Sean Hackney and Brian Newman

Using the Rhetorical Situation to Inform Literacy Instruction and Assessment across the Disciplines

The authors describe a framework for approaching how teachers across the disciplines discuss what students are expected to know and how students are assessed.

ur district recently took up the challenge of writing curriculum aligned to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). However, because of the recent discussions at both the national and local level about how these new standards tied to new tests will affect curriculum and instruction, before starting to write curriculum, a few of us began to reconsider what we want students to know and how we can effectively measure whether or not they know it. Furthermore, because the standards call for an integrated approach to literacy instruction across the disciplines, and because we know that each discipline has its own discourse that students must learn to negotiate, the discussion quickly turned to nding a common vocabularyregardless of disciplinethat our school could adopt and implement into the curriculum. Using the ve components of the rhetorical situationpurpose, genre, audience, stance, and media/designas dened by The Norton Field Guide to Writing (Bullock, Weinberg, and Goggin), we developed a framework for approaching how teachers across the disciplines of science, social studies, and En glish discuss what students are expected to know and how students are assessed. This framework has been effectively used throughout various courses to design assignments and create rubrics that assess and measure students mastery of the standards.

The Rhetorical Situation and Argument

It is necessary to point out that we have been heavily inuenced by the work of Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein, authors of They Say/I Say: The

Moves That Matter in Academic Writing, and agree with them that the name of the game in academia is argument and that we must make good on this bold claim in curricular and pedagogical practice (W410). In fact, the creation of an assignment and assessment design using the rhetorical situation developed from the concern of how to teach students that literacy is interdisciplinary and ultimately boils down to students being able to show that they can successfully enter conversations within the various disciplines. Graff and Birkenstein explain that argument is the art of entering a conversation and is central to every academic department and discipline, from history to microbiology, where practitioners are required to state their views not in isolation, but as a response to what others in the eld are saying (W410). That is, students can go from physics to US history and then to En glish class knowing that in each class they will use the rhetorical situation as they learn how to navigate the conventions of argument within a specic discipline. Moreover, as Irene L. Clark and Andrea Hernandez note in their study focused on the transferability of writing from one context to another, when students have a working understanding of what is referred to as genre awareness, the idea being that a metacognitive understanding of genre can help students make connections between . . . academic argument . . . and the writing genres they encounter in other disciplines (65), students are better positioned to navigate the genre constraints of a particular discipline. In an attempt to see whether students use the rhetorical situation, we gave an informal survey that

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Sean Hackney and Brian Newman

asked them to state if and how they consider the rhetorical situation when completing writing tasks in their various classes. One student said, I think about the purpose of my writing and who I am communicating that message to. I feel these are the two most important steps in the process in order to successfully argue whatever point is trying to be made. Knowing who my audience is allows me to determine what type of language I should use and what tone I should convey. A second student explained, The rhetorical situation helps me realize that Im not just writing something to write, but Im writing for a purpose. Finally, another student pointed out that genre is important because it helps him understand what [his] paper should look like and what [his] audience expects. When students know the rhetorical situation they begin to acknowledge and gain a working understanding of the kind of nuance and choice that goes into crafting a good argument. In addition, students begin to understand that rhetoric and argument are not mutually exclusive. Unfortunately, in contemporary education, many students have not even heard the word rhetoric dened as understanding how effective persuasive arguments are madeused in their courses. In fact, as Aristotle asserts, the art of rhetoric is the ability, in each [particular] case, to see the available means of persuasion (37), meaning that teachers across the disciplines should be explicit about teaching students how to make effective persuasive arguments by learning how to use the rhetorical situation as a means of entering conversations in a variety of discourse communities. In other words, for our purposes, a students ability to see what is persuasive happens when he or she understands how decisions regarding the rhetorical situationpurpose, genre, audience, stance, and media/designwork together to make meaning. Therefore, when it came time to write curriculum, it only made sense to highlight the importance of rhetoric and argument. Actually, our districts En glish curriculum director implemented a rhetoric for all mantra thatwhile originally intentioned for all four levels of En glishseemed to catch on throughout the district in other disciplines. We presented to social studies and science teachers about how this approach to literacy instructionfullling the new CCSSwould be successful. In this time of new standards and forth-

coming standardized exams when literacy instruction is mandated across the curriculum, using the rhetorical situation throughout multiple subjects to help instruct students how to enter into the work of each discipline is crucial, and the standards express the necessity as well. Echoing the En glish standards, the CCSS emphasize in their standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects that students must take task, purpose, and audience into careful consideration, choosing words, information, structures, and formats deliberately (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices 63). The standards also stress that students must become familiar with the norms and conventions of each discipline (60). To summarize, as Graff and Birkenstein assert:
To heal the divide between high school and college, and ease the often confusing transitions that students experience between the academic worlds disconnected domains, educators need to identify some one set of skills or practices that students can hold on to as they move from one domain to another, that is framed broadly enough to win the assent of educators from a wide range of subjects, disciplines, grade levels, and types of educational institutions. (W410)

It is our contention that using the rhetorical situation across the disciplines as a way to frame instruction, assignments, and assessments will not only fulll the requirements teachers currently face regarding standards, but it will also serve as an authentic means by which students successfully navigate the literacy demands of the various disciplines, as they learn how to argue by engaging in, as Graff and Birkenstein explain, conversation[s] with other perspectives, often by challenging and disagreeing with them (W413414).

How We Use the Rhetorical Situation for Assignments and Rubrics

To stay consistent with how we are asking students to think about argument in their various courses, assignments are outlined according to the rhetorical situation. Each assignment that we give in our En glish courses explicitly states the purpose of the assignment that explains what students are expected to demonstrate knowledge of, the audience they are to consider, the genre they are to work within, the

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Using the Rhetorical Situation to Inform Literacy Instruction and Assessment across the Disciplines

stance they are to take, and the media/design options they have available to them. For example, in an assignment that had students write a rhetorical analysis of a 2012 presidential campaign advertisement, students were told that their purpose was to analyze how and why the text communicates certain information. Their audience is stated as the teacher and fellow classmates because the genre of the paper is a typical academic paper that will be subjected to both peer revision and teacher assessment. In addition, students are told that they need to have a stance that is thesis driven with a clear argument/ reading of the text supported with evidence from the text and that the paper should be designed like a traditional academic paper that uses MLA format. We nd that when students have all of this information they are better prepared to more readily enter the conversation. As noted in Figure 1, the rubric developed for the campaign advertisement assignment addresses the same components of the rhetorical situation, measuring students successes. In order to receive an A+ through B students have to meet the components detailed under each aspect of the rhetorical situation as they reect the expectations from the assignment sheet. If they have not succeeded in one/some/all of the areas then the grade will fall between a B-through C- . If students fail in one/some/ all of the areas, the essay is unsuccessful and the grade will fall between a D through F. In addition, there is no category in the rubric designated specically to grammar and style. Instead, grammar and style are included in the audience section, because part of successfully meeting the expectations of an audience is using appropriate language. One of the positives that we have experienced from using this rubric is that the framework of the rhetorical situation stays the same from class to class, but depending on the assignment, the requirements to complete the task successfully change and points can be divided differently throughout the ve categories of the rhetorical situation. In other words, some assignments call for more attention to stance, whereas other assignments might emphasize media/design. The details of the rubric can change, but the benet of the shared vocabulary across disciplines has been crucial to clearly communicating the literacy demands that lead to good arguments in a specic discipline.

Figure 1.  Rubric for a Single Text Analysis

Assignment
Campaign Advertisement Analysis Rubric Name: _________________________ Period: ________ Below are the criteria to achieve an A+ thru B in any particular category. The Somewhat Successful essay (B-thru C- ) has not succeeded in one/some/all of these areas, and the Unsuccessful essay (D thru F) has failed in one/some/all of these areas. Notice there is no column for grammar and mechanics specically. This will be included in the Audience section because part of successfully meeting your audiences expectations is using language appropriate for your level of education and theirs. Purpose (10): Successful (A+ thru B):  As stated in the Norton, Your goal in analyzing a text is to lead readers through careful examination [considering the rhetorical situation] of the text to some kind of interpretation or reasoned judgment. Genre (20): Successful (A+ thru B):  Exhibits a strong understanding of academic discourse  Contains a thesis that argues for a particular reading of the advertisement Demonstrates insightful evaluation Design/Layout (20): Successful (A+ thru B):  Incorporates MLA formatting correctly including headers, heading, title, margins, spacing, and font A Works Cited page is formatted correctly Audience (25): Successful (A+ thru B): Uses vocabulary appropriate for a senior audience  Uses grammar and punctuation appropriate for a senior  Assumes a level of intelligence and sophistication for the audience Stance (25): Successful (A+ thru B):  Makes a sound argument regarding the success and/ or failure of the advertisement  Thesis is supported effectively with examples from the text  Includes a consistent tone that presents your take on the advertisement

For example, in an Advanced Placement Environmental Science class, a colleague used our shared vocabulary of the rhetorical situation to help students navigate the difculties of writing in the

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sciences. In science class, students should write like scientists and critics of science, so by using the rhetorical situation as a means to approach the moves needed to write successfully in that discipline, students writing was an authentic example of the kinds of writing expected in the sciences. In our discussions about scientic writing, our colleague explained to usas she had for her studentsthat this genre encourages passive voice to keep the focus on the science and not on the scientists. This would be one of the items detailed under genre for the student work to be successful. So when the Advanced Placement Environmental Science students worked on an assignment focused on the 2010 Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, they used the rhetorical situation by identifying the purpose of their work, identifying their audience, familiarizing themselves with the genre of scientic writing, developing a stance that effectively captured their contribution to the scientic community, and making media/design decisions about whether to present their work as a presentation or paper. Furthermore, as Amy J. Devitt explains in Writing Genres, pedagogy concerned with the process of learning new genres rather than specic linguistic features of specic genres allows students to approach a new genre and understand it as more than formulaic features (197). This is the goal. We want students, as Devitt makes clear, to understand the intricate connections between contexts and forms and to discern both constraints and choices that genres make possible (198), so that students understand the differences in rhetorical situations and contexts (208). When teachers across the disciplines are explicit in using this shared vocabulary, students are able to see that literacy is in fact comprised of their ability to enter authentic ongoing conversations and contribute something meaningful, regardless of what class they are sitting in. In addition, this foundation gives teachers and students a context for examining content. For example, the AP Environmental Science assignment mentioned above asked students to answer questions regarding the effectiveness of various types of booms in an oil spill, the effect of motor oil on red minnows, and the effect of oil on the hydrological cycle. Having the shared foundation of the rhetorical situation as a way to approach argument instruction fullls the demands of what students

are supposed to be able to do. As the CCSS make clear, students must be able to successfully navigate the various disciplines and the rhetorical situation allows them to do so. Before the CCSSs emphasis on literacy integration across subject areas, writing instruction was mainly reserved for the En glish class- As the CCSS make clear, room. As a result, students students must be able to were not necessarily exposed successfully navigate the to the expectations of writvarious disciplines and ing in the different disciplines, and any exposure the rhetorical situation they did receive would have allows them to do so. been geared toward format and style. That is, as Clark and Hernandez explain, Explicit teaching of a genre may enable students to replicate that genre, but fostering genre awareness enables students to gain a threshold concept (67). Understanding the components of the rhetorical situation allows for this kind of transference from one discipline to the next.

The Rubric Debate

The rhetorical situation, then, is at its core a way to conceptualize the texts we create and the texts we read. Within that framework would be the rubric used to assess understanding. Michael Livingston, in his recent article The Infamy of Grading Rubrics, skillfully discusses criticisms of the use of rubrics, most notably Ale Kohns and Maja Wilsons work, and ultimately shows how rubrics can function as a powerful assessment tool. Livingston claims that critics of rubrics such as Kohn and Wilson are guilty of category error, forgetting that all important difference between tool and user (111). Furthermore, we are in agreement with Eric D. Turley and Chris W. Gallagher, who state that it makes little sense to dismiss or embrace [rubrics] . . . without careful attention to why, how, by whom, and in what contexts [they are] used (87). As Livingston notes, Turley and Gallagher reframe the debate over rubrics into relative questions about appropriate or inappropriate use rather than bifurcating judgments about right and wrong (111). Questions about whether rubrics should be used are beyond the scope of this article. However, Livingston does raise some important points about the individualized nature of rubrics, and that has been

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Using the Rhetorical Situation to Inform Literacy Instruction and Assessment across the Disciplines

an area of critique of the assessment system we have outlined. Many administrators have proposed the need for an objective rubric to normalize data collection. However, as Livingston explains, No single system will t all conditions, just as no rubric could possibly satisfy every teacher (110). In fact, Livingston goes on to contend that the use of any tool is ultimately specic to the user, and though the system as a whole is ultimately subjective . . . the rubric provides a small measure of objectivity by insisting that the teacher have a basis for the nal assessment (111). We believe that in a time of literacy standards across disciplines tied to new standardized tests, approaching the requirements of courses through the shared vocabulary of the rhetorical situation is an effective way to objectify the grading framework as much as possible, while still recognizing teacher autonomy and granting at least some level of subjectivity. Although using a prescribed rubric to grade writing can be especially helpful for En glish teachers to normalize their grading practices, as writing instruction and assessment is integrated throughout the curriculum, it is necessary to use a rubric that offers enough exibility to a particular content teacher to tailor the scoring criteria to the needs of a specic assignment, while still standardizing what categories should be used to assess summative writing. Critics will say that a one- size- ts- all rubric, touted as objective, is the best approach. However, when it comes to the topic of assessment, most of us will readily agree that fair assessment is the goal. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is how we answer the question of how to fairly assess writing. Whereas some are convinced that one rubric can accurately assess myriad assignments, we maintain that each assignment, depending on the purpose, task, and audience, may necessitate its own rubric for the teacher to fairly assess the writing. Though we concede that those who prefer the former method are right about the need to have an agreed- on means of assessment, we still insist that cannot be at the expense of developing rubrics that assess particular writing assignments fairly by taking the rhetorical situation into consideration. Many will probably disagree with the assertion that the standardization a prescribed rubric offers is still possible with a rubric that is shaped by the rhetorical situation to assess specic assignments.

However, it is important, for example, that biology teachers are able to design their rubrics to t specic writing assignments in their content area without having the worry of assessing them with a rubric that may not address the needs of their specic content area, not to mention the assignment. For example, we have seen language in rubrics that asks teachers to evaluate the quality and development of ideas, organization of the essay, its use of proper MLA form, and grammar and style. Some rubrics use words and phrases like thesis, conclusion draws from content with originality and air, topic sentences, unity and coherence, structure, superior analysis, variety of sentence structures, or appropriate usage and sentence formation to evaluate a students success. At rst glance, these words do not appear too difcult for evaluating a student paper, but what if the assignment isnt for an En glish class? These words then become content specic. For example, a history teacher might have a different understanding of superior analysis or unity and coherence than an En glish teacher; in fact, two En glish teachers may differ here as well. Wouldnt it make much more sense to offer teachers a framework to assess their students writing that can be tailored to the language and needs of their content? Recently, one of us had the opportunity to do an informal norming session with a group of twelve colleagues who all teach at least one section of College- Prep En glish for seniors. Of those teachers, two have been using the rhetorical situation rubrics; the others have depended on a rubric that uses the language mentioned above, a rubric on which many colleagues have relied over the last four years. Teachers were given the assignment description and an unnamed students essay. The teachers rst used the rhetorical situation rubric and assigned the student a score. Teachers then used the more traditional rubric with four categoriesQuality and Development of Ideas, Organization, MLA Format, and Grammar and Styleand determined a grade. The former rubric includes information that only details what a student needs to do to be successful. The latter rubric includes details about what a student needs to do to earn an A, B, C, D, and F. After privately assigning scores with each rubric, teachers reported out the scores from the two rubrics. All the scores fell between 88 percent and 92 percent. After discussion on using both, our colleagues agreed that the rhetorical

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situation is more manageable, less wordy, and offers a more authentic way to assess student work. When teachers use the rhetorical situation in assessing student writing, a teacher can assess the skills more directly because the assignment and rubric clearly present the purpose, genre, media/ design, audience expectations, and stance to take. In the Anchor Standards for Writing in the CCSS, Standard 6 asks that students use technology . . . to produce and publish writing (41). For teachers who allow students to choose the most appropriate technology tools to convey meaning, they need only to create one rubric using the rhetorical situation because the descriptors under each rhetorical situation component can be broad enough to allow for a blog or a screencast, for example. Furthermore, a teacher assigning a narrative may allow for more casual formatting than what may be expected from a student composing a 2,500- word research paper. The points can be distributed within the rhetorical situation based on the importance of each to the particular task. Although we grant that this process of creating assessments around the rhetorical situation may be messy at times, we still maintain that it is necessary to successfully integrate a program and culture of writing across the disciplines. Ultimately, what is at stake here is the reality of a collaborative writing culture across the content areas that gives content teachers the power to shape students understandings of the nuances involved with writing in their subject area, all while working from a shared framework for how to approach any writing task. The rhetorical situation calls for

communication to be examined in the context of the following categories: purpose, genre, audience, stance, and media/design. If we ask students to be considerate of these in their work, they can better negotiate expectations for any assignment. In addition, teachers will have a shared framework to assess skills and understanding of content that is often so difcult to quantify.
Works Cited

Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Trans. George Alexander Kennedy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. Bullock, Richard, Francine Weinberg, and Maureen Daly Goggin. The Norton Field Guide to Writing, with Readings and Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2010. Print. Clark, Irene L., and Andrea Hernandez. Genre Awareness, Academic Argument, and Transferability. The WAC Journal 22 (2011): 6578. Print. Devitt, Amy J. Writing Genres (Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory). Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2008. Print. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2009. Print. Graff, Gerald, and Cathy Birkenstein- Graff. Exploring the Continuum . . . between High School and College Writing. College Composition and Communication 61.1 (2009): W409W416. Print. Livingston, Michael. The Infamy of Grading Rubrics. English Journal 102.2 (2012): 10813. Print. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Ofcers. Common Core State Standards. Washington: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Ofcers, 2010. Web. 18 June 2013. Turley, Eric D., and Chris W. Gallagher. On the Uses of Rubrics: Reframing the Great Rubric Debate. English Journal 97.4 (2008): 8792. Print.

Sean Hackney teaches ninth- grade Honors En glish and dual- credit Rhetoric at Joliet West High School, and he is an adjunct En glish instructor at Joliet Junior College. He can be contacted at shackney@jths.org. Brian Newman has worked at Joliet
West High School for 13 years and currently teaches a dual- credit Rhetoric course. In addition to teaching, Brian is the schools instructional coach for En glish. Email him at bnewman@jths.org.

RE A D W R ITE THIN K CO NN EC T ION

Lisa Storm Fink, RWT

The students in the article analyzed campaign advertisements, much like in the lesson plan Propaganda Techniques in Literature and Online Political Ads. After reading or viewing a text, students are introduced to propaganda techniques and then identify examples in the text. Students discuss these examples and then explore the use of propaganda in popular culture by looking at examples in the media. Students identify examples of propaganda techniques used in clips of online political advertisements and explain how the techniques are used to persuade voters. Next, students explore the similarities of the propaganda techniques used in the literary text and in the online political ads to explain the commentary the text is making about contemporary society. Finally, students write a persuasive essay in support of a given statement. http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom- resources/ lesson-plans/propaganda-techniques-literature-online-405.html

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