ME 3162 (II)

Part 3: Tool Materials

Introduction
Tool developments are often used to signify the stages of cultural development and progress of a civilization.
Estimated period (years) l,000,000 800,000 100,000 40,000 8,000 B.C. 5,500 B.C. 3,000 B.C. 1,400 B.C. Cultural stage Pre-Paleolithic Lower-Paleolithic Middle-Paleolithic Upper-Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic Bronze Age Iron Age Agricultural implements and animal domestication Use of bronze elements Use of metal and beginning of modem cutting tools Types of tools used Crude usage of stone Stone implements chopping tools Transitional blending of ancient tool types Blades, files, fine flakes

Tools as indicator of progress of civilization

Introduction
Greater output per man-hour means lower cost per product as well as higher wages. With better cutting tools, the productivity per man-hour can be considerably increased.
Year Men % Energy Supplied by Animal% Power % Total Tool Investment (billion dollars) Output per Man-hour (dollars)

1850 1900 1920 1940 1950

23 15 8 4 4

53 33 11 3 2

26 52 81 93 94

7 15.5 20 33

0.27 0.56 0.70 0.97 1.21

Correlation between Total Investment and Output per Man-Hour (Based on the USA data : 'Civilization through Cutting Tools')

Basic Requirements of Tool Materials (Metal Cutting)

1. 2. 3. High-temperature (physical and chemical) stability particularly high-temperature or hot hardness. High abrasion wear resistance (AWR) High resistance to brittle fracture (RBF), or toughness (HTS),

High performance in all of these three attributes is generally not possible. For example, materials with increased high-temperature resistance and high wear resistance will also have reduced resistance to brittle fracture.

Basic Requirements of Tool Materials (Metal Cutting)

1. 2. 3. High-temperature (physical and chemical) stability particularly high-temperature or hot hardness. High abrasion wear resistance (AWR) High resistance to brittle fracture (RBF), or toughness (HTS),

Fig. 1 Fig. 1
Tungsten Carbide Titanium Carbide

HighHigh-Speed Steel

Fi 2

Basic Requirements of Tool Materials

Other factors which influence the performance of cutting tools are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Relative hardness of the tool and work material Abrasive particles, such as scales, on the surface of the workpiece Chemical compatibility of the tool and work material Cutting temperature Condition of the machine tool, rigidity, for example Type of machining operation, in particular whether continuous or interrupted cuts occur, which is important for materials with a low resistance to brittle fracture.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Cutting speeds for different tool materials

Tool materials Cutting speed (m/min) 20 - 40 80 200 200 400 200 500 300 - 1000

HSS WC Ceramic CBN Diamond

Tool Configuration and Materials

Integral to the tool or as attached inserts.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

1. Carbon Tool Steel - Softens at 250 C, used for machining soft materials, as in woodworking. Up to 1870, tools in use were all of this type. The chief characteristics: low hot hardness and poor hardenability. A typical composition: carbon 0-8~13%, silicon 0.1~0.4%, manganese 0.1~0.4%. The higher the carbon content, the greater will be the hardness and the wear resistance.

Carbon Tool Steel Fractional Bradpoint Drill Bits Threaded Shank

http://www.carbideprocessors.com/categories/Drill-Bits-for-Boring-Machines/Brad-Point-Drills-%252dThreaded-Shank/Brad-Points-%252d-Fractional-%252d-Carbon-Tool-Steel/

Major Classes of Tool Materials

2. High-Speed Steels - Taylor discovered by heat-treatment process HSS consists of tungsten (18%) and chromium (4%); they may also contain cobalt, vanadium or molybdenum. - relatively inexpensive and tough - but have limited hot hardness and can be used up to 550C Coated HSS of a thin (1 to 2 micrometre) coating of TiN (RC 80-85) has a relatively ductile, shock-resistant core while the coating has exceptional wear resistance and lower friction.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Type M- 2 M- 1 M-10 T- 1 T- 4 T- 6 T-15 M-3(I) M-3(II) M- 7 M- 4 M-15 M-15 M-42 C 0.80 0.08 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.80 1.5 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.3 1.55 1.55 1.08 W 6 1.5 18 18 20 12 6 6 1.5 6 12 6 1.5 Mo 5 8 8 5 5 8 5 3 9.5 Cr 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 V 2 1 2 1 1 2 5 2.5 3 2 4 5 5 1.1 Co 5 12 5 5 5 8 62.4 Rc

64.7

Compositions and types of popular high-speed steels

Major Classes of Tool Materials

3. Cast Alloy Tools Cast-alloy tools have significant amount of cobalt, chromium, tungsten, and carbon, the carbide phase being about 25 to 30%, by volume. They are cast into their final shape and such tools are also known as stellites. Slightly higher speeds than HSS and less tendency to form BUE. Widely used in the machining of cast iron, malleable iron and hard bronzes. High hardness (58-64 HRC), good wear resistance, high temperature hardness, very low toughness - not suitable for intermittent cutting. Good for deep boring, continuous turning ( better than HSS).

Major Classes of Tool Materials

4. Tungsten/Cemented Carbide Tools Made by mixing tungsten power and carbon at high temperature in the ratio of 94% and 6% respectively, by weight. Then combined with cobalt and sintered at 1400C. High hardness value at temperature as high as 1200C. They cannot be shaped after sintering so they are used as inserts, either brazed on or clamped on.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

4. Tungsten/Cemented Carbide Tools To improve crater resistance, tantalum carbide and titanium carbide are added. Increasing cobalt content it increases toughness but reduces hardness.
Type 883 350 330 WC 94.0 70.7 46.4 C 6.0 4.5 TaC 12.2 9.5 TiC 12.6 30.1 Use Cast Iron Steels SteelsNi12 Mo-2

370

72.0

8.5

11.5

8.0

Major Classes of Tool Materials

General Characteristics of Carbide Tools In comparison with other tool materials (except oxide tools) these are as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. high hardness over a wide range of temperature (up to 900 C) very stiff (Young's modulus is about three 3 that of steel) no plastic flow to stress as high as 352 kg/mm2, low thermal expansion (compared to steel) high thermal conductivity low specific heat weaker in tension than in compression

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Classification of Cemented Carbides There are three categories in ISO classification system: 1. P for steel-cutting grades 2. K for cast iron-cutting grades 3. M for ductile irons, hard steels, HSTR alloys, etc.
ISO symbol P M K Usage Ferrous Materials Intermediates Non-ferrous materials, Cast Iron Grades P-01, P-10, P-20, P30, P-40, P-50 M-10, M-20, M-30, M-40 K-01, K-10, K-20, K-30, K-40

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Coated carbides Coating reduces the tendency of a carbide tool to crater. Each coating ranges from 2 to 10 microns. The usual coatings are from TiC, TiN and A12O3. Multi-layer scheme TiC & Ti (CN) resistant to abrasion TiN high lubricity - resists B.U.E Al2O3 good insulator - resists cratering and - chemically inert

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Coated carbides Coatings may be applied by sputtering or other physical deposition techniques. Better bonding is realized by chemical vapours deposition where vapours such as TiCl4 and methane are reached on the hot tool surface at 650 C or higher to produce the coating. The layer next to the carbide substrate is TiC which provides a stable diffusion barrier to prevent carbon leaving the substrate, or iron from entering the cobalt phase. The outer layer is TiN to provide low interface friction.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

5. Cermet Tools Made from 70% Al2O3 and 30% titanium carbide. CERamics of non-metallic compounds of carbides or carbonitrides with METallic binder TiC, TiN, TiCN , essentially titanium-based These are tougher and more fracture resistant than ceramics but somewhat softer. For machining most steels, stainless steels, and non-ferrous materials Available with integral chip breakers High abrasion resistance More chemical stability Less tendency for adhesion so less BUE Good surface finish while machining steel

Major Classes of Tool Materials

6. Ceramic Tools Ceramic tool materials are made from sintered aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and various other boron and silicon nitride powders; these are mixed and sintered at about 1700 C. Extremely brittle; to be used where vibrations do not occur. Three types: Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) Sialon (a combination of silica, aluminum, oxygen, and nitrogen) Silicon nitride (Si3N4)

Silicon nitride ceramic grade insert for the highspeed machining of cast irons (Sandvik Coromant)

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Whisker Reinforced Ceramics Al2O3 matrix reinforced by tiny silicon carbide whiskers. These whiskers distribute the cutting forces more evenly, which results in a considerable increase in fracture toughness. Particularly useful for machining nickel based alloys, cast iron and steels. The benefits of whisker-reinforced ceramics involve certain limitations. The SiC whiskers themselves have been identified as a carcinogen, and special precautions must be taken in order to manufacture this type of ceramic safely.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

Nickel-based alloys are commonly used in the aerospace market due to their high strength and heat resistance. This combination creates a product that is difficult to machine with conventional tooling because the material tends to work-harden during machining, which can lead to notching on the cutting tool and, ultimately, insert failure. Whisker-reinforced ceramics feature: an alumina base with the addition of silicon carbide (SiC) whiskers, which have a high tensile strength that allows them to act like rebar in the alumina-based matrix. improved notch resistance of the insert. cutting speeds five to six times those of conventional carbide inserts in nickel-based materials. added benefit of the toughness of the SiC whiskers to make this category of ceramic available for machining harder materials with interruptions.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

7. Polycrystalline Tools Fabricated by compacting small particles of diamond or polycrystalline diamond (PCD) under high pressure and temperature. Polycrystalline tool materials are more homogeneous, with improved strength and durability, but with slightly reduced hardness compared to natural diamond. PCD is less expensive than diamond, but over 20 times more costly than carbide. However, it has up to 50 times longer tool life than carbide.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

8. Cubic Boron Nitride Its hardness is 2nd to diamond and has high wear resistance. Used for machining high temperature and hardened ferrous alloys Available in solid CBN and as CBN-tipped tools (on carbide substrate) Can cost 20 times that of carbide.

Major Classes of Tool Materials

9. Diamond Tools Diamond tools have diamond grains suitably fixed on the cutting parts of the tool by a bonding material or another method. For machining precision parts and non-ferrous alloys (Al) and non-metallic materials (fibre glass and composites) Not suitable - for machining carbon steel. Diamonds can react with Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, V under the high temperatures generated in the machining processes. Hence, diamond tools are not suitable to machine steels, including common steels and various tough alloy steels.

Single crystal diamond cutting tool