COST BM0704 STSM Report

May, 2012.















Overview of EMF sources, their
characteristics and exposure conditions

Zlatko ivkovi
University of Split, Croatia
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture (FESB)










Host:
Georg Neubauer
Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH (AIT)
Seibersdorf, Austria
2


TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................3
OVERVIEW OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES .................................................................4
LTE LONG TERM EVOLUTION ...................................................................................4
WLAN WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWROK ......................................................... 10
RFID RADIO-FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION ........................................................ 14
ELECTRIC/HYBRID CARS ............................................................................................ 18
DECT DIGITAL ENHANCED CORDLESS TELECOMMUNICATIONS ................... 24
WiMAX WORLDWIDE INTEROPERABILITY FOR MICROWAVE ACCESS ......... 27
UWB ULTRA WIDEBAND ......................................................................................... 29
WBAN WIRELESS BODY AREA NETWORK ........................................................... 31
WORKERS EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT .......................................................................... 33
TETRA TRANS-EUROPEAN TRUNKED RADIO ...................................................... 33
ATC AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL ................................................................................... 36
TRAINS, RAILWAY POWER PLANTS ......................................................................... 39
WELDING ....................................................................................................................... 41
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 45
ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................. 49


3

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this STSM was building a knowledge base of EMF sources, their characteristics
and human exposure conditions, using the literature search, data obtained from the host group,
and in situ observations, especially regarding emerging technologies and workers exposure
assessment.
The identification and characterization of completely new technologies is very important
since their new operating characteristics will most certainly lead to novel emissions and
overall EMF human exposure assessment (including measurement methodologies) will have
to be established. Therefore, the overview of LTE, UWB, WBAN, WiMAX and electric car
system was presented.
However, existing technologies change and improve constantly regarding their operational
characteristics and applications in which they are used. Hence, the overview of some well-
known technologies, including WLAN, RFID and DECT, was also included.
The implementation of the EU Directive 2004/40/EC will pose new requirements regarding
the evaluation of the workers exposure to electromagnetic fields. The implementation of
these requirements will pose a significant challenge to employers, since the exposure will
have to be assessed with respect to a specific workplace. Many workplaces are exposed to
EMFs. In this work, the special consideration was given to industrial processes (welding),
transportation systems (electric cars, trains, railway power plants) and communication
systems (TETRA, ATC).
For every considered technology, the overview of its operational characteristics was given
and, where available, the human exposure assessment together with the measurement
methodology was presented. Overview of each technology was based on available scientific
papers, technical reports and COST presentations.

4

OVERVIEW OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

LTE LONG TERM EVOLUTION

GENERAL INFORMATION
Figure 1. Adoption of LTE technology [1]
LTE technology is an evolution of the 3G
mobile-telephony standard, known as UMTS
and the system that evolved from it - HSPA.
It is also referred as a 4th generation
mobile network (4G). LTE is IP based
technology which means the data is
transferred in pockets.
This technology was first proposed by NTT
DoCoMo of Japan in 2004; the LTE
standard was finalized in December 2008,
and the first publicity available LTE service
was launched by TeliaSonera in Oslo and
Stockholm on December 2009. In 2011, first commercially available Smartphone was
released. LTE Advanced is a major enhancement of the LTE standard approved by ITU, and
was finalized by 3GPP in March 2011.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Frequency bands

Two main frequency ranges are currently being used for LTE:
- 800 MHz (790-862 MHz) This frequency range was freed up by the digitalization of
radio and television and is sometimes called digital dividend. This range exhibits
excellent propagation properties, and base stations which operate at this frequency can
cover wide areas, which is especially suitable for coverage of rural regions.
- 2600 MHz (2500-2690 MHz) This frequency range is more suitable for urban areas
where base stations will have to be situated near one another because of high demands for
information capacity.

Channel bandwidth

LTE works using scalable bandwidths form 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz. The greater the bandwidth,
the faster data can be transferred.

Uplink and downlink rates

LTE should provide maximum download rates up to 100 Mbit/s and maximum upload rates
up to 50 Mbit/s with low latency times (end user latency <10 ms; control plane latency <100
5

ms), at the same time ensuring the smooth handover between adjacent cells, even if the
users move at high speed.

Transmission schemes

The downlink transmission process is based on OFDMA. The data is modulated
simultaneously into numerous narrow frequency bands called subcarriers. OFDMA is very
resistant to faults, especially regarding frequency fading.
The uplink transmission process is based on SC-FDMA. The main advantage of this method
is the efficient reduction in energy consumption.
LTE also uses multiple antenna technology MIMO by employing double and quadruple
antennas. The signal in MIMO system travels to receiver via different paths, which improves
the quality and transmission rate of wireless connection.

Network structure

LTE network structure is cellular. It is based on Evolved
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access network (EUTRAN). Each
base station is connected to neighboring base station and to the
core network EPC. The cell radius is determined by the
traffic volume, and can range from a few meters (micro cell) to
larger distances - up to 100 km (macro cell). The automatic
reconfiguration of the surrounding base stations is also
possible, if the certain base station drops out or new base
station is installed.
Figure 2. LTE base
station [2]

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

So far, little is known about the actual emissions produced by LTE base stations in real life
scenario. However, it can be assumed that the emissions generated by LTE transmitters will
be similar to those produced by GSM and UMTS base stations regarding the similarities in the
frequency range, antennas characteristics and transmitter output power, [3]- [4].
Up to now, few studies were performed on LTE base stations which were in testing
operational modes, [3]- [5]. The pilot study Assessment of general exposure to LTE
transmitters carried out by IMST (Institut fr Mobil- und Satellitenfunktechnik) [3] provided
the estimation of exposure at maximum transmitter output power. The results showed that the
emissions produced by LTE transmitters are well below the legal limits at all measurement
points. At 99% of these points the measured values were below 50% of the legal limits.
Although this pilot study clearly showed that the expected values of electric field strength and
power density are well below the legal limits, the assessment of exposure with fully functional
LTE base stations, in real life scenario, has to be performed.

6


MEASUREMENT METHOD FOR LTE BASE STATIONS

In May 2012, the Federal Office of Metrology (METAS, Switzerland), has published
Technical Report: Measurement Method for LTE Base Stations [6] in which the reference
method for measuring field levels of LTE installations in indoor and outdoor environment was
presented.
Two different methods were proposed:
- The code-selective method - allows the assessment of the compliance or non-compliance
of an installation with the legal limit values (reference method).
- The spectral method - does not allowed the distinction of two different cells of the same
operator/installation. This method is able to demonstrate the compliance of an installation
with the regulation but it fails to prove non-compliance since it suffers from
overestimation of the extrapolated field strength (approximate method).

In the following sections the most important parts of the mentioned Report [6] are cited.

THE CODE-SELECTIVE METHOD

The code-selective method is based on the determination of the radiated field produced by the
CRS signal of the downlink signal transmitted on port 0 [7], according to LTE downlink
resource grid, depicted at Figure 6. The CRS transmitted by antenna port 0 (CRS
0
) carries
information on the cell identity number (0 to 503). Measurement of the CRS
0
requires a code-
selective field probe, a measuring receiver or a spectrum analyzer capable of decoding CRS
signals and of quantifying their power.
For each LTE cell i of the base station an extrapolation factor
0
R
i
K is defined as:

0
0
, permitted
,
i R
i R
i
P
K
P
=
(1.1)
with:
0
R
i
P - actual radiated power (ERP) per source element (R
0
power) of the reference signal
CRS
0
of the cell i in W
, permitted i
P - permitted radiated power (ERP) for cell i in W (including the signal of all antenna
ports of the cell)

The measured value of the electric field strength has to be extrapolated to the reference
operating mode:

0 0
, ,max
,
R R
i h i i
E E K =
(1.2)




7


with:
, i h
E - extrapolated value of the electric field strength
0
,max
R
i
E - spatial maximum of the electric field strength per resource element of the reference
signal CRS
0
of cell i within the measurement volume, in V/m.





Figure 3. LTE downlink resource grid [2]
8


All the cell-specific extrapolated electric field strength values are then summed together as:

2
,
1
n
h i n
i
E E
=
=

(1.3)
with:
h
E - extrapolated electric field strength of LTE for a given network, in V/m

Finally, the appreciation value
B
E is obtained by summing over the contributions
,
j
network h
E of
all networks belonging to the same installation:

1, 2,
...
B network h network h
E E E = + +
(1.4)
If:
limit B
E E s - installation fulfills the requirements
limit B
E E > - installation does not fulfill the requirements

FREQUENCY SELECTIVE METHOD

The frequency selective method is based on the power of PSS and SSS signals that are
transmitted in one OFDM symbol each, every 10 slots, over a bandwidth of 62 subcarriers
(930 kHz + 15 kHz for the center). Measurements of the synchronization signals require a
spectrum analyzer with true RMS-detector, a minimum resolution bandwidth of 945 kHz
(typical Resolution bandwidth of 1 MHz) and a maximum hold-function. The measurements
are performed in ZERO-SPAN
1
mode, and the sweep time must be chosen so that the
measuring time per pixel does not exceed 70 s, the duration of one OFDM symbol being
about 71.5 s. The snapshot of LTE signal measured with spectrum analyzer, working in
ZERO-SPAN mode, is shown in Figure 7.

For each LTE-cell i of the base station, an extrapolation factor
SS
i
K is defined as:

( )
,permitted
,
min ,
i SS
i
PSS SSS
i i
P
K
P P
=
(1.5)
with:
PSS
i
P - actual radiated power (ERP) per resource element on the primary synchronization
signal of the cell i in W

SSS
i
P - actual radiated power (ERP) per resource element on the secondary synchronization
signal of the cell i in W
,permitted i
P - permitted power (ERP) for cell i in W (including the signal of all antenna ports of
the cell)

1
By applying ZERO-SPAN option in Spectrum Analyzers one can obtain the envelope of the signal in time
domain
9



Figure 4. The snapshot of LTE signal measured with spectrum analyzer working in Zero
span mode [2]

The measured value of the electric field strength has to be extrapolated to the reference
operating mode:

( )
max 1..
max ,
SS SS
h i n i
E E K
=
=
(1.6)
with:
h
E - extrapolated LTE electric field strength for a given network, in V/m
max
SS
E - spatial maximum of the electric field strength (per resource element) of the
synchronization signals within the measurement volume, in V/m
n - number of cells of the base station respectively of the installation

In case the measurement instrumentation does only provide the total electric field strength
(instead of electric field strength per resource element), an adapted scaling of this total
electric field strength value to only one resource element must be performed as follows:

max max
1
,
62
SS measured
E E =
(1.7)
with:
max
measured
E - max&hold value measured over the whole bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer.

Finally, the appreciation value
B
E is obtained by summing over the contributions of all
network operators and services as in the previous section.
If:
limit B
E E s - installation fulfills the requirements
limit B
E E > - no assessment is possible
10

WLAN WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWROK

GENERAL INFORMATION

WLAN is local area network in which a mobile user
can connect, through an Access Point, to a wider
internet using wireless radio connection. Modern
WLANs are mainly based on IEEE 802.11 standards,
known as Wi-Fi. IEEE 802.11ac standard is currently
under development. By incorporating wider RF
bandwidth (up to 160 MHz), more MIMO spatial
streams (up to 8) and high-density modulation (up to
256 QAM), this standard will enable multi-station
throughput of at least 1 Gbit/s and a maximum single
link throughput of at least 500 Mbit/s. The finalization
of this standard is expected for 2012, with final 802.11 Working Group approval in 2013 [8].

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

WLAN operational characteristics depend on the employed standard. Table 2 summarizes the
operational characteristics for the most prominent IEEE 802.11g, IEEE 802.11n and IEEE
802.11ac standards.

Table 1. Overview of WLAN operational characteristics
802.11
Standard
Frequency
Band
(GHz)
Channel
Bandwidth
(MHz)
Data
Rates
(Mbit/s)
MIMO
Streams
Modulation
Approximate
range (m)
Indoor Outdoor
a
5
3.7
20 6-54 1 OFDM 35
120
5000
b 2.4 20 1-11 1 DSSS 35 140
g 2.4 20 6-54 1
OFDM
DSSS
35 140
n 2.4
20 7.2-72.2
4
OFDM
70 250
40 15-150
ac 5
80 433, 867
8 - -
160 867-6930

Network structure

Network structure of the WLAN is quite simple. Wireless clients (different mobile devices
such as laptops, Smartphones, or desktop PCs and workstations equipped with wireless
network interface) communicate via radio-signals with APs (usually routers which transmit
and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled devices), which are then connected to a
wider internet (Figure 8). Beside this type of structure, WLAN can be used to establish ad-hoc
11

connection between two mobile devices. The data in WLAN are transmitted in pockets. Prior
to sending data, the logistic information between transmitting and receiving nodes are
exchanged, which leads to reduced effective data transfer rate.


Figure 5. Schematic preview of WLAN network

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Since the WLAN devices are permitted to transmit up to 100 mW, the total amount of power
that the WLAN emits is low compared to comparable sources such as mobile phones.
However, since WLAN signal can be characterized as a pulsed signal (if the pulse is defined
as a sudden change in amplitude with time), some concern was raised about its adverse effect
on human bodys internal electrical and electro-chemical system, especially regarding
sensitive people and children [9].
In [10] and [11] the measurements of WLAN exposure were performed and the compliance
with legal limits was estimated. In [10] the exposure to APs was determined for 222 locations
with 7 WLAN networks present in office environment. The WLAN exposure was also
characterized in a wireless sensor lab environment (WiLab) at IBBT-Ghent University in
Belgium. It was found that the average background exposure to WLAN (when WiLab was
off) was 0.12 V/m, and with the WiLab in operation, average exposure increased to 1.9 V/m.
As it was shown all measured values were far below limits defined by ICNIRP (61 V/m for
2.4 GHz). In [11] the WLAN exposure measurements were performed in 55 indoor sites in
four different countries. The measurements were also performed in public spaces, close to Wi-
Fi access points and at a distance of approximately of 1 m from a laptop while it was
uploading large amount of data. In all cases, the measured signal levels were far below the
limits proposed by ICNIRP or IEEE C95.1-2005.
As an additional example, the typical values of electric field strengths for different
technologies (including Wi-Fi) are presented in Figure 9 [12].

12


Figure 6. The average values and maximum-traffic-values of
electric field strength for different wireless technologies, including Wi-Fi [12]
(y-axes electric field strength in V/m, x-axes different wireless technologies)


MEASUREMET METHOD FOR WLAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The overview of the problems that could arise during the measurements of EMF exposure
from WLAN devices is given in [13]. WLAN transmission scheme is based on DSSS or
OFDM (depending on the type of standard), which leads to a stochastic signal characteristic
(rapid variations in time). Moreover WLAN occupies broad frequency band (approximately
20 MHz), exhibits different data transmission rates, uses the same uplink and downlink bands
with constant burst power and no fixed duty cycles.
Since the broadband probes were found to be inadequate for WLAN exposure measurements,
the frequency selective measurements based on a precision antenna in combination with
spectrum analyzer are mainly proposed ( [14] and [15]). However, a careful selection of the
spectrum analyzer settings is of great importance. The detail overview of spectrum analyzer
parameters, for measurements in ZERO-SPAN and MAX-HOLD mode, is given in Figure 10
[15].
The spectrum analyzer, for WLAN exposure measurements, should be equipped with
sufficient RBW and a RMS detector. Measurement with the narrow RBW would lead to
underestimations of actual RF fields, and a PEAK detector would lead to overestimation due
to stochastic signal characteristic. Moreover, WLAN devices do not emit RF waves all the
time, but only when the data transmission occurs. This means that highly dynamic, burst-like
signals without predefined duty cycle or overall crest factor must be expected. Hence,
measurements obtained using MAX-HOLD option only (without correction factors), could
lead to an overestimation of the actual time averaged exposure at least by 2-3 orders of
magnitude. More realistic measurement results could be obtained by applying BAND
POWER or CHANNEL POWER measurement options on the modern spectrum analyzers.

13


Figure 7. Proposed settings of the spectrum analyzer for WLAN exposure assessment [15]

In [15] the procedure for WLAN exposure assessment measurements, using MAX-HOLD
option, was suggested, together with the correction factor calculation:
1.) Determination of active WLAN channels using WLAN-packet analyzer;
2.) Determination of the duty cycle of the active channels using isotropic antenna in
combination with spectrum analyzer;
3.) MAX-HOLD measurement of the different WLAN channels;
4.) Calculation of the total average electric field

by multiplying the maximum hold

value with the root of the appropriate duty cycle.






















14

RFID RADIO-FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION

GENERAL INFORMATION

RFID is wireless technology that uses radio-frequency
waves to transmit the signal from a tag attached to an
object, for the purposes of the automatic identification
and tracking. The electronically stored information in
tag can be transmitted up to several meters away with
no demand for the line-of-sight visibility. Today, RFID
is omnipresent and promising technology that can be
used in a variety of applications: electronic article
surveillance, access control, supply chain/process chain
management, warehouse logistic, tracking, road
pricing In 2010 the decreased cost of RFID
equipment and increased performance reliability drove
to significant increase in RFID usage.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

There are three main types of RFID systems:
- active RFID technology active tag has its own battery which periodically transmits
its ID signal;
- passive RFID technology the tag uses radio-energy transmitted by the reader as its
energy source;
- battery assisted passive RFID technology the tag has its own battery, but its
activated only in the presence of RFID.

Generally, all RFID systems work on the principle that two-way radio transmitters/receivers
send an encoded radio signal to a tag which then receives the message and responds with its
identification information. To ensure adequate actions the reader compares the information
from the tag with data from databases [16] (Figure 12).


Figure 9. RFID System Interaction

RF
signal
s
Figure 8. RFID logo
15

In case of passive RFID systems, the modulation of the backscattered signal is obtained by
changing the tags impedance when the tag is mismatched the backscattered signal is high,
and when the tag is matched the backscattered signal is low. This procedure provides binary
modulated backscattered signal over the time (ASK, FSK, etc.). In active RFID systems the
desirable modulation is provided by modulators implemented in RFID tags.
The operating frequency (and hence the reading distance range) depends on power
requirements, propagation surrounding and type of application. Table 3 summarizes the
operational characteristic of RFID systems.

Table 2. Operational characteristics of RFID systems
Application
Frequency
range
Frequencies
Passive read
distance
Transmission of
energy
Access Control LF 120-140 kHz 20 cm (1.2 m max.) EM induction
Access Control HF 13.56 MHz 20 cm (1.2 m max.) EM induction
Access Control
Supply Chain/
Process Chain
Management
Tracking, Road
Pricing
UHF 868-928 MHz 0.5 m (5 m max.) Radio waves
Tracking, Road
Pricing
Microwave 2.45, 5.8 GHz 3 m (10 m max.) Radio waves
In development
Ultra-Wide
Band
3.1-10.6 GHz 10 m Radio waves

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Since RFID works in wide frequency range, this system is very interesting from the human
exposure point of view. Various scientific studies were performed at both low and high
frequency range, [17]- [18].
The typical values of in-situ electric field radiated from RFID system in UHF frequency range
were presented in [17]. The reported electric field strengths were below 0.003 V/m. This
study was carried out in Hong Kong National Airport and has shown that the measured
electric field strength values of the UHF RFID system are far below legal limits defined by
ICNIRP.
In [18], the near field electric and magnetic fields, radiated by an RFID reader operating at
13.56 MHz, were measured and simulated. The RFID reader was composed of two parallel
loop antennas (with total radiated power of 100 mW), often used in anti-theft systems as pass-
through gate. Two measurement scenarios were carried out: the first one referred to a human
standing in the center of the antenna system, and the second one referred to a human standing
beside the system, at a diagonal distance of approx. 1.8 m from the center of the antenna
system. The first case referred to a shop customer exposure, while standing between the
antennas in the anti-theft gate, which happens only for a brief period of time. The second case
referred to a shop employee working beside the anti-theft gate for a longer period (quite
possible scenario).
16

The measured electric and magnetic fields between antennas, along their common axes at
height of 1 m are presented in Figure 14. The simulated and measured results, compared to
ICNIRP guidelines, are given in Table 4. As it can be noticed, the results showed full
compliance to ICNIRP guidelines.



Figure 10. Measurements results for near
a) magnetic, and b) electric field of
the RFID anti-theft gate system [18]

The near field high-frequency RFID reader exposure of anatomical body models (male,
female, child and pregnant woman) was investigated in [19], using the simulation software
SEMCAD X. The assessment was carried out for three different reader antenna positions at
distances up to 50 cm from the body (output antenna power was set to 1 W). From the results
displayed in Figure 15, it can be noticed that all SAR values are below the limits defined by
ICNIRP.


a)
b)
Table 3. Simulated and measured near electric and
magnetic field strengths (max. values), compared
to ICNIRP guides [18]
17


Figure 11. a) Whole-body SAR and b) Peak-localized SAR,
in adult male (Duke) and 6 year old child (Thelonious), as a function
of distance and different antenna positions [19]

MEASUREMET METHOD FOR RFID EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

In [20] a measurement setup for 13.56 MHz, according to the IEC TC106/156/FDIS standard,
was presented. The setup consisted of a RFID antenna, the electric and magnetic field probes,
and the signal generator and an emulator for RFID signal generation. As described by the
standard, both direct and spatially averaged exposure measurements were performed over the
dense spatial grid. The measurement points and density of the spatial grid depend on the type
and position of the used RFID antennas and are described in detail in IEC-62369-1.


Figure 12. Measurement setup for 13.56 MHz RFID system exposure assessment









18

ELECTRIC/HYBRID CARS



GENERAL INFORMATION

Although the electric cars were developed in 19
th
century, the mass interest revived in 1990s,
primarily due to energy crises and effusive air pollution. The global economic recession in
late 2000s led to the increase abandonment of fuel-inefficient SUVs in favor of small hybrid
cars. In 2008, Tesla Motors delivered Tesla Roadster, which was sold (in 2011) in more than
1500 copies, in more than 31 countries. In the last few years (from 2009) almost all serious
car manufacturers have developed at least one version of the electric/hybrid car. Since the
electrical and hybrid technologies were recognized as very promising regarding this area,
even more rapid development of the electric/hybrid cars could be expected in the near future.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Hybrid vehicles use the combination of gasoline engine and electric motor, while the electric
vehicles use purely electrical propulsion. The electric motor of a hybrid car is positioned in
the front part of a car as it is shown in Figure 17. The schematic preview of the full hybrid car
electric system is shown in Figure 18. The electric energy is stored in the high voltage
batteries which are connected with the electric motor via electric cables which are situated
below the passengers feet.


Figure 13. Scheme of hybrid car Honda Civic IMA [21]

19


Figure 14. Scheme of the full hybrid car electric system [22]

In the hybrid/electric cars, static and ELF magnetic fields are generated primarily due to the
currents that flow through the circuits in the vehicle. An example of the starter motor currents
in time domain is shown in Figure 19.


Figure 15. Starter motor currents in time domain [22]






20

MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE FOR ELECTRIC/HYBRID CAR EXPOSURE
ASSESSMENT

Since electric/hybrid cars mainly generate ELF magnetic fields, the suitable measurement
equipment, for the exposure and legal limit compliance assessments, are DC and low-
frequency isotropic magnetic field probes, with suitable amplitude and frequency ranges (
[21] and [23]).
In [21], for all metrological studies the frequency-selective measuring system NIFSPEC
(developed in-house), in combination with commercially available field probes, was used.
This combination enabled the analysis of the real-time analog outputs of the probes. In
addition to the magnetic field probes, the motor currents and battery currents were measured
using the current probes. The full measurement setup is presented in Figure 20.


Figure 16. The scheme of measurement setup presented in [21]

The measurements for electric car exposure has to be carried out at a certain number of
locations inside the electric/hybrid cars, ensuring data collection at the floor, waist and seat
levels (passengers feet, knees, chest and head). The template that describes the measurement
positions in the car (Figure 21) was proposed in [22]. Moreover, the measurements should be
carried out while the car is in stationary state, while it accelerates and brakes, and at different
constant travelling velocities.

21


Figure 17. Template for measurement positions in electric/hybrid cars [22]

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The electric/hybrid cars mostly generate ELF magnetic fields. The main exposure is expected
from the currents that flow through the cable that connects the high voltage battery with the
electric engine (and which is installed close to the passengers). These fields can penetrate the
human body and produce an electrical current in it. If the induced body currents are too high,
the central nervous system can be excited. The critical issues, regarding hybrid car exposure,
are transient and step currents (like the starter motor currents from Figure 19).
The measured results of ELF magnetic fields generated by electric/hybrid cars were presented
in several studies [21]- [24], and were compared to ordinary gasoline engine cars or other
transportation systems.
The very thorough measurements of exposure, in different electric/hybrid transportation
vehicles, were reported in [21] (three hybrid vehicles, two purely electric vehicles, hybrid
track, electric tractor and hybrid urban bus). In all cases measured values of magnetic fields
were below the ICNIRP limits. Figure 22 shows the measured magnetic field during the start
of the hybrid vehicle.

22


Figure 18. Transient magnetic field emission during the start of the hybrid vehicle: top time
domain, middle frequency domain, bottom comparison with ICNIRP guidelines [21]

In [25] the measured averaged values of minimum and maximum magnetic fields at different
locations in the hybrid car were presented. Additionally, the measurements were performed
while car was resting, moving at constant velocity and during acceleration/deceleration. Since
the cable was positioned at the left side of the car with batteries below rear seat, it was found
that the highest magnetic fields were induced at the rear and at the left side of the car.
Similarly, in [23], the ELF magnetic field strength values were measured in the frequency
range 0-32 kHz, in four different driving conditions (stationary, traveling 30-40 km/h, 80-100
km/h and high speed cruising) for Honda Civic IMA and Lexus RX 400h. The higher
measured values were reported at the rear seats at the feet level, especially at velocities 80-
100 km/h.
The comparison of the measured ELF magnetic field values in hybrid car (Volvo V60 test
vehicle), driven by gasoline and electric engine, was presented in [22] (Figure 25). The
measurements were carried out according to template shown in Figure 21. The results showed
that the generated magnetic fields are generally lower when the car is driven by electrical
engine. The similar behavior was also reported in [24]. This could be due to careful cable
positioning in hybrid cars which insures lower overall magnetic field.
The mentioned studies showed that although ELF magnetic fields, generated by hybrid cars,
show significant alterations (caused by different driving conditions and measurement
locations), the measured values are far beneath the ICNIRP guidelines, even for the worst
case measurement position near the passengers feet.


23




Figure 19. The measured RMS values of the magnetic flux density in the passenger
compartment in a plug-in hybrid Volvo V60 test vehicle when: a) the diesel engine was used
and b) the electric engine was used [22]









a)
b)
24

DECT DIGITAL ENHANCED CORDLESS
TELECOMMUNICATIONS


GENERAL INFORMATION

DECT is digital communication standard primarily
used for cordless phone systems. It is flexible
digital cordless access system for communications
in home, office and public environments, used
mainly for voice communication (although the data
applications also exist). In January 2011 a low
power variant DECT ULE was discussed and in
September 2011 first commercially available DECT
ULE device was presented. This standard enabled
home automation, security, healthcare and energy
monitoring applications providing the connection of
several DECT devices to the web.
Figure 20. The base unit and handset
of DECT cordless telephone [26]

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTIC

As it is shown in Figure 27, the DECT system consists of the base station and the handset.
DECT works at frequencies 1880.928-1898.208 MHz (17.28 MHz bandwidth) [27]. The
17.28 MHz bandwidth is divided in 10 carriers, separated by 1.728 MHz. DECT uses TDMA
transmission scheme with data rates of 32 kb/s. TDMA is based on 10 ms frames having 24
timeslots. The DECT signals are transmitted in bursts which results in a difference between
the peak and the average power. The peak power in a burst is 250 mW. Thus, the average
power, when it sends only 1 slot out of 24, is 10 mW. The typical average power of a base
station is between 10 and 125 mW.

MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE FOR DECT EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The measurement procedure for DECT exposure assessment was suggested in [27] and [28].
The measurement setup (Figure 28) is based on:
- DECT telephone;
- receiving antenna mounted on the wooden tripod;
- spectrum analyzer with the following parameters:
- start frequency 1.88 GHz
- stop frequency 1.9 GHz
- sweep time: 1 ms


25


Figure 21. Measure setup for DECT exposure assessment [28]

On spectrum analyzer one can obtain:

1. the beacon pulses form the fixed part in the frequency domain (Figure 29a)
2. the beacon pulses in the time domain (ZERO-SPAN mode)
3. the detection of incoming call. The incoming call is detected in another carrier in the
frequency domain Figure 29b. To visualize two beacons in time domain (ZERO-
SPAN mode) the sweep time must be at least 15 ms since two beacons are separated
for 10 ms (Figure 29c)


Figure 22. a) Beacon pulses from the fixed part frequency domain, b) beacon and incoming
call frequency domain, c) beacons from the fixed part time domain [28]

a)
b)
c)
26


HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

In [27] the human exposure assessment to DECT stations was reported. The measuremetns
were performed for heights and different distances from the DECT base station in corridors
and working places. The measurements were carried out with half-wave dipoles, for all three
orthogonal polarizations. As it can be noticed from Tables 5-7 the measured values were
significantly lower than maximum permissible exposure levels (the maximum noted power of
40 dBm correspodents to power densiti of 0.03 mW/m
2
, regarding the wavelength and
antenna effective area).

Table 4. Measured power at d=3.6 m, h=1.9 m from DECT base station [27]
Polarization a b c
Measured
power
-50 dBm -55 dBm -61 dBm

Table 5. Measured power at d=4.5 m, h=1.6 m from DECT base station [27]
Polarization a b c
Measured
power
-65 dBm -40 dBm -64 dBm

Table 6. Measured power at d=5.5 m, h=1 m from DECT base station [27]
Polarization a b c
Measured
power
-65 dBm -66 dBm -62 dBm





















27


WiMAX WORLDWIDE INTEROPERABILITY FOR MICROWAVE
ACCESS

GENERAL INFORMATION

WiMAX is a part of 4G wireless communication technology, designed to provide 30 or 40
Mbit/s data rates up to 50 km radius. In 2011 the upgrade up to 1 Gbit/s was suggested. The
potential applications of WiMAX are:
- portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities
- wireless alternative to DSL for last mile broadband access
- data, telecommunication and IPTV services
- smart grids and metering
Although WiMAX was considered to be a replacement for GSM/UMTS technologies,
majority thinks that LTE will most probably completely extrude WiMAX in that field.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTIC

The basic operational characteristics of different WiMAX releases are summarized in Table 8.

Table 7. WiMAX operational characteristics
Release Family
Radio
Technology
Data rates (Mbit/s)
Downstream Upstream
WiMAX rel 1 802.16
MIMO-
SOFDMA
37 (10 MHz TDD) 17 (10 MHz TDD)
WiMAX rel 1.5
802.16
2009
83 (20 MHz TDD)
141 (2*20 MHz FDD)
46 (20 MHz TDD)
138 (2*20 MHz FDD)
WiMAX rel 2 802.16m
2*2 MIMO:
110 (20 MHz TDD)
183 (2*20 MHz FDD)

4*4 MIMO:
219 (20 MHz TDD)
365 (2*20 MHz FDD)
2*2 MIMO:
70 (20 MHz TDD)
188 (2*20 MHz FDD)

4*4 MIMO:
140 (20 MHz TDD)
376 (2*20 MHz FDD)

The frequency bands allocated for WiMAX are 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz. Currently,
fixed WiMAX uses both TDD and FDD, while mobile WiMAX uses TDD only. The fixed
WiMAX has channel sizes of 3.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 7 MHz and 10 MHz, while mobile channel
sizes are 5 MHz, 8.75 MHz and 10 MHz.

MEASUREMET METHODS FOR WiMAX BASE STATIONS

The description of measurement setup and procedure for WiMAX exposure assessment is
given in [29] and [30]. The operational characteristics of measured WiMAX system in [29]
were: 3520 MHz downlink, 3420 MHz uplink, channel bandwidth 3.5 MHz, input power 35
dBm with antenna gain of 18 dBi. The measurement setup was based on the measurement
probe connected to spectrum analyzer, as it is shown in Figure 30.
28



Figure 23. Configuration for outdoor measurement with the spectrum analyzer [29]

The RMS detector and PP detector were used together with the MAX-HOLD option during
30 s. In [30] the optimal spectrum analyzer settings were reported (Table 9).

Table 8. Optimal spectrum analyzer settings for different channel bandwidths of the WiMAX
signal [30]


HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The assessment of WiMAX exposure in urban environment was presented in [31]. All
measurement results showed that the measured electric field strengths, due to WiMAX
systems, were well below limits suggested by ICNIRP. The percentages of power density
contributions, shown in Figure 31, confirmed that the mobile WiMAX has minor influence to
the overall power density.

Figure 24. Percentages of power density contributions of the different signals [31]

29

UWB ULTRA WIDEBAND

GENERAL INFORMATION

UWB is an emerging technology which is expected to ensure a high speed interconnection for
WBAN and WPAN, due to its features of multi-path compensation, lower consume power,
high transmission speed and simple structure. Federal Communication Commission defined
the UWB signal as the signal that has a ratio of the bandwidth to center frequency larger than
0.2 or a bandwidth larger than 500 MHz. The achievable data rates are cca. 480 Mbit/s. The
UWB is expected to work in frequency range 3.1-10.6 GHz.

MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

Narrowband measurements using a spectrum analyzer (e.g. RBW 100 kHz, VBW 3 MHz,
RMS-Detector, Band Power, time averaging) and application of a corresponding bandwidth
correction factor should be used. Usage of broadband digital oscilloscopes, for UWB
exposure assessment, cannot be recommended due to their limited sensitivity and their high
price compared to medium class spectrum analyzers [32].

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The extremely low levels of the human exposure due to UWB communication devices could
be expected, since their maximum averaged spectral power density is restricted to -43.1
dBm/MHz EIRP (by the current regulations in the USA and Europe). This means that, even
for the 100% spectrum usage, the average EIRP in USA will not exceed approx. 0.5 mW, and
in Europe 0.3 mW (since European UWB regulation is more restrictive below 3.4 GHz,
between 4.8-6.0 GHz and above 8.5 GHz). Therefore, due to the sensitivity achievable by
standard measurement equipment, the exposure assessment in practice will not be possible
more than 1-2 m away from the devices [32].
However, since the UWB is main candidate for WBAN networks, which are expected to
operate in the near proximity (or even inside) the human body, the careful characterization of
its impact on possible adverse effect should be investigated. Up to now, several studies were
performed, based on FDTD simulations [33]-[35].
In [33], SA/SAR analysis for multiple UWB pulse exposure was carried out, in frequency and
time domain. The SA/SAR calculations were performed for Gaussian pulse limited to -43.1
dBm/MHz EIRP in frequency band from 3.1-10.6 GHz, for the antenna situated near the
chest, ear, eye and waist. The obtained results, summarized in Table 10, show that SA/SAR
levels are well below safety limits.
The similar approach was used in [34] for the assessment of the SAR induced in different
human head models (VHP Visible Human Project, CAD, and SAM - Specific
Anthropomorphic Mannequin) due to UWB exposure. The obtained results shown in Figure
32 demonstrate that there are no risks for the short-term effects.
In [35], a complete calculation of exposure of the human eye (with geometrical resolution of
0.1 mm) to UWB electromagnetic pulses, in the frequency range of 3.1-10.6, 22-29, and 57-
64 GHz, was performed. The results showed that the interaction of UWB pulses with the eye
tissues exhibits the same properties as the interaction of the continuous electromagnetic waves
(CW) with the frequencies from the pulse's frequency spectrum. Moreover, it was shown that
30

under the same exposure conditions the exposure to UWB pulses is many orders of magnitude
lower than the exposure to CW.
Table 9. Averaged SA/SAR [33]




Figure 25. SA
dB
maps inside the head models produced by a single UWB pulse:
a) VHP, b) CAD, c) SAM, (0 dB correspondents to 10 pJ/kg) [34]




















31



WBAN WIRELESS BODY AREA NETWORK


GENERAL INFORMATION

WBAN is technology that will
enable wireless communication
between several sensors units and a
single body unit worn at the human
body (one example is). Although
the main application of this
technology is expected in health
care (which could enable
telemedicine and mHealth Figure
33) it could also be applicable in sports, Figure 26. WBAN for health care [36]
military and security. WBAN is an emerging technology, but its still far from the serious
commercialization.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

WBAN is network technology in which the nodes are placed in immediate proximity to
human body. It is planned to have transmit-only sensor nodes, transceiver nodes and high
capability nodes [37]. These nodes have to be simple, low cost and energy efficient with very
low electromagnetic pollution (which also requires low transmit power). Thus, multihop
approach, where a sensor does not transmit data directly to master node but the data is
forwarded by several nodes, is expected to be applied.

MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES AND HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Since WBAN is expected to work in close proximity to human body, the extensive
investigation of possible adverse effects on human health will have to be carried out.
Although there are several studies that deal with the impact of human body on WBAN
characteristics (e.g. [37]), there is evident lack of comprehensive studies regarding the human
exposure assessment. In [37] the UWB was considered as the possible noninvasive WBAN
communication system, and UWB channel measurements near human body were performed.
The investigation of possible excessive exposure inside the human body, due to 403.5 MHz
WPT system for MICS, was reported in [38]. The simulations were performed using phantom
model, with a point source situated at 22 mm from the sternum. The obtained SAR values for
different input powers (for several MICS devices) are presented in Table 11. As it was shown,
the values higher than those proposed by human protection guideline were reported for
Capsule Endoscope, and SAR values near the allowed limits were found for Cohlear Implants.

32



Table 10. Required input powers for a WPT system to
operate MICS devices, and I g, 109 averaged SAR values for
the given input power [38]
































33

WORKERS EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

TETRA TRANS-EUROPEAN TRUNKED RADIO

GENERAL INFORMATION

TETRA is a professional mobile radio designed for use by government
agencies, emergency services, public safety networks, transportation stuff
and the military. It uses FDMA/TDMA with four user channels on one
radio carrier with 25 kHz spacing between carriers.
TETRA mobile station can operate in two basic modes: direct-mode
operation and trunked-mode operation. Although the TATRA system is
mainly used for voice or dispatch services, it also supports several types of
data communication.
TETRA uses /4 DQPSK modulation with data rate of 36000 bit/s.
Operational frequency band depends on the country, but the usual
operational frequencies are between 380 and 460 MHz. The TETRA
transmit power is not constant. The ratio of the peak to RMS power is 3.5
dB. Figure 27. TETRA
radio [39]

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT (MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATIONS)

In [40] the project SAFE TETRA was presented. The safety of patients with active electronic
implants (pacemakers, implantable defibrillator, etc.) near TETRA emitters was investigated.
Additionally, the exposure of the human body caused by the use of TETRA transmitters was
investigated, including the evaluation of typical position of a transmitter in use and numerical
simulation of exposure scenario.
The implants exposed in vitro (phantom with saline water with 0.9 g NaCl/litre, 16 mm under
the water surface) were examined. The TETRA transmitter was positioned 10 mm over the
water surface (Figure 35), with the feeding point of the antenna directly over connections of
the electrodes, since this was found to be the worst position regarding induced power at the
input of the implant.

Figure 28. Measurement setup [40]
34

To ensure the worst possible exposure condition, the TETRA transmitter was set to the
maximum transmitted power in TMO with the TETRA base station simulator, while the
implants were set to most sensitive level.
This study included the investigation of 6 different TETRA transmitters form 3 manufactures
(4 hand-held devices max. 1 W and 2 transmitters with external antenna max. 3 W) and 27
different active electronic implants from 6 manufactures (21 cardiac pacemakers and 6
implanted defibrillators), which yielded 163 exposure scenarios.
The results showed that 24% pacemakers showed interference (inhibition of pulses and
detection of fibrillation) up to a distance of 40 cm. The interference (triggering of electric
shock because of detection of fibrillation) was reported in 33% of investigated defibrillators
but only at the nearest distance to the transmitter.
Regarding this study, the safety distance of 40 cm between TETRA transmitter and active
electronics was suggested.
Beside measurements, the same study included the numerical simulation of exposure using
FDTD based software SEMCAD X. The simulations were performed using human body
model including 6 postures with 4 different models of TETRA transmitters (24 scenarios)
(Figure 36). Although it was show that posture of fingers has a high impact on SAR, the
obtained results were below the basic restriction limit for all scenarios (Figure 37).
The similar studies were also reported in [41] and [42]. In, [41] the distribution of power
absorbed in an anatomically realistic model of the head, exposed to TETRA radios with
monopole/helical antenna at different distances, was calculated using simulation tools. All
obtained results (including those obtained in [42]) showed the compliance with ICNIRP
guideline, regarding occupational exposure.




Figure 29. a) Posture of the human model, b) models of the TETRA transmitters [40]
a)
b)
35


Figure 30. a) Simulation of SAR in the human body model, b) comparison of TETRA
transmitters, c) comparison of postures while using TETRA [40]



























a)
b)
c)
36

ATC AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

GENERAL INFORMATION

Although both the operators and general public can often be
exposed to ATC EMF exposure, the studies that investigate
this problem are quite rare. In [43], in-situ exposure to NDB
for ATC was reported, while in [44] the same authors
reported the study on in-situ occupational and general public
exposure to verbal communication ATC system, based on
VHF/UHF transmission.
The NDB is omnidirectional system that is used for aviation
navigation and it consists of NDB transmitters on the ground
and ADF on aircraft. NDB signals are carrier modulated
signals (by 400 or 1020 Hz) in the frequency range of 190-
1750 kHz. The NDB transmitters are located outside the
airports, on publically accessible terrain, in the operational
mode during the whole day. The maximum radiated powers
of NDB systems are about 100 W. Figure 31. ATC tower [45]
The radars are also very important part of ATC. Two types of pulsed radars, primary and
secondary radar, are used in ATC. Typical PW is 1 s with a PRF of 1 kHz, corresponding to
a period duration of 1 ms, which results with DC of 1:1000. The primary radar determines the
position of aircraft, while the secondary radar acts as an interrogator (it transmits a query to
which the transponder on board the aircraft responds with information about the identity and
height of the object) and operates at much lower power levels. Typical air traffic control
radars have peak powers of 100 kW or more with average powers of a few hundred watts
[46].

MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES

In [43] several different NDB sites, at different airports, were investigated, and the field
strengths at 168 locations were measured. The fields were measured using electric and
magnetic field analyzers (narrowband measurements) and the broadband probes. For the
narrowband setup these setting were applied: RBW of 30 kHz, RMS detector mode, MAX-
HOLD mode during 2 min time interval.
Measurement methods for VHF/UHF verbal communication system exposure assessment
were proposed in [44]. The measurements were carried out in three transmission centers. The
temporal behavior of the VHF signals for 6 days was investigated, and a realistic worst-case
duty cycle of 29 % was determined.
The measurement method and equipment for ATC radar exposure measurement is suggested
in [47]. The proposed measurement setup is based on single-axes E-field antenna for the
frequency ranges up to 3 GHz, connected to SRM software. The following measurement
parameters were suggested for radar frequency determination: RBW of 5 MHz, MAX-HOLD
option applied. Measurement time was suggested to be several minutes since the antenna is
37

only occasionally illuminated by radar. For the peak and average field strengths
measurements in Time Analysis mode, the following parameters were suggested:
- Peak: RBW of 6 MHz, PEAK detector, MAX-HOLD
- Average: RBW of 6 MHz, AVG detector, average time approx. 6 min
The measurements should be performed in each of the tree-spatial directions separately.

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

The measurement results, regarding the exposure to NDB, obtained in [43], are presented in
Table 12. Beside electric and magnetic fields, the exposure ratio of an NDB site (defined as a
ratio between the maximum measured magnetic/electric field value and corresponding
ICNIRP reference level) was calculated (ER<1 satisfy ICNIRP guidelines). As it was shown,
the measured values were above ICNIRP reference levels for occupational exposure.
However, all values were below ICNIRP limits regarding general public exposure.
Based on these measurements, the maximal compliance distances from NDB antenna for
electric/magnetic fields for occupational/general public exposure were calculated (Figure 40).
The highest obtained compliance distances were 1.6 m from the NDB antenna for
occupational exposure and 10.6 m for the general public.


Figure 32. Maximal compliance distances form NDB antenna for electric and magnetic fields
for a) occupational exposure, b) general public exposure [43]

Table 11. Measured electric/magnetic fields due to NDB at different locations and sites [43]
38



The measured EM fields due to VHF/UHF transmission, obtained in [44], showed full
compliance with ICNIRP reference values. Electric field varied from 0.2 to 21.1 V/m for
occupational exposure, and from 0.007 to 8.0 V/m for general public exposure. The average
fields were found to be 5.2 V/m, for workers, and 0.7 V/m for general public.






















39

TRAINS, RAILWAY POWER PLANTS

Due to the progressive development of the 22.5 kV 50 Hz electrification system of the
European high-speed railways, several studies were performed regarding both the
electromagnetic compatibility with the previous railway systems operated by DC electrical
lines and the human exposure to generated ELF EM fields [48]-[4]. Beside the high currents
[48], the large inductors (resonant stopband filters) installed along the railway infrastructure,
were recognized as a critical points, [49] and [50].

MEASUREMENT METHODOLOGIES

In [49] the measurement setup based on three-axes Hall-effect DC magnetometer for the
measurement of magnetic flux density and a Hall-effect probe for high currents connected to
multimeter was proposed. The measurements were performed along the spatial grid of 15
points at the distance of 90 cm from the inductor axis. The magnetic flux density and the input
currents were synchronously measured with sampling time of 1 s during the train passage
along the railway line.
The differentiating/integrating measurement scheme was presented in [48] for measurements
of all currents at the cross section of the railways. Three types of current sensors were
developed covering the full current range up to 20 kA. The setup was realized for the purpose
of the examination of EMC of the railway system with its immediate environment.
In [51] all measurements were performed using broadband ELF magnetic field probes along
the sufficiently dense spatial grid (as shown at Figure 43).

EXPOSURE IN TRAINS

In [50], a study of EM interference in peacemakers (on board on high-speed trains, due to
magnetic field generated by filters along the track) was performed (using different numerical
techniques). The comparison of the calculated magnetic fields with the magnetic field safety
standard limits, with and without coach present, showed full compliance with safety
standards. As it was reported, the magnetic flux density produced by the filters and the
corresponding voltages induced on peacemakers by the time varying magnetic flux are clearly
below the normative limits.
In [51] measurements between cars, in driver compartment, passenger cars, dining car and
kitchen were performed (Figure 43). The spatial distributions of electric and magnetic fields
over the broad frequency spectrum were recorded. All measured values were within ICNIRP
general public levels.

40


Figure 33. Electric and magnetic field measurements in trains [51]

EXPOSURE IN RAILWAY POWER PLANTS

In [49], a measurement system and a procedure for the postprocessing of the measurement
data was proposed for onsite characterization of the static magnetic eld generated by large
inductors installed along the 3 kV DC railway infrastructure. Moreover, the minimum
distance from the coil axis, for people with implanted electronic medical devices (e.g.,
pacemakers), was determined and related to the DC current through the lter.
In [51], electric and magnetic fields were measured at generator, power lines and transformer
(Figure 45). Magnetic fields (with sharp spatial distribution and significant harmonic content)
exceeding the ICNIRP occupational levels (exceeding 1500 T at 16.66 Hz) near power lines
were recorded (Figure 46).


Figure 34. Electric and magnetic field measurement environments in railway power plants
[51]

Figure 35. Recorded fields near power lines: a) electric and magnetic fields in frequency
domain, b) spatial distribution of magnetic field [51]



a) b)
41

WELDING

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

The overview of the welding methodologies is presented in Figure 47.


Figure 36. Selection of welding methodologies [52]

In arc welding (MIG/MAG) high currents with complex, non-sinusoidal shape are applied:
- pulsed DC currents of up to several 100 A (Figure 48a);
- currents with broad frequency spectrum form DC to several 100 kHz (Figure 49b).
The complex electric currents induce complex magnetic fields at the welders workspace (up
to several 100 T at the welders position and few mT on the surface of the torch cable). On
the other hand, electric fields can be neglected.


Figure 37. Welding currents: a) pulsed DC currents, b) currents with broad frequency
spectrum [53]

HUMAN EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT (MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATIONS)

In [52] the exposure evaluation for welding devices together with calculation of the induced
current densities in the human body was reported. Since the measurements performed using
broadband probes (used in most studies) were reported as inadequate, the new measurement
method was suggested. The measurement setup (shown in Figure 49) based on Time and
Frequency Domain View was proposed. The magnetic fields and currents were recorded using
a) b)
42

magnetic field probes and currents clamps, and the obtained results were converted in
time/frequency domain using FFT.


Figure 38. Measurement equipment for welding exposure assessment [52]

The measurements based on suggested measurement setup reported the measured fields
exceeding reference values up to 21.9 times for MAG welding and 137 times for WIG
welding.
To examine the compliance with basic restrictions the FDTD simulations, using SEMCAD X,
were performed. The current densities in the central nervous system were obtained using VHP
(Figure 50). The comparison of obtained results for reference values and basic restrictions is
given in Table 13. It can be noticed that the reference values were considerably excided.
However, only 26% of the basic restriction was reached.


Figure 39. Visible Human Phantom [52]

Table 12. Comparison of reference values with basic restrictions [52]
Welding Process EQ Reference Value [%] EQ Base Limit Value [%]
MIG 354,5 26,2
WIG 179,9 11,7
Resistance welding 659,7 11,2

43

In [54] the description and assessment of uncertainty budget for the previously described
setup was performed. The uncertainties due to measurement setup, the field source, the
methodology, the influences of environment, as well as the uncertainties arising from
combining all these contributions to an overall uncertainty were described. As an example, in
Table 14, the established uncertainty budget for AC measurements with ELT-400 is
presented.

Table 13. Uncertainty budget for the measurements with ELT-400 field meter [54]















44


SUMMARY

In this work a knowledge base of EMF sources, their characteristics and human exposure
conditions, was presented, especially regarding emerging technologies and workers exposure
assessment. For every technology the operational characteristics together with the human
exposure assessment and the measurement methodologies were presented, using the literature
search, data obtained from the host group, and in situ observations.
The work encompassed overview of emerging technologies (LTE, UWB, WBAN, WiMAX,
electric cars), some well-known technologies (WLAN, RFID and DECT) and workers
exposure in different environments (welding, electric cars, trains, railway power plants,
TETRA, ATC).
The gained overview of exposure conditions could help preparing the scientific basis for
further studies, as well as for procedures for emerging technologies and workplace exposure
assessment, regarding: EMF measurement, EMF calculation, and uncertainties thereof.



45



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49



ABBREVIATIONS

3G 3
rd
Generation
3GPP 3
rd
Generation Partnership Project
4G 4
th
Generation
AC Alternating Currents
ADF Automatic Direction Finder
AP Access Point
ASK Amplitude-Shift Keying
ATC Air Traffic Control
AVG Average
CAD Computer Aided Design
CRS Code-Specific Reference Signal
CW Continuous Wave
DC Duty Cycle
DC Direct Currents
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
DECT ULE DECT Ultra Low Energy
DMO Direct Mode Operation
DQPSK Differential Phase-Shift Keying
DSL Digital Subscriber Loop
DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum
EIRP Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power
ELF Extreme Low Frequencies
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMF Electromagnetic Fields
EPC Evolved Pocket Core
ER Exposure Ratio
EUTRAN Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FDTD Finite-Difference Time-Domain
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FSK Frequency-Shift Keying
GSM Global System for Mobile Telecommunications
HSPA High Speed Pocket Access
ICNIRP International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
ID Identification
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IP Internet Protocol
IPTV IP Television
ITU International Telecommunication Unit
50

LTE Long Term Evolution
MAG Metal Active Gas
MICS Medical Implanted Communication Service
MIG Metal Inert Gas
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
NDB Non-Directional Beacons
NFC Near Field Communications
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
PC Personal Computer
PP Peak Power
PRF Pulse Repetition Rate
PSS Primary Synchronization Signal
PW Pulse Width
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
RBW Resolution Bandwidth
RF Radio Frequency
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RMS Root Mean Square
SA Specific Absorption
SAM Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin
SAR Specific Absorption Rate
SC-FDMA Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
SRM Selective Radiation Meter
SSS Secondary Synchronization Signal
SUV Sport Utility Vehicle
TDD Time Division Duplex
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TETRA Trans-European Trunked Radio
TMO Trunked Mode Operation
UHF Ultra High Frequencies
UWB Ultra Wideband
VBW Video Bandwidth
VHF Very High Frequencies
VHP Visible Human Phantom
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
WBAN Wireless Body Area Network
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WIG Wolfram Inert Gas
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network
WPT Wireless Power Transmission