. Ebert, IEEE Life Senior Member, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, Nº 1, January 2000;

3- GET-3237 – Operation of Power Transformers during major power system disturbances.

W. J. McNutt – Power Transformer Department – General Electric Company

4- Alexander, G. W, Corbin, S. L, McNutt, W. J., Influence of Design and Operating Practices on

Excitation of Generator Step-up Transformers.
IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-85, Nº 8, 1966;
5- J. Barranger, Hysteresis and Eddy-Current Losses of a Transformer Lamination Viewed as an
Application of the Poynting Theorem.
NASA Technical Note TN D-3114. Available in the web.

6- S. V. Kulkarni, S. A. Khaparde – Transformer Engineering Design and Practice. Book.

2004 – Marcel Dekker, Inc.

7- Mansoor – Transformers In and Out. Book.

8- General Electric Pamphlet – Power System Engineering Course, Class Notes-Schenectady,
NY-1973.