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Psychology Submitted By: Anila Nadeem Atif Mukhtar Mahim Tariq Ahmed Zia Haris Ahmed Khan Ainee Nadeem Saad Nadeem Shiekh Umair Tariq Waris Ranjha Eesha Mir Munfarrah Batool
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Prejudice ....................................................................................................................................................... 3 Definition .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Factors Contributing to the Development of Prejudice............................................................................. 3 In-groups and Out-groups ..................................................................................................................... 3 Intergroup Conflict................................................................................................................................ 3 Attributions ........................................................................................................................................... 4 Factors That May Reduce Prejudice ......................................................................................................... 4 Intergroup Contact ................................................................................................................................ 4 Cognitive interventions ......................................................................................................................... 4 Parents Role in Teaching Prejudice ......................................................................................................... 4 Tradition and Prejudice ............................................................................................................................. 5 The Role of Mass Media in Prejudice ....................................................................................................... 5 The Solutions to Prejudice ........................................................................................................................ 6 Parents Role ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Exchange Programs .............................................................................................................................. 6 Leadership ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Definition .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Characteristics of a Leader........................................................................................................................ 8 Types of Leaders ....................................................................................................................................... 8 Autocratic Leadership ........................................................................................................................... 8 Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership ............................................................................. 8 Laissez-Faire Leadership ...................................................................................................................... 8 Bureaucratic Leadership ....................................................................................................................... 9 Famous Leaders Who Led by Example .................................................................................................... 9 Martin Luther King Jr. .......................................................................................................................... 9 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ............................................................................................................ 9 Muhammad Ali Jinnah .......................................................................................................................... 9 Allama Iqbal.......................................................................................................................................... 9 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Prejudice
Definition
The word Prejudice refers to prejudgment i.e. making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case. In recent times, the word has come to be most often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality or other personal characteristics. It can also refer to unfounded beliefs and may include "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence. (Rosnow, 1972) Gordon W. Allport defined Prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience." (Allport, 1954) Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individuals membership of a social group. For example, a person may hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist). (McLeod, 2008)
Intergroup Conflict
People of different groups may try to compete with each other for jobs, housing, social status (standing), and positions of power or even political advantage. This is more likely to lead to prejudice, especially in times of hardship when desired resources are limited.
Attributions
Process of trying to explain observed behavior in terms of a particular cause is called attribution. Can be either internal (from within the person) or external (from the environment). If we attribute behavior to internal factors, we tend to blame one or more characteristics of the person for causing the behavior.
Cognitive interventions
Cognitive intervention involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice.
Children learn prejudices by living in and observing a society where prejudices exist. Children form up opinions by inclined attitudes of their parents and other people, by what they think, do and say. Diane Maluso, Associate Professor of Psychology at Elmira College explains that parents play an important role in their childrens getting hold of prejudice. He says that The relationship between parents and childrens attitudes towards members of out-group is consistent. Not only do parents teach prejudice, but children often learn their parents prejudiced attitudes by simply observing their parents talking about and interacting with people from other groups. (Maluso)
That biased attitude of White against Black was common in 19s, but now after 9/11 the nation or community which is the top victim of prejudice is Islamic community. Muslims are seen with an eye of suspicion. In promoting this concept that Muslims are Fundamentalists and extremists, media has played an important role. Hollywood has made movies representing the Muslims the planning minds of terrorist attacks throughout the world. Discovery and National Geography have made documentaries of the Jihad groups relating that to the whole Muslim community to exhibit to the World that Muslims are extremists. Talk shows are being arranged on News channels to discuss and spread this idea. The media today employs the internet and is the fastest way to spread stereotypes and prejudices against different people and communities. Stereotypes are appealing and easy to understand and explain to people. Media just heightens the full story and provides a simplified version of the reality.
Exchange Programs
Basically exchange programs are when student from one country go to another country to live and study. This is considered positive for both countries as students get exposure and gain vast knowledge about different cultures, norms and values and learn to adjust with people from different ethnicities. All in all this reduces prejudice. One of the most prominent student exchange programs was the Israeli and we exchange program. It focuses on the Hands across the Ocean program which is a student cultural exchange between Israel and New York City. Project as a joint venture between the Israeli consulate in New York and the American Jewish Committee; Prejudice reduction as main goal of the program (Tatum, 1995). These exchange programs educate stakeholders on equality and the fact that every person is unique to its core and should not be discriminated upon on his or her skin tone or locality.
Leadership
Definition
Leadership has been described as a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task" (M., 1997) It is the activity of leading a group of people or an organization or the ability to perform it. Leadership involves (1) establishing a clear vision, (2) sharing that vision with others so that they will follow willingly, (3) providing the information, knowledge and methods to realize that vision, and (4) coordinating and balancing the conflicting interests of all members and stakeholders. Leaders carry out leadership process by applying their leadership understanding and ability. This is called Process Leadership (Jago, March 1982). But what should be mentioned here is that our traits do affect our proceedings. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, March 1982), in that it was once common to believe that leaders were born rather than made. These two leadership types are shown in the chart on the next page (Northouse, 2007):
Characteristics of a Leader
A good leader has a commendable character .A leader should be trustworthy and must have traits like honesty and integrity. A good leader is enthusiastic about the task and also about his role as a leader. People usually respond more fervently to a dedicated leader. A leader is a source of inspiration and he should be a motivator. A good leader must be confident. In this way when a leader displays confidence in the proposed objectives the team members tend to work more efficiently. A leader must be determined in situations of uncertainty .The team members look up to the leader during the times of unfamiliarity and find assurance and security when the leader displays confidence and determination which ultimately affects the working of the group. Good leaders are tolerant of uncertainty and remain calm, composed and persistent to the main objective. A good leader keeps a cool head in the crisis. A good leader is appreciative. He considers and encourages the ideas proposed by the team members.
Types of Leaders
There are four main types of leadership:
Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leadership is the style of leadership in which the manager takes his own decisions and does not believe in consulting his subordinates and colleagues. An autocratic leader and expects all his orders and instructions to be followed by the work force. An autocratic leader establishes a centralized structure of management in the company and hardly ever delegates his powers to others.
Laissez-Faire Leadership
The laissez-Fair style of leadership is an extension of democratic leadership, allowing the employees to exercise maximum possible control over their method of working with hardly any interference from the management. It may result in possible misuse of authority delegated to the workforce, eventually leading to deterioration in the overall performance of the company.
Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic Leadership is the one in which the manager believes in following and enforcing the rules and regulations of the company strictly. He goes by the book and is highly inflexible. He suffers from the drawback of not being able to adjust his policies according to the changing market conditions, thereby demoralizing the subordinates. The positive side, however, is that a bureaucratic seldom makes a technical mistake since he never violates the specified procedures.
Allama Iqbal
Iqbal was not only a philosopher and a poet, but also a political leader. He contested for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly of Lahore and won by a margin of 3177 votes. He was in favor
of the proposals presented by Jinnah with the aim of guaranteeing Muslim political rights. He worked with the Aga khan and other Muslim leaders to eliminate the factional divisions and achieve unity.
Bibliography
Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Jago, A. G. (March 1982). Leadership: Perspectives in theory and research. Management Science , 315316. Larson. (2010). In S. E. Barkan, Sociology: UNderstanding and Changing the Social World Brief Edition(v1.0). Sloan Publishing. M., C. (1997). An Integrative Theory of Leadership. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers . Maluso, D. (n.d.). How we Learn Prejudice? McLeod, S. (2008). Prejudice and Discrimintaion in Psychology. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/prejudice.html Northouse, G. (2007). Leadership theory and Practice. (3rd ed.). London, New Delhi: Sage Publications, Inc. Pettigrew, T. (1995). In D. Goldman, Emotional Intelligence. Random House Publishing Group. Rosnow, R. L. (1972, March). Poultry And Prejudice. Psychologist Today 5 . Psychologist. Sheriff. (1966). Tatum, E. (1995, February). Retrieved March 3, 2013, from (1) http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/9503091828/israel-u-s-cultural-exchange-journey-reduceprejudice X, M. (n.d.). Quotes by Malcom X. Retrieved March 2, 2013, from Good Reads: http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/74430-the-media-s-the-most-powerful-entity-on-earth-they-have