Crystal oscillator

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A miniature 4 MHz uartz crystal enclosed in a hermetically sealed H!"4#$%& package, used as the resonator in a crystal oscillator' A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vi(rating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal )ith a very precise fre uency' *his fre uency is commonly used to keep track of time +as in uartz )rist)atches,, to provide a sta(le clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to sta(ilize fre uencies for radio transmitters and receivers' *he most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the uartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them (ecame kno)n as -crystal oscillators'.uartz crystals are manufactured for fre uencies from a fe) tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz' More than t)o (illion +/012#, crystals are manufactured annually' Most are small devices for consumer devices such as )rist)atches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones' .uartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement e uipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes'

Contents
3hide4

1 History / 5peration 6 Modeling

o o o

6'1 7lectrical model 6'/ 8esonance modes 6'6 *emperature effects

4 7lectrical oscillators
o

4'1 &purious fre uencies

9 !ommonly used crystal fre uencies : !rystal structures and materials

; &ta(ility and aging < !rystal cuts # !ircuit notations and a((reviations 12 &ee also 11 8eferences 1/ 7=ternal links

[edit] History

!ollection of several older crystals >iezoelectricity )as discovered (y Jac ues and >ierre !urie in 1<<2' >aul ?angevin first investigated uartz resonators for use in sonar during World War @' *he first crystal"controlled oscillator, using a crystal of 8ochelle salt, )as (uilt in 1#1; and patented314 in 1#1< (y Ale=ander M' Aicholson at Bell *elephone ?a(oratories, although his priority )as disputed (y Walter Cuyton !ady'3/4 !ady (uilt the first uartz crystal oscillator in 1#/1'364 5ther early innovators in uartz crystal oscillators include C' W' >ierce and ?ouis 7ssen' .uartz crystal oscillators )ere developed for high"sta(ility fre uency references during the 1#/2s and 1#62s' By 1#/: uartz crystals )ere used to control the fre uency of radio (roadcasting stations and )ere popular )ith amateur radio operators'344 @n 1#/<, Warren Marrison +of Bell *elephone ?a(oratories, developed the first uartz crystal clock' *his invention replaced the escapement and pendulum +as the timing reference,, relying instead on the natural vi(rations occurring in the uartz crystal as the oscillator' *his improved timing accuracies to 1 sec in 62 years +or 62ms$year,'394 A num(er of firms started producing uartz crystals for electronic use during this time' %sing )hat are no) considered primitive methods, a(out 122,222 crystal units )ere produced in the %nited &tates during 1#6#' During WW/, demand for accurate fre uency control of military radio e uipment spurred rapid development of the crystal manufacturing industry' &uita(le uartz (ecame a critical )ar material, )ith much of it imported from Brazil' @n 1#:<, Juergen &taudte invented a process for manufacturing uartz crystal oscillators )hile )orking at Aorth American Aviation +no) 8ock)ell,' &taudte patented his invention, )hich used a photolithographic process that is similar to the )ay integrated circuits are made' @n 1#;2 he left Aorth American Aviation to start his o)n company, &tatek, in 5range, !alifornia' &tatek (egan manufacturing and marketing the uartz oscillators in 1#;1'3:4

Although crystal oscillators still most commonly use uartz crystals, devices using other materials are (ecoming more common, such as ceramic resonators'

[edit] Operation

!rystal oscillation modes A crystal is a solid in )hich the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern e=tending in all three spatial dimensions' Almost any o(Eect made of an elastic material could (e used like a crystal, )ith appropriate transducers, since all o(Eects have natural resonant fre uencies of vi(ration' For e=ample, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound' @t )as often used in mechanical filters (efore uartz' *he resonant fre uency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material' High"fre uency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate' ?o)"fre uency crystals, such as those used in digital )atches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork' For applications not needing very precise timing, a lo)"cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a uartz crystal' When a crystal of uartz is properly cut and mounted, it can (e made to distort in an electric field (y applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal' *his property is kno)n as piezoelectricity' When the field is removed, the uartz )ill generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage' *he result is that a uartz crystal (ehaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, )ith a precise resonant fre uency' +&ee 8?! circuit', .uartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a )ay that the fre uency dependence on temperature can (e very lo)' *he specific characteristics )ill depend on the mode of vi(ration

and the angle at )hich the uartz is cut +relative to its crystallographic a=es,'3;4 *herefore, the resonant fre uency of the plate, )hich depends on its size, )ill not change much, either' *his means that a uartz clock, filter or oscillator )ill remain accurate' For critical applications the uartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature"controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also (e mounted on shock a(sor(ers to prevent pertur(ation (y e=ternal mechanical vi(rations'

[edit] Modeling
[edit] Electrical model

7lectronic sym(ol for a piezoelectric crystal resonator

&chematic sym(ol and e uivalent circuit for a uartz crystal in an oscillator A uartz crystal can (e modeled as an electrical net)ork )ith a lo) impedance +series, and a high impedance +parallel, resonance point spaced closely together' Mathematically +using the ?aplace transform, the impedance of this net)ork can (e )ritten as:

or,

)here s is the comple= fre uency +s F jG,, Gs is the series resonant fre uency in radians per second and Gp is the parallel resonant fre uency in radians per second' Adding additional capacitance across a crystal )ill cause the parallel resonance to shift do)n)ard' *his can (e used to adEust the fre uency at )hich a crystal oscillates' !rystal manufacturers normally cut and trim their

crystals to have a specified resonance fre uency )ith a kno)n HloadH capacitance added to the crystal' For e=ample, a crystal intended for a : pF load has its specified parallel resonance fre uency )hen a :'2 pF capacitor is placed across it' Without this capacitance, the resonance fre uency is higher'

[edit] Resonance modes

A uartz crystal provides (oth series and parallel resonance' *he series resonance is a fe) kilohertz lo)er than the parallel one' !rystals (elo) 62 MHz are generally operated (et)een series and parallel resonance, )hich means that the crystal appears as an inductive reactance in operation' Any additional circuit capacitance )ill thus pull the fre uency do)n' For a parallel resonance crystal to operate at its specified fre uency, the electronic circuit has to provide a total parallel capacitance as specified (y the crystal manufacturer' !rystals a(ove 62 MHz +up to I/22 MHz, are generally operated at series resonance )here the impedance appears at its minimum and e ual to the series resistance' For these crystals the series resistance is specified +J122 K, instead of the parallel capacitance' *o reach higher fre uencies, a crystal can (e made to vi(rate at one of its overtone modes, )hich occur at multiples of the fundamental resonant fre uency' 5nly odd num(ered overtones are used' &uch a crystal is referred to as a 6rd, 9th, or even ;th overtone crystal' *o accomplish this, the oscillator circuit usually includes additional ?! circuits to select the desired overtone'

[edit] Temperature effects

A crystalHs fre uency characteristic depends on the shape or HcutH of the crystal' A tuning fork crystal is usually cut such that its fre uency over temperature is a para(olic curve centered around /9 L!' *his means that a tuning fork crystal oscillator )ill resonate close to its target fre uency at room temperature, (ut )ill slo) do)n )hen the temperature either increases or decreases from room temperature' A common para(olic coefficient for a 6/ kHz tuning fork crystal is M2'24 ppm$L!N'

@n a real application, this means that a clock (uilt using a regular 6/ kHz tuning fork crystal )ill keep good time at room temperature, lose / minutes per year at 12 degrees !elsius a(ove +or (elo), room temperature and lose < minutes per year at /2 degrees !elsius a(ove +or (elo), room temperature due to the uartz crystal'

[edit] Electrical oscillators

A crystal used in ho((y radio control e uipment to select fre uency' *he crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation (y taking a voltage signal from the uartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it (ack to the resonator' *he rate of e=pansion and contraction of the uartz is the resonant

fre uency, and is determined (y the cut and size of the crystal' When the energy of the generated output fre uencies matches the losses in the circuit, an oscillation can (e sustained' An oscillator crystal has t)o electrically conductive plates, )ith a slice or tuning fork of uartz crystal sand)iched (et)een them' During startup, the circuit around the crystal applies a random noise A! signal to it, and purely (y chance, a tiny fraction of the noise )ill (e at the resonant fre uency of the crystal' *he crystal )ill therefore start oscillating in synchrony )ith that signal' As the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the signals in the crystalHs fre uency (and )ill (ecome stronger, eventually dominating the output of the oscillator' *he narro) resonance (and of the uartz crystal filters out all the un)anted fre uencies' *he output fre uency of a uartz oscillator can (e either the fundamental resonance or a multiple of the resonance, called an overtone fre uency' High fre uency crystals are often designed to operate at third, fifth, or seventh overtones' A maEor reason for the )ide use of crystal oscillators is their high . factor' A typical Q value for a uartz oscillator ranges from 124 to 12:, compared to perhaps 12/ for an ?! oscillator' *he ma=imum Q for a high sta(ility uartz oscillator can (e estimated as Q F 1': 0 12;$f, )here f is the resonance fre uency in megahertz' 5ne of the most important traits of uartz crystal oscillators is that they can e=hi(it very lo) phase noise' @n many oscillators, any spectral energy at the resonant fre uency )ill (e amplified (y the oscillator, resulting in a collection of tones at different phases' @n a crystal oscillator, the crystal mostly vi(rates in one a=is, therefore only one phase is dominant' *his property of lo) phase noise makes them particularly useful in telecommunications )here sta(le signals are needed, and in scientific e uipment )here very precise time references are needed' 7nvironmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vi(ration can change the resonant fre uency of a uartz crystal, (ut there are several designs that reduce these environmental effects' *hese include the *!O5, M!O5, and 5!O5 +defined (elo),' *hese designs +particularly the 5!O5, often produce devices )ith e=cellent short"term sta(ility' *he limitations in short"term sta(ility are due mainly to noise from electronic components in the oscillator circuits' ?ong term sta(ility is limited (y aging of the crystal' Due to aging and environmental factors +such as temperature and vi(ration,, it is difficult to keep even the (est uartz oscillators )ithin one part in 1212 of their nominal fre uency )ithout constant adEustment' For this reason, atomic oscillators are used for applications re uiring (etter long"term sta(ility and accuracy'

[edit] Spurious frequencies

For crystals operated in series resonance, significant +and temperature"dependent, spurious responses may (e e=perienced' *hese responses typically appear some tens of kilohertz a(ove the )anted series resonance' 7ven if the series resistances at the spurious resonances appear higher than the one at )anted fre uency, the oscillator may lock at a spurious fre uency +at some temperatures,' *his is generally avoided (y using lo) impedance oscillator circuits to enhance the series resistance differences' &purious fre uencies are also generated (y su(Eecting the crystal to vi(rations and are offset to the resonance fre uency (y the fre uency of the vi(rations' &!"cut crystals are designed to have their internal stresses compensated and are therefore less sensitive to vi(rations' Mechanical properties of the mounting assem(ly are ho)ever more significant than the crystal cut'

[edit] Commonly used crystal frequencies

Main article: !rystal oscillator fre uencies

!rystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively fe) standard fre uencies, such as 6'9;#949 MHz, 12 MHz, 14'61< MHz, /2 MHz, 66'66 MHz, and 42 MHz' *he popularity of the 6'9;#949 MHz crystals is due to lo) cost since they are used for A*&! color television receivers' %sing fre uency dividers, fre uency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a )ide range of fre uencies from one reference fre uency' 14'61< MHz is used in computer video displays to generate a (itmapped video display for A*&! color monitors, such as the !CA used )ith the original @BM >!' +*he @BM >! used 14'61< MHz, divided (y three, as its 4';; MHz clock source, using one crystal for t)o purposes', !rystals can (e manufactured for oscillation over a )ide range of fre uencies, from a fe) kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz' Many applications call for a crystal oscillator fre uency conveniently related to some other desired fre uency, so hundreds of standard crystal fre uencies are made in large uantities and stocked (y electronics distri(utors'

[edit] Crystal structures and materials

!luster of natural uartz crystals

A synthetic uartz crystal gro)n (y the hydrothermal synthesis, a(out 1# cm long and )eighing a(out 1/; grams'

*uning fork crystal

&imple uartz crystal

@nside construction of a modern high performance H!"4# package uartz crystal

Fle=ural and thickness shear crystals *he most common material for oscillator crystals is uartz' At the (eginning of the technology, natural uartz crystals )ere usedP no) synthetic crystalline uartz gro)n (y hydrothermal synthesis is predominant due to higher purity, lo)er cost, and more convenient handling' 5ne of the fe) remaining uses of natural crystals is for pressure transducers in deep )ells' During World War @@ and for some time after)ards, natural uartz )as considered a strategic material (y the %&A' ?arge crystals )ere imported from Brazil' 8a) -lascas-, the source material uartz for hydrothermal synthesis, are imported to %&A or mined locally (y !oleman .uartz' *he average value of as"gro)n synthetic uartz in 1##4 )as %&D:2$kg'3<4

*)o types of uartz crystals e=ist: left"handed and right"handed, differing in the optical rotation (ut identical in other physical properties' Both left and right"handed crystals can (e used for oscillators, if the cut angle is correct' @n manufacture, right"handed uartz is generally used'3#4 *he &i54 tetrahedrons form parallel heli=esP the direction of t)ist of the heli= determines the left" or right"hand orientation' *he heli=es are aligned along the z" a=is and merged together, sharing atoms' *he mass of the heli=es forms a mesh of small and large channels parallel to the z"a=isP the large ones are large enough to allo) some mo(ility of smaller ions and molecules through the crystal'3124 .uartz e=ists in several phases' At 9;6 L! at 1 atmosphere +and at higher temperatures and higher pressures, the Q" uartz undergoes uartz inversion, transforms reversi(ly to R" uartz' *he reverse process ho)ever is not entirely homogeneous and crystal t)inning occurs' !are has to (e taken during manufacture and processing to avoid the phase transformation' 5ther phases, e'g' the higher"temperature phases tridymite and cristo(alite, are not significant for oscillators' All uartz oscillator crystals are the Q" uartz type' @nfrared spectrophotometry is used as one of the methods for measuring the uality of the gro)n crystals' *he )avenum(ers 69<9, 6922, and 6412 cmM1 are commonly used' *he measured value is (ased on the a(sorption (ands of the 5H radical and the infrared . value is calculated' *he electronic grade crystals, grade !, have . of 1'< million or a(oveP the premium grade B crystals have . of /'/ million, and special premium grade A crystals have . of 6'2 million' *he . value is calculated only for the z regionP crystals containing other regions can (e adversely affected' Another uality indicator is the etch channel densityP )hen the crystal is etched, tu(ular channels are created along linear defects' For processing involving etching, e'g' the )rist)atch tuning fork crystals, lo) etch channel density is desira(le' *he etch channel density for s)ept uartz is a(out 12"122 and significantly more for uns)ept uartz' >resence of etch channels and etch pits degrades the resonatorHs . and introduces nonlinearities'3114 .uartz crystals can (e gro)n for specific purposes' !rystals for A*"cut are the most common in mass production of oscillator materialsP the shape and dimensions are optimized for high yield of the re uired )afers' High"purity uartz crystals are gro)n )ith especially lo) content of aluminium, alkali metal and other impurities and minimal defectsP the lo) amount of alkali metals provides increased resistance to ionizing radiation' !rystals for )rist )atches, for cutting the tuning fork 6/;:< Hz crystals, are gro)n )ith very lo) etch channel density' !rystals for &AW devices are gro)n as flat, )ith large O"size seed )ith lo) etch channel density' &pecial high". crystals, for use in highly sta(le oscillators, are gro)n at constant slo) speed and have constant lo) infrared a(sorption along the entire S a=is' !rystals can (e gro)n as T"(ar, )ith a seed crystal in (ar shape and elongated along the T a=is, or as S"plate, gro)n from a plate seed )ith T"a=is direction length and O"a=is )idth'3#4 *he region around the seed crystal contains a large num(er of crystal defects and should not (e used for the )afers' !rystals gro) anisotropicallyP the gro)th along the S a=is is up to 6 times faster than along the O a=is' *he gro)th direction and rate also influences the rate of uptake of impurities'31/4 T"(ar crystals, or S"plate crystals )ith long T a=is, have four gro)th regions usually called UO, "O, S, and &'3164 *he distri(ution of impurities during gro)th is unevenP different gro)th areas contain different level of contaminants' *he z regions are the purest, the small occasionally present s regions are less pure, the U= region is yet less pure, and the "= region has the highest level of impurities' *he impurities have negative impact on radiation hardness, suscepti(ility to t)inning, filter loss, and long and short term sta(ility of the crystals'3144 Different"cut seeds in different orientations may provide other kinds of gro)th regions'3194 *he gro)th speed of the "= direction is slo)est due to the effect of adsorption of )ater molecules on the crystal surfaceP aluminium impurities suppress gro)th in t)o other directions' *he content of aluminium is lo)est in z region, higher in U=, yet higher in "=, and highest in sP the size of s regions also gro)s )ith increased amount of aluminium present' *he content of hydrogen is

lo)est in z region, higher in U= region, yet higher in s region, and highest in "='31:4 Aluminium inclusions transform to color centers )ith a gamma ray irradiation, causing darkening of the crystal proportional to the dose and level of impuritiesP presence of regions )ith different darkness reveals the different gro)th regions' *he dominant type of defect of concern in uartz crystals is the su(stitution of Al+@@@, for &i+@V, atom in the crystal lattice' *he aluminium ion has an associated interstitial charge compensator present near(y, )hich can (e a HU ion +attached to the near(y o=ygen and forming a hydro=yl group, called Al"5H defect,, ?iU ion, AaU ion, WU ion +less common,, or an electron hole trapped in a near(y o=ygen atom or(ital' *he composition of the gro)th solution, )hether it is (ased on lithium or sodium alkali compounds, determines the charge compensating ions for the aluminium defects' *he ion impurities are of concern as they are not firmly (ound and can migrate through the crystal, altering the local lattice elasticity and the resonant fre uency of the crystal' 5ther common impurities of concern are e'g' iron+@@@, +interstitial,, fluorine, (oron+@@@,, phosphorus+V, +su(stitution,, titanium+@V, +su(stitution, universally present in magmatic uartz, less common in hydrothermal uartz,, and germanium+@V, +su(stitution,' &odium and iron ions can cause inclusions of acnite and elemeusite crystals' @nclusions of )ater may (e present in fast"gro)n crystalsP interstitial )ater molecules are a(undant near the crystal seed' Another defect of importance is the hydrogen containing gro)th defect, )hen instead of a &i"5"&i structure a pair of &i"5H H5"&i groups is formedP essentially a hydrolyzed (ond' Fast"gro)n crystals contain more hydrogen defects than slo)"gro)n ones' *hese gro)th defects source as supply of hydrogen ions for radiation"induced processes and forming Al"5H defects' Cermanium impurities tend to trap electrons created during irradiationP the alkali metal cations then migrate to)ards the negatively charged center and form a sta(ilizing comple=' Matri= defects can (e also presentP o=ygen vacancies, silicon vacancies +usually compensated (y 4 hydrogens or 6 hydrogens and a hole,, pero=y groups, etc' &ome of the defects produce localized levels in the for(idden (and, serving as charge trapsP Al+@@@, and B+@@@, typically serve as hole traps )hile electron vacancies, titanium, germanium, and phosphorus atoms serve as electron traps' *he trapped charge carriers can (e released (y heatingP their recom(ination is the cause of thermoluminescence' *he mo(ility of interstitial ions depends strongly on temperature' Hydrogen ions are mo(ile do)n to 12 W, (ut alkali metal ions (ecome mo(ile only at temperatures around and a(ove /22 W' *he hydro=yl defects can (e measured (y near"infrared spectroscopy' *he trapped holes can (e measured (y electron spin resonance' *he Al"AaU defects sho) as an acoustic loss peak due to their stress"induced motionP the Al"?iU defects do not form a potential )ell so are not detecta(le this )ay'31;4 &ome of the radiation induced defects during their thermal annealing produce thermoluminescenceP defects related to aluminium, titanium, and germanium can (e distinguished'31<4 Swept crystals are crystals that undergone a solid"state electrodiffusion purification process' &)eeping involves heating the crystal a(ove 922 L! in a hydrogen"free atmosphere, and the voltage gradient of at least 1 kilovolt$cm, for several +usually over 1/, hours' *he migration of impurities and the gradual replacement of alkali metal ions )ith hydrogen +)hen s)ept in air, or electron holes +)hen s)ept in vacuum, causes a )eak electric current through the crystalP decay of this current to a constant value signals end of the process' *he crystal is then left to cool, )hile the electric field is maintained' *he impurities are concentrated at the cathode region of the crystal, )hich is cut off after)ards and discarded'31#4 &)ept crystals have increased resistance to radiation, as the dose effects are dependent on the level of alkali metal impuritiesP they are suita(le for use in devices e=posed to ionizing radiation, e'g' for nuclear and space technology'3/24 &)eeping under vacuum at higher temperatures and higher field strengths yields yet more radiation"hard crystals'3/14 *he level and character of impurities can (e measured (y infrared spectroscopy' 3//4 .uartz can (e s)ept in (oth Q and R phaseP s)eeping in R phase is faster, (ut the phase transition may induce t)inning' *)inning can (e mitigated (y su(Eecting the crystal to compression stress in the O direction, or an A! or D! electric field along the O a=is )hile the crystal cools through the phase transformation temperature region'3/14 &)eeping can (e also used to introduce one kind of an impurity into the crystal' ?ithium, sodium, and hydrogen s)ept crystals are used for e'g' studying uartz (ehavior'

Very small crystals for high fundamental mode fre uencies can (e manufactured (y photolithography' 3114 !rystals can (e adEusted to e=act fre uency (y laser trimming' A techni ue used in the )orld of amateur radio for slight decrease of the crystal fre uency may (e achieved (y e=posing crystals )ith silver electrodes to vapors of iodine, )hich causes a slight mass increase on the surface (y forming a thin layer of silver iodideP such crystals ho)ever had pro(lematic long"term sta(ility' 3/64 Another method commonly used is electrochemical increase or decrease of silver electrode thickness (y su(merging resonator in lapis solved in )ater, citric acid in )ater, or )ater )ith salt, and using resonator as one electrode, and small silver electrode as another' By choosing direction of current, one can either increase, or decrease mass of electrodes' Details )ere pu(lished in -8adio- magazine +6$1#;<, (y %B9?7V' 8aising fre uency (y scratching off parts of the electrodes is advised against, as this may damage the crystal and lo)er its . factor'3/44 !apacitor trimmers can (e also used for fre uency adEustment of the oscillator circuit' &ome other piezoelectric materials than uartz can (e employedP e'g' single crystals of lithium tantalate, lithium nio(ate, lithium (orate, (erlinite, gallium arsenide, lithium tetra(orate, aluminium phosphate, (ismuth germanium o=ide, polycrystalline zirconium titanate ceramics, high"alumina ceramics, silicon"zinc o=ide composite, or dipotassium tartrateP3/943/:4 some materials may (e more suita(le for specific applications' An oscillator crystal can (e also manufactured (y depositing the resonator material on the silicon chip surface'3/;4 !rystals of gallium phosphate, langasite, langanite and langanate are a(out 12 times more pulla(le than the corresponding uartz crystals, and are used in some V!O5 oscillators'3/<4

[edit] Stability and aging

*he fre uency sta(ility is determined (y the crystalHs .' @t is inversely dependent on the fre uency, and on the constant that is dependent on the particular cut' 5ther factors influencing . are the overtone used, the temperature, the level of driving of the crystal, the uality of the surface finish, the mechanical stresses imposed on the crystal (y (onding and mounting, the geometry of the crystal and the attached electrodes, the material purity and defects in the crystal, type and pressure of the gas in the enclosure, interfering modes, and presence and a(sor(ed dose of ionizing and neutron radiation' *emperature influences the operating fre uencyP various forms of compensation are used, from analog compensation +*!O5, and microcontroller compensation +M!O5, to sta(ilization of the temperature )ith a crystal oven +5!O5,' *he crystals possess temperature hysteresisP the fre uency at a given temperature achieved (y increasing the temperature is not e ual to the fre uency on the same temperature achieved (y decreasing the temperature' *he temperature sensitivity depends primarily on the cutP the temperature compensated cuts are chosen as to minimize fre uency$temperature dependence' &pecial cuts can (e made )ith a linear temperature characteristicsP the ?! cut is used in uartz thermometers' 5ther influencing factors are the overtone used, the mounting and electrodes, impurities in the crystal, mechanical strain, crystal geometry, rate of temperature change, thermal history +due to hysteresis,, ionizing radiation, and drive level' !rystals tend to suffer anomalies in their fre uency$temperature and resistance$temperature characteristics, kno)n as activity dips' *hese are small do)n)ard +in fre uency, or up)ard +in resistance, e=cursions localized at certain temperatures, )ith their temperature position dependent on the value of the load capacitors' Mechanical stresses also influence the fre uency' *he stresses can (e induced (y mounting, (onding, and application of the electrodes, (y differential thermal e=pansion of the mounting, electrodes, and the crystal itself, (y differential thermal stresses )hen there is a temperature gradient present, (y e=pansion or shrinkage of the (onding materials during curing, (y the air pressure that is transferred to the am(ient pressure )ithin the

crystal enclosure, (y the stresses of the crystal lattice itself +nonuniform gro)th, impurities, dislocations,, (y the surface imperfections and damage caused during manufacture, and (y the action of gravity on the mass of the crystalP the fre uency can therefore (e influenced (y position of the crystal' 5ther dynamic stress inducing factors are shocks, vi(rations, and acoustic noise' &ome cuts are less sensitive to stressesP the &! +&tress !ompensated, cut is an e=ample' Atmospheric pressure changes can also introduce deformations to the housing, influencing the fre uency (y changing stray capacitances' Atmospheric humidity influences the thermal transfer properties of air, and can change electrical properties of plastics (y diffusion of )ater molecules into their structure, altering the dielectric constants and electrical conductivity'3/#4 5ther factors influencing the fre uency are the po)er supply voltage, load impedance, magnetic fields, electric fields +in case of cuts that are sensitive to them, e'g' &!,, the presence and a(sor(ed dose of X"particles and ionizing radiation, and the age of the crystal' !rystals undergo slo) gradual change of fre uency )ith time, kno)n as aging' *here are many mechanisms involved' *he mounting and contacts may undergo relief of the (uild"in stresses' Molecules of contamination either from the residual atmosphere, outgassed from the crystal, electrodes or packaging materials, or introduced during sealing the housing can (e adsor(ed on the crystal surface, changing its massP this effect is e=ploited in uartz crystal micro(alances' *he composition of the crystal can (e gradually altered (y outgassing, diffusion of atoms of impurities or migrating from the electrodes, or the lattice can (e damaged (y radiation' &lo) chemical reactions may occur on or in the crystal, or on the inner surfaces of the enclosure' 7lectrode material, e'g' chromium or aluminium, can react )ith the crystal, creating layers of metal o=ide and siliconP these interface layers can undergo changes in time' *he pressure in the enclosure can change due to varying atmospheric pressure, temperature, leaks, or outgassing of the materials inside' Factors outside of the crystal itself are e'g' aging of the oscillator circuitry +and e'g' change of capacitances,, and drift of parameters of the crystal oven' 7=ternal atmosphere composition can also influence the agingP hydrogen can diffuse through nickel housing' Helium can cause similar issues )hen it diffuses through glass enclosures of ru(idium standards'3624 Cold is a favored electrode material for lo)"aging resonatorsP its adhesion to uartz is strong enough to maintain contact even at strong mechanical shocks, (ut )eak enough to not support significant strain gradients +unlike chromium, aluminium, and nickel,' Cold also does not form o=idesP it adsor(s organic contaminants from the air, (ut these are easy to remove' Ho)ever, gold alone can undergo delaminationP a layer of chromium is therefore sometimes used for improved (inding strength' &ilver and aluminium are often used as electrodesP ho)ever (oth form o=ide layers )ith time that increases the crystal mass and lo)ers fre uency' &ilver can (e passivated (y e=position to iodine vapors, forming a layer of silver iodide' Aluminium o=idizes readily (ut slo)ly, until a(out 9 nm thickness is reachedP increased temperature during artificial aging does not significantly increase the o=ide forming speedP a thick o=ide layer can (e formed during manufacture (y anodizing'3614 7=position of silver"plated crystal to iodine vapors can (e also used in amateur conditions for lo)ering the crystal fre uency slightlyP the fre uency can (e also increased (y scratching off parts of the electrodes, (ut that carries risk of damage to the crystal and loss of .' A D! voltage (ias (et)een the electrodes can accelerate the initial aging, pro(a(ly (y induced diffusion of impurities through the crystal' >lacing a capacitor in the series )ith the crystal and a several megaohms resistor in parallel can minimize such voltages' !rystals suffer from minor short"term fre uency fluctuations as )ell' *he main causes of such noise are e'g' thermal noise +)hich limits the noise floor,, phonon scattering +influenced (y lattice defects,, adsorption$desorption of molecules on the surface of the crystal, noise of the oscillator circuits, mechanical shocks and vi(rations, acceleration and orientation changes, temperature fluctuations, and relief of mechanical stresses' *he short"term sta(ility is measured (y four main parameters: Allan variance +the most common one

specified in oscillator datasheets,, phase noise, spectral density of phase deviations, and spectral density of fractional fre uency deviations' *he effects of acceleration and vi(ration tend to dominate the other noise sourcesP surface acoustic )ave devices tend to (e more sensitive than (ulk acoustic )ave +BAW, ones, and the stress"compensated cuts are even less sensitive' *he relative orientation of the acceleration vector to the crystal dramatically influences the crystalHs vi(ration sensitivity' Mechanical vi(ration isolation mountings can (e used for high"sta(ility crystals' !rystals are sensitive to shock' *he mechanical stress causes short"time change in the oscillator fre uency due to the stress"sensitivity of the crystal, and can introduce a permanent change of fre uency due to shock"induced changes of mounting and internal stresses +if the elastic limits of the mechanical parts are e=ceeded,, desorption of contamination from the crystal surfaces, or change in parameters of the oscillator circuit' High magnitudes of shocks may tear the crystals off their mountings +especially the case of large lo)"fre uency crystals suspended on thin )ires,, or cause cracking of the crystal' !rystals free of surface imperfections are highly shock"resistantP chemical polishing can produce crystals a(le to survive tens of thousands g'36/4 >hase noise plays significant role in fre uency synthesis systems using fre uency multiplicationP a multiplication of a fre uency (y A increases the phase noise (y A/' A fre uency multiplication (y 12 times multiplies the phase error (y 122 times' *his can (e disastrous for systems employing e'g' >?? or F&W technologies' !rystals are some)hat sensitive to radiation damage' Aatural uartz is much more sensitive than artificially gro)n crystals, and sensitivity can (e further reduced (y s)eeping the crystal " heating the crystal to at least 422 L! in hydrogen"free atmosphere in electric field of at least 922 V$cm for at least 1/ hours' &uch s)ept crystals have very lo) response to steady ionizing radiation' &ome &i+@V, atoms are replaced )ith Al+@@@, impurities, each having a compensating ?iU or AaU cation near(y' @onization produces electron"hole pairsP the holes are trapped in the lattice near the Al atom, the resulting ?i and Aa atoms are loosely trapped along the S a=isP the change of the lattice near the Al atom and the corresponding elastic constant then causes a corresponding change in fre uency' &)eeping removes the ?iU and AaU ions from the lattice, reducing this effect' *he Al6U site can also trap hydrogen atoms' All crystals have transient negative fre uency shift after e=position to an O"ray pulseP the fre uency then shifts gradually (ackP natural uartz reaches sta(le fre uency after 12Y1222 seconds, )ith negative offset to pre"irradiation fre uency, artificial crystals return to fre uency slightly lo)er or higher than pre"irradiation, s)ept crystals anneal virtually (ack to original fre uency' *he annealing is faster at higher temperatures' &)eeping under vacuum at higher temperatures and field strength can further reduce the crystalHs response to O"ray pulses'3/14 &eries resistance of uns)ept crystals increases after an O"ray dose, and anneals (ack to a some)hat higher value for a natural uartz +re uiring a corresponding gain reserve in the circuit, and (ack to pre"irradiation value for synthetic crystals' &eries resistance of s)ept crystals is unaffected' @ncrease of series resistance degrades .P too high increase can stop the oscillations' Aeutron radiation induces fre uency changes (y introducing dislocations into the lattice (y knocking out atoms, a single fast neutron can produce many defectsP the &! and A* cut fre uency increases roughly linearly )ith a(sor(ed neutron dose, )hile the fre uency of the B* cuts decreases'3664 Aeutrons also alter the temperature"fre uency characteristics' Fre uency change at lo) ionizing radiation doses is proportionally higher than for higher doses' High"intensity radiation can stop the oscillator (y inducing photoconductivity in the crystal and transistorsP )ith a s)ept crystal and properly designed circuit the oscillations can restart )ithin 19 microseconds after the radiation (urst' .uartz crystals )ith high level of alkali metal impurities lose . )ith irradiationP . of s)ept artificial crystals is unaffected' @rradiation )ith higher doses +over 129 rad, lo)ers sensitivity to su(se uent doses' Very lo) radiation doses +(elo) 622 rad, have disproportionally higher effect, (ut this nonlinearity saturates at higher doses' At very high doses, the radiation response of the crystal saturates as )ell, due to finite num(er of impurity sites that can (e affected'3/24 Magnetic fields have lo) effect on the crystal itself, as uartz is diamagneticP eddy currents or A! voltages can ho)ever (e induced into the circuits, and magnetic parts of the mounting and housing may (e influenced'

After the po)er"up, the crystals take several seconds to minutes to -)arm up- and sta(ilize their fre uency' *he oven"controlled 5!O5s re uire usually 6Y12 minutes for heating up and reaching thermal e uili(rium, the oven"less oscillators sta(ilize in several seconds as the fe) milli)atts dissipated in the crystal cause a small (ut noticea(le level of internal heating'3644 !rystals have no inherent failure mechanismsP some are operating in devices for decades' Failures may (e ho)ever introduced (y faults in (onding, leaky enclosures, corrosion, fre uency shift (y aging, (reaking the crystal (y too high mechanical shock, or radiation induced damage )hen nons)ept uartz is used'3694 !rystals can (e also damaged (y overdriving' *he crystals have to (e driven at the appropriate drive level' While A* cuts tend to (e fairly forgiving, and only their electrical parameters, sta(ility and aging characteristics are degraded )hen overdriven, lo)"fre uency crystals, especially fle=ural"mode ones, may fracture at too high drive levels' *he drive level is specified as the amount of po)er dissipated in the crystal' *he appropriate drive levels are a(out 9 micro)atts for fle=ural modes up to 122 kHz, 1 micro)att for fundamental modes at 1"4 MHz, 2'9 micro)atts for fundamental modes 4"/2 MHz, and 2'9 micro)atts for overtone modes at /2"/22 MHz'36:4 *oo lo) drive level may cause pro(lems )ith starting the oscillator' ?o) drive levels are (etter for higher sta(ility and lo)er po)er consumption of the oscillator' Higher drive levels, in turn, reduce the impact of noise (y increasing the signal"to"noise ratio'36;4 *he sta(ility of A* cut crystals decreases )ith increasing fre uency' For more accurate higher fre uencies it is (etter to use a crystal )ith lo)er fundamental fre uency, operating at an overtone' Aging decreases logarithmically )ith time, the highest changes occurring shortly after manufacture' Artificially aging the crystal (y its prolonged storage at (et)een <9"1/9 L! can (e done for increasing long"term sta(ility' A (adly designed oscillator circuit may suddenly (ecome oscillating on an overtoneP in 1#;/, a train in Fremont, !A crashed' An inappropriate value of the tank capacitor caused the crystal in a control (oard to (e overdriven, Eumping to an overtone, and causing the train to speed up instead of slo)ing do)n'36<4

[edit] Crystal cuts

*he resonator plate can (e cut from the source crystal in many different )ays' *he orientation of the cut influences the crystalHs aging characteristics, fre uency sta(ility, thermal characteristics, and other parameters' *hese cuts operate at (ulk acoustic )ave +BAW,P for higher fre uencies, surface acoustic )ave +&AW, devices are employed' @mage of several crystal cuts36#4 Cut requency range Mode !ngles "escription

!T

*he most common cut, developed in 1#64' *he plate contains the crystalHs = a=is and is inclined (y 69L19H from the z +optic, a=is' *he fre uency"temperature curve is a sine"shaped curve )ith inflection point at around /9"69 L!' 69L19H, 2L thickness shear Has fre uency constant 1'::1 MHz"mm'3424 Most +estimated 2'9"622 MH +J/9 MHz, +c"mode, slo) over #2Z, of all crystals are this variant' %sed for z 69L1<H, uasi"shear, oscillators operating in )ider temperature range, for range 2L+I12 MHz, of 2'9 to /22 MHzP also used in oven"controlled oscillators' 3414 &ensitive to mechanical stresses, )hether caused (y e=ternal forces or (y temperature gradients' *hickness" shear crystals typically operate in fundamental mode at 1"

SC

62 MHz, 6rd overtone at 62"#2 MHz, and 9th overtone at #2"192 MHzP34/4 according to other source they can (e made for fundamental mode operation up to 622 MHz, though that mode is usually used only to 122 MHz3464 and according to yet another source the upper limit for fundamental fre uency of the A* cut is limited to 42 MHz for small diameter (lanks'3424 !an (e manufactured either as a conventional round disk, or as a strip resonatorP the latter allo)s much smaller size' *he thickness of the uartz (lank is a(out +1'::1 mm,$+fre uency in MHz,, )ith the fre uency some)hat shifted (y further processing'3444 *he third overtone is a(out 6 times the fundamental fre uencyP the overtones are higher than the e uivalent multiple of the fundamental fre uency (y a(out /9 kHz per overtone' !rystals designed for operating in overtone modes have to (e specially processed for plane parallelism and surface finish for the (est performance at a given overtone fre uency'36:4 A special cut +&tress !ompensated, developed in 1#;4, is a dou(le"rotated cut +69L19H and /1L94H, for oven"sta(ilized oscillators )ith lo) phase noise and good aging characteristics' ?ess sensitive to mechanical stresses' Has faster )arm"up speed, higher ., (etter close"in phase noise, less sensitivity to spatial orientation against the vector of gravity, and less sensitivity to vi(rations'3494 @ts fre uency constant is 1';#; MHz"mm' !oupled modes are )orse than the A* cut, resistance tends to (e higherP much more care is re uired to convert (et)een overtones' 5perates at the same fre uencies as the A* cut' *he fre uency"temperature curve is a third order do)n)ard para(ola )ith inflection point at #9 L! and much lo)er temperature sensitivity than the A* cut' &uita(le for 5!O5s in e'g' space and C>& systems' ?ess availa(le than A* cut, more difficult to manufactureP the order"of"magnitude improvement of 2'9"/22 MH thickness shear 69L19H, /1L94H parameters is traded for an order of magnitude tighter z crystal orientation tolerances'34:4 Aging characteristics are / to 6 times (etter than of the A* cuts' ?ess sensitive to drive levels' Far fe)er activity dips' ?ess sensitive to plate geometry' 8e uires an oven, does not operate )ell at am(ient temperatures as the fre uency rapidly falls off at lo)er temperatures' Has several times lo)er motional capacitance than the corresponding A* cut, reducing the possi(ility to adEust the crystal fre uency (y attached capacitorP this restricts usage in conventional *!O5 and V!O5 devices, and other applications )here the fre uency of the crystal has to (e adEusta(le'34;434<4 *he temperature coefficients for the fundamental fre uency is different than for its third overtoneP )hen the crystal is driven to operate on (oth fre uencies simultaneously, the resulting (eat fre uency can (e used for temperature sensing in e'g' microcomputer"compensated crystal oscillators' &ensitive

#T

thickness shear 2'9"/22 MH +("mode, fast "4#L<H, 2L z uasi"shear,

$T

thickness shear

thickness shear

!%

thickness shear

to electric fields' &ensitive to air damping, to o(tain optimum . it has to (e packaged in vacuum'3614 *emperature coefficient for ("mode is "/9 ppm$L!, for dual mode <2 to over 122 ppm$L!'34#4 A special cut, similar to A* cut, e=cept the plate is cut at 4#L from the z a=is' 5perates in thickness shear mode, in (" mode +fast uasi"shear,' @t has )ell kno)n and repeata(le characteristics'3924 Has fre uency constant /'96: MHz"mm' Has poorer temperature characteristics than the A* cut' Due to the higher fre uency constant, can (e used for crystals )ith higher fre uencies than the A* cut, up to over 92 MHz'3424 A special cut, is a dou(le"rotated cut )ith improved characteristics for oven"sta(ilized oscillators' 5perates in thickness shear mode' *he fre uency"temperature curve is a third order do)n)ard para(ola )ith inflection point at ;< L!' 8arely used' Has similar performance and properties to the &! cut, more suita(le for higher temperatures' A special cut, a dou(le"rotated cut )ith improved characteristics for oven"sta(ilized oscillators' 5perates in thickness shear mode' *he fre uency"temperature curve is a third order do)n)ard para(ola )ith inflection point at 9/ L!' 8arely used' 7mployed in oven"controlled oscillatorsP the oven can (e set to lo)er temperature than for the A*$@*$&! cuts, to the (eginning of the flat part of the temperature"fre uency curve +)hich is also (roader than of the other cuts,P )hen the am(ient temperature reaches this region, the oven s)itches off and the crystal operates at the am(ient temperature, )hile maintaining reasona(le accuracy' *his cut therefore com(ines the po)er saving feature of allo)ing relatively lo) oven temperature )ith reasona(le sta(ility at higher am(ient temperatures'3914 a dou(le rotated cut )ith (etter temperature"fre uency characteristics than A* and B* cuts and )ith higher tolerance to crystallographic orientation than the A*, B*, and &! cuts +(y factor 92 against a standard A* cut, according to calculations,' 5perates in thickness"shear mode'34:4 *he fre uency"temperature curve is a do)n)ard para(ola' &imilar to !* cut' *he fre uency"temperature curve is a do)n)ard para(ola' *he temperature coefficient is lo)er than the !* cutP )here the fre uency range permits, D* is preferred over !*'3424 @ts temperature coefficient (et)een "/9''U;9 L! is near" zero, due to cancelling effect (et)een t)o modes'3424 Has reasona(ly lo) temperature coefficient, )idely used for lo)"fre uency crystal filters'3424

CT "T S& 'T

622Y#22 kH face shear z ;9Y<22 kHz face shear face"shear )idth" 2'1"6 MHz e=tensional

6<L, 2L "9/L, 2L "9;L, 2L 91L;H

E, ()* 92Y/92 kHz longitudal MT 42Y/22 kHz longitudal

ET T +T length")idth <Y162 kHz fle=ure +(ending, length")idth fle=ure length")idth fle=ure length" thickness fle=ure

::L62H "9;L

*,, tuning 6Y<9 kHz forH . RT S#TC TS * /0) &C <Y162 kHz 1Y1/ kHz

*he dominant lo)"fre uency crystal, as it is smaller than other lo)"fre uency cuts, less e=pensive, has lo) impedance and lo) !o$!1 ratio' *he chief application is the 6/';:< kHz 8*! crystal' @ts second overtone is a(out si= times the fundamental fre uency'36:4 %sed e=tensively for )ide(and filters' *he temperature coefficient is linear' J cut is made of t)o uartz plates (onded together, selected to produce out of phase motion for a given electrical field' A dou(le rotated cut' A dou(le rotated cut' A dou(le rotated cut' A dou(le rotated cut' A dou(le rotated cut +-?inear !oefficient-, )ith a linear temperature"fre uency responseP can (e used as a sensor in crystal thermometers'39/4 *emperature coefficient is 69'4 ppm$L!'34#4 *emperature"sensitive, can (e used as a sensor' &ingle mode )ith steep fre uency"temperature characteristics'3964 *emperature coefficient is /2 ppm$L!'34#4 *emperature"sensitive'3964 *emperature"sensitive'3964 *emperature coefficient is a(out 14 ppm$L!'34#4 *emperature"sensitive, can (e used as a sensor' &ingle mode )ith steep fre uency"temperature characteristics'3964 *he plane of the plate is perpendicular to the T a=is of the crystal'3944 Also called parallel or /01degree' *emperature coefficient is a(out #2 ppm$L!'34#4 %sed in one of the first crystal oscillators in 1#/1 (y W'C' !ady, and as a 92 kHz oscillator in the first crystal clock (y Horton and Marrison in 1#/;'3994 *he plane of the plate is perpendicular to the O a=is of the crystal' Also called perpendicular, normal, Curie, 2ero1angle, or ultrasonic'
39:4

thickness shear 11'1;L$#'6#L

!C #C +&SC

61L ":2L

*he * in the cut name marks a temperature"compensated cut, a cut oriented in a )ay that the temperature coefficients of the lattice are minimalP the F! and &! cuts are also temperature"compensated' *he high fre uency cuts are mounted (y their edges, usually on springsP the stiffness of the spring has to (e optimal, as too stiff could transfer mechanical shocks to the crystal and cause its (reaking, and too little stiffness may allo) the crystal to collide )ith the inside of the package )hen su(Eected to a mechanical shock, and (reak' &trip resonators, usually A* cuts, are smaller and therefore less sensitive to mechanical shocks' At the same fre uency and overtone, the strip )ill have less pulla(ility, higher resistance, and higher temperature coefficient'39;4

*he lo) fre uency cuts are mounted at the nodes )here they are virtually motionlessP thin )ires are attached at such points on each side (et)een the crystal and the leads' *he large mass of the crystal suspended the thin )ires makes the assem(ly sensitive to mechanical shocks and vi(rations'3424 *he crystals are usually mounted in hermetically sealed glass or metal cases, filled )ith a dry and inert atmosphere, usually vacuum, nitrogen, or helium' >lastic housings can (e used as )ell, (ut those are not hermetic and another secondary sealing has to (e (uilt around the crystal' &everal resonator configurations are possi(le, in addition to the classical )ay of directly attaching leads to the crystal' 7'g' the #3! resonator +Bo[tier \ Vieillissement Am]lior], 7nclosure )ith @mproved Aging,,39<4 developed in 1#;:P the parts that influence the vi(rations are machined from a single crystal +)hich reduces the mounting stress,, and the electrodes are deposited not on the resonator itself (ut on inner sides of t)o condenser discs made of adEacent slices of the uartz from the same (ar, forming a three"layer sand)ich )ith no stress (et)een the electrodes and the vi(rating element' *he gap (et)een the electrodes and the resonator act as t)o small series capacitors, making the crystal less sensitive to circuit influences'39#4 *he architecture eliminates the effects of the surface contacts (et)een the electrodes, the constraints in the mounting connections, and the issues related to ion migration from the electrodes into the lattice of the vi(rating element'3:24 *he resulting configuration is rugged, resistant to shock and vi(ration, resistant to acceleration and ionizing radiation, and has improved aging characteristics' A* cut is usually used, though &! cut variants e=ist as )ell' BVA resonators are often used in spacecraft applications'3:14 @n 1#62s to 1#92s it )as fairly common for people to adEust the fre uency of the crystals (y manual grinding' *he crystals )ere ground using a fine a(rasive slurry, or even a toothpaste, to increase their fre uency' A slight decrease (y 1Y/ kHz )hen the crystal )as overground )as possi(le (y marking the crystal face )ith a pencil lead, for the price of lo)ering the .'3:/4 *he fre uency of the crystal is slightly adEusta(le +-pulla(le-, (y modifying the attached capacitances' A varactor, a diode )ith capacitance depending on applied voltage, is often used in voltage"controlled crystal oscillators, V!O5' *he crystal cuts are usually A* or rarely &!, and operate in fundamental modeP the amount of availa(le fre uency deviation is inversely proportional to the s uare of the overtone num(er, so a third overtone )ill have only one ninth of the pulla(ility of the fundamental mode' &! cuts, )hile more sta(le, are significantly less pulla(le'3:64

[edit] Circuit notations and abbre4iations

5n electrical schematic diagrams, crystals are designated )ith the class letter Y +T1, T/, etc', 5scillators, )hether they are crystal oscillators or other, are designated )ith the class letter G +C1, C/, etc', +&ee @777 &td 619"1#;9, or AA&@ T6/'/"1#;9', 5n occasion, one may see a crystal designated on a schematic )ith X or XTAL, or a crystal oscillator )ith XO, (ut these forms are deprecated' !rystal oscillator types and their a((reviations:

!TC*O ^ Analog temperature controlled crystal oscillator C"*O ^ !ali(rated dual crystal oscillator "TC*O ^ Digital temperature compensated crystal oscillator EM*O ^ 7vacuated miniature crystal oscillator '5S"O ^ Clo(al positioning system disciplined oscillator MC*O ^ Microcomputer"compensated crystal oscillator

OC3C*O ^ oven"controlled voltage"controlled crystal oscillator OC*O ^ 5ven"controlled crystal oscillator Rb*O ^ 8u(idium crystal oscillators +8(O5,, a crystal oscillator +can (e an M!O5, synchronized )ith a (uilt"in ru(idium standard )hich is run only occasionally to save po)er TC3C*O ^ *emperature"compensated voltage"controlled crystal oscillator TC*O ^ *emperature"compensated crystal oscillator TM*O " *actical miniature crystal oscillator3994 TS*O ^ *emperature"sensing crystal oscillator, an adaptation of the *!O5 3CTC*O ^ Voltage"controlled temperature"compensated crystal oscillator 3C*O ^ Voltage"controlled crystal oscillator