14.

4 Electromagnetic Radiation Radio waves are electromagnetic waves simply because they are made up of an electric and a magnetic field. The magnetic field is an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such as a conductor when current is flowing through it. Magnetic fields are continuous; however it is standard for performing calculations and measurements to represent a magnetic field with individual lines. The strength of magnetic field (H) produced around a conductor (such a wire or an antenna) is expressed mathematically as

(eq. 14-1) where H = magnetic field (ampere turns per meter); d = distance from wire (meters)

Electric fields are also invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential between two conductors. Electric field strength (E) is expressed mathematically as

(eq. 14-2) where E = electric field strength (volts per meter) q = charge between conductors (coulombs) = permittivity (farads per meter) d = distance between two conductors (meters)

Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material separating the two conductors (i.e., the dielectric insulator). The permittivity of air or free space is approximately

Power Density and Field Intensity Electromagnetic waves represent the flow of energy in the direction of propagation. The rate at which energy passes through a given surface in free space is called power density. Therefore, power density is energy per unit time per unit area and usually given in watts per square meter.

Field intensity is the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. Electric field intensity is usually given in volts per meter and magnetic field in ampere turns per meter (At/m). Mathematically, power density is

(eq. 14-3) where = power density (watts per meter squared) = rms elctric field intensity (volts per meter) = rms magnetic field intensity (ampere turns per meter)

14.5 Characteristic Impedance of Free Space The electric and magnetic field intensities of an electromagnetic wave in free space are related to characteristic impedance (resistance) of free space. The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission medium is equal to the square root of the ratio of its magnetic permeability to its electric permittivity. Mathematically, the characteristics impedance of free space ( ) is (eq. 14-4) Where = characteristics impedance of free space (ohms) = magnetic permeability of free space (1.26x10-6 H/m) = electric permittivity of free space (8.85x10-12 F/m) Substituting:

(eq. 14-5)

(eq. 14-6)

14. 6 Spherical Wavefront

Figure 14.3 shows a point that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly in all directions. Such a source is called an isotropic radiator. A true isotropic radiator does not exist. However it is closely approximated by an omnidirectional antenna. An isotropic radiator produces a spherical wavefront with radius R. All points distance R from the source lie on the surface of the sphere and have equal power densities. For example, in Figure 14-3, points A and B are an equal distance from the source. Therefore the power densities at points A and B are equal. At any instant of time, the total power radiated, (), watts is uniformly distributed over the total surface area of the sphere (this assume a lossless transmission medium). Therefore the power density at any point of the sphere is the total radiated power divided by the total are of the sphere. Mathematically, the power density at any give point on the surface of a sphere of a spherical wavefront is

(eq. 14-7) Where = total power radiated (watts) = radius of the sphere (which is equal to the distance from any point on the surface of the sphere to the source) = area of the sphere

By substitution

(eq. 14-8)

Inverse Square Law

From Equation 14-7, it can be seen that the farther the wavefront moves from the source, the smaller the power density (Ra and Rc move farther apart). The total power distributed over the surface of the sphere remains the same. However, because the area of the sphere increases in direct proportion to the distance from the source squared (i.e., the radius of the sphere squared), the power density is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This relationship is called the inverse square law. Therefore, the power density at any point on the surface of the outer sphere is

and the power density at any point on the inner sphere is

Therefore

(eq. 14-9) From Equation 14-9, it can be seen that as the distance from the source doubles, the power density decreases by a factor of 22 or 4. When deriving the inverse square law of radiation (Equation 14-9), it was assumed that the source radiates isotropically, although it is not necessary; however, it is necessary that the velocity of propagation in all direction be uniform. Such a propagation medium is called an isotropic medium.