Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
s
, with a mechanical input P
mo
, as shown in Fig.5.8 ( point a).
Power System Analysis and Stability 10EE61
Dept. of EEE,SJBIT Page 101
Fig.5.8 Equal area criterionsudden change in mechanical input
If there is a sudden step increase in input power to P
m1
the accelerating power is positive
(since P
m1
> P
mo
) and power angle increases. With increase in , the electrical power P
e
increases, the accelerating power decreases, till at =
1
, the electrical power matches the
new input P
m1
. The area A
1
,
during acceleration is given by
A
1
= d P P
e m
1
0
1
) cos (cos ) (
1 0 max 0 1 1
P P
m
(5.47)
At b, even though the accelerating power is zero, the rotor is running above synchronous
speed. Hence, and P
e
increase beyond b, wherein P
e
< P
m1
and the rotor is subjected to
deceleration. The rotor decelerates and speed starts dropping, till at point d, the machine
reaches synchronous speed and =
max
. The area A
2
, during deceleration is given by
A
2
= ) ( ) cos (cos ) (
1 max 1 max 1 max 1
max
1
m m e
P P d P P (5.48)
By equal area criterion A
1
= A
2
. The rotor would then oscillate between
0
and
max
at its
natural frequency. However, damping forces will reduce subsequent swings and the machine
finally settles down to the new steady state value
1
(at point b). Stability can be maintained
only if area A
2
at least equal to A
1
, can be located above P
m1
. The limiting case is shown in
Fig.5.9, where A
2
is just equal to A
1
.
Power System Analysis and Stability 10EE61
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Fig.5.9 Maximum increase in mechanical power
Here
max
is at the intersection of P
e
and P
m1
. If the machine does not reach synchronous
speed at d, then beyond d, P
e
decreases with increase in , causing to increase indefinitely.
Applying equal area criterion to Fig.5.9 we get
A
1
= A
2
.
From (5.47) and (5.48) we get
) cos (cos ) (
max 0 max 0 max 1
P P
m
Substituting
max max 1
sin P P
m
, we get
0 max max 0 max
cos cos sin (5.49)
Equation (5.49) is a non-linear equation in
max
and can be solved by trial and error or by
using any numerical method for solution of non-linear algebraic equation (like Newton-
Raphson, bisection etc). From solution of
max
, P
m1
can be calculated. P
m1
P
mo
will give the
maximum possible increase in mechanical input before the machine looses stability.
5.10 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Example 1: A 50Hz, 4 pole turbo alternator rated 150 MVA, 11 kV has an inertia constant
of 9 MJ / MVA. Find the (a) stored energy at synchronous speed (b) the rotor acceleration if
the input mechanical power is raised to 100 MW when the electrical load is 75 MW, (c) the
speed at the end of 10 cycles if acceleration is assumed constant at the initial value.
Solution:
(a) Stored energy = GH = 150 9 = 1350 MJ
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(b) P
a
= P
m
P
e
= 100 75 = 25 MW
M = 15 . 0
50 180
1350
180 f
GH
MJ s /e
25 15 . 0
2
2
t d
d
Acceleration 6 . 166
15 . 0
25
2
2
t d
d
e/s
2
= 166.6
P
2
m/s
2
= 166.6
P
2
rps
360
1
/s
= 166.6
P
2
360
1
60 rpm/s
= 13.88 rpm/s
* Note e = electrical degree; m = mechanical degree; P=number of poles.
(c) 10 cycles = 2 . 0
50
10
s
N
S
= Synchronous speed = 1500
4
50 120
rpm
Rotor speed at end of 10 cycles = N
S
+ 0.2 = 1500 + 13.88 0.2 = 1502.776 rpm.
Example 2: Two 50 Hz generating units operate in parallel within the same plant, with the
following ratings: Unit 1: 500 MVA, 0.8 pf, 13.2 kV, 3600 rpm: H = 4 MJ/MVA; Unit
2: 1000 MVA, 0.9 pf, 13.8 kV, 1800 rpm: H = 5 MJ/MVA. Calculate the equivalent H
constant on a base of 100 MVA.
Solution:
system
mach
mach system
G
G
H H
1
1 1
= 20
100
500
4 MJ/MVA
system
mach
mach system
G
G
H H
2
2 2
= 50
100
1000
5 MJ/MVA
2 1
H H H
eq
= 20 + 50 = 70 MJ/MVA
This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the two
machines swing coherently.
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Example 3: Obtain the power angle relationship and the generator internal emf for (i)
classical model (ii) salient pole model with following data: x
d
= 1.0 pu : x
q
= 0.6 pu : V
t
= 1.0
pu : I
a
= 1.0 pu at upf
Solution:
(i) Classical model: The phasor diagram is shown in Fig P3.
Fig.P3 Example 3, case(i)
414 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1
2 2 2 2
d a t g
x I V E
= tan
1
t
d a
V
x I
= tan 45
0 . 1
0 . 1
1
E
g
= 1.414 45 .
If the excitation is held constant so that
g
E = 1.414, then power output
P = sin 414 . 1
0 . 1
sin 0 . 1 414 . 1
(ii) Salient pole: From Fig (5), we get using (41a) to (41d)
E
g
= E
q
+ I
d
x
d
= V
t
cos + I
d
x
d
= V
t
cos + I
a
sin x
d
(* = 0
0
, since we are considering upf)
Substituting given values we get
E
g
= cos + sin .
Again from Fig (9.5) we have
E
d
= V
t
sin = I
q
x
q
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V
t
sin I
q
x
q =
0
V
t
sin I
a
cos x
q =
0
Substituting the given values we get
0 = sin 0.6 cos
We thus have two simultaneous equations.
E
g
= cos + sin
0 = sin 0.6 cos
Solving we get = 30.96
o
E
g
= 1.372 pu
If the excitation is held constant, then from (42)
P = 1.372 sin + 0.333 sin 2
Example 4: Determine the steady state stability limit of the system shown in Fig 8, if V
t
=
1.0 pu and the reactances are in pu.
Fig. P4 Example 4
Solution:
Current I =
0 . 1
0 0 . 1 0 . 1
0 . 1
0 0 . 1
j j
V
t
E
g ) ( 0 . 1 I j V
t
= 1
0 . 1
0 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 . 1
j
j
= cos + j sin + cos + j sin 1.0
= 2cos 1 + j 2sin
When maximum power is transferred = 90
o
; which means real part of E = 0
2 cos 1 = 0
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= cos
-1
0.5 = 60
o
g
E = 2 sin 60
o
= 1.732
E
g
= 1.732 90 (for maximum power)
Steady state stability limit = 866 . 0
0 . 1 0 . 1
0 . 1 732 . 1
pu
Example 5: A 50 Hz synchronous generator having an internal voltage 1.2 pu,
H = 5.2 MJ/MVA and a reactance of 0.4 pu is connected to an infinite bus through a double
circuit line, each line of reactance 0.35 pu. The generator is delivering 0.8pu power and the
infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu. Determine: maximum power transfer, Steady state operating
angle, and Natural frequency of oscillation if damping is neglected.
Solution: The one line diagram is shown in Fig P5.
Fig . P5 Example 6
(a) X = 0.4 +
2
35 . 0
= 0.575 pu
P
max
= 087 . 2
575 . 0
0 . 1 2 . 1
X
E E
b g
pu
(b) P
e
= P
max sin
o
54 . 22
087 . 2
8 . 0
sin sin
1
max
1
P
P
e
o
.
(c) P
s
= P
max
cos
o
= 2.087 cos (22.54
o
)
= 1.927 MW (pu)/ elec rad.
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M (pu) = rad elec s
f
H
/ 0331 . 0
50
2 . 5
2
Without damping s =
0331 . 0
927 . 1
j
M
P
j
S
= j 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz
Natural frequency of oscillation
n
= 1.21 Hz.
Example 6: In example .6, if the damping is 0.14 and there is a minor disturbance of =
0.15 rad from the initial operating point, determine: (a)
n
(b) (c)
d
(d) setting time and (e)
expression for .
Solution:
(a)
n
=
M
P
S
=
0331 . 0
927 . 1
= 7.63 rad/sec = 1.21 Hz
(b) =
927 . 1 0331 . 0
1
2
14 . 0 1
2
S
P M
D
= 0.277
(c)
d
=
2 2
277 . 0 1 63 . 7 1
n
= 7.33 rad/sec = 1.16 Hz
(d) Setting time = 4 =
63 . 7 277 . 0
1
4
1
4
n
= 1.892 s
(e)
o
= 0.15 rad = 8.59
o
= cos
-1
= cos
-1
0.277 = 73.9
o
= t e
d
t o
o
n
sin
1
2
=
o t o
t e 9 . 73 33 . 7 sin
277 . 0 1
59 . 8
54 . 22
63 . 7 277 . 0
2
= 22.54
o
+ 8.94 e
- 2.11t
sin (7.33t + 73.9
o
)
The variation of delta with respect to time is shown below. It can be observed that the angle
reaches the steady state value of 22.54
o
after the initial transient. It should be noted that the
magnitudes of the swings decrease in a stable system with damping.
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Fig.P6 Swing Curve for example 7
Example 7: In example 6, find the power angle relationship
(i) For the given network
(ii) If a short circuit occurs in the middle of a line
(iii) If fault is cleared by line outage
Assume the generator to be supplying 1.0 pu power initially.
Solution:
(i) From example 6, P
max
= 2.087, P
e
= 2.087 sin .
(ii) If a short circuit occurs in the middle of the line, the network equivalent can be
draw as shown in Fig. 12a.
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Fig.P7a Short circuit in middle of line
The network is reduced by converting the delta to star and again the resulting star to delta as
shown in Fig P7a, P7b and P7c.
Fig.P7b Fig.P7c
The transfer reactance is 1.55 pu. Hence,
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P
max
=
55 . 1
0 . 1 2 . 1
= 0.744
P
e
= 0.744 sin
(iii) When there is a line outage
X = 0.4 + 0.35 = 0.75
P
max
=
75 . 0
0 . 1 2 . 1
= 1.6
P
e
= 1.6 sin
Example 8: A generator supplies active power of 1.0 pu to an infinite bus, through a lossless
line of reactance x
e
= 0.6 pu. The reactance of the generator and the connecting transformer is
0.3 pu. The transient internal voltage of the generator is 1.12 pu and infinite bus voltage is 1.0
pu. Find the maximum increase in mechanical power that will not cause instability.
Solution:
P
max
=
9 . 0
0 . 1 12 . 1
= 1.244 pu
P
mo
= P
eo
= 1.0 = P
max
sin
o
= 1.244 sin
o
o
= sin
-1
244 . 1
0 . 1
= 53.47
o
= 0.933 rad.
The above can be solved by NR method since it is of the form f(
max
) = K. Applying NR
method, at any iteration r, we get
) (
max
r
=
r
r
d
df
f K
max
) (
max
) (
max
) (
max
max
cos
r
o
r
r
d
df
(This is the derivative evaluated at a value of =
) (
max
r
)
) (
max
) (
max
) 1 (
max
r r r
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Starting from an initial guess of
max
between
2
to , the above equations are solved
iteratively till
) (
max
r
. Here K = cos
o
= 0.595. The computations are shown in table P8,
starting from an initial guess
) 1 (
max
= 1.745 rad.
Table P8
Interaction
r
) (
max
r
) (
max
r
d
df
) (
max
r
f
) (
max
r
) 1 (
max
r
1 1.745 0.1407 0.626 0.22 1.965
2 1.965 0.396 0.568 0.068 1.897
3 1.897 0.309 0.592 0.0097 1.887
4 1.887 0.2963 0.596 0.0033 1.883
Since
) (
max
r
is sufficient by small, we can take
max
= 1.883 rad = 107.88
o
1
=
max
180 = 72.1
o
P
m1
= P
max
sin
max
= 1.183
Maximum step increase permissible is P
m1
P
mo
, = 1.183 1.0 = 0.183 pu
Example 9: Transform a two machine system to an equivalent SMIB system and show how
equal area criterion is applicable to it.
Solution: Consider the two machine system show in Fig.P9.
Fig.P9 Two machine system under steady state (neglecting losses)
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m m m
P P P
2 1
e e e
P P P
2 1
The swing equations are
1 1
1 1
2
1
2
M
P P
M
P P
dt
d
e m e m
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
M
P P
M
P P
dt
d
m e e m
Simplifying, we get
) (
) (
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2
e m
P P
M M
M M
dt
d
or
e m eq
P P
dt
d
M
2
2
where M
eq
=
2 1
2 1
M M
M M
=
1
2
sin
2 1
2 1
d e d
e
x x x
E E
P
This relation is identical to that of an SMIB system in form and can be used to determine the
relative swing (
1
2
) between the two machines to assess the stability.
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UNIT 8
UNBALANCED OPERATION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTRORS
Analysis of three phase induction motor with one line open. Analysis of three phase induction
motor with unbalanced voltage. 4 Hours
Analysis of three phase Induction motor
Deficiencies like unbalanced voltages in the voltage source could result in problems like
excessive losses, over-voltages, mechanical oscillations, and interference with control
electronics. Detecting these abnormal conditions in the machine is of great importance in the
interaction of the electrical machine and the power grid. In this paper the effect of the
unbalanced voltages on the motor performance, have been investigated. Then, monitoring
these unhealthy condition using electrical machine parameters is carried out. In this case,
motor itself can act as the sensor that detects abnormal condition.
Also this paper investigates the negative effects of unbalanced sinusoidal voltage which
always present in the power supply voltage on the performance of induction motor in terms
of line currents, power factor and efficiency. According to the test results and analysis, the
unbalanced sinusoidal voltage has very negative effects on the motor's performance.
Analysis of machine under unbalance conditions
In this paper, performance of a three-phase induction motor under unbalanced voltage
imposed by power system grid is studied. The phase currents, the deliverable power to the
motor, stator current and efficiency of the motor are propose. In fact, influence of power
system and its unbalances on the motor itself are investigated. In order to analyze the
performance of a three phase induction motor, symmetrical components analysis is normally
used. In this method, positive and negative sequence equivalent circuits, as shown in Fig. 2,
are utilized to calculate different parameters of the machine under unbalanced voltage
operation. A Y-connected, 20HP (15Kw), 400V three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor
has been used for performance analysis of a motor under unbalanced voltage operation.
Equivalent Circuit of Double Squirrel-Cage Motor
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Fig. shows a section of the double squirrel cage motor. Here Ro and Ri are the per
phase resistances of the outer cage winding and inner cage winding whereas Xo and Xi are
the corresponding per phase standstill reactance. For the outer cage, the resistance is made
intentionally high, giving a high starting torque. For the inner cage winding, the resistance is
low and the leakage reactance is high, giving a low starting torque but high efficiency on
load. Note that in a double squirrel cage motor, the outer winding produces the high starting
and accelerating torque while the inner winding provides the running torque at good
efficiency. Fig. (i) shows the equivalent circuit for one phase of double cage motor referred to
stator. The two cage impedances are effectively in parallel. The resistances and reactances of
the outer and inner rotors are referred to the stator. The exciting circuit is accounted for as in a
single cage motor. If the magnetizing current (I0) is neglected, then the circuit is simplified to
that shown in Fig. (ii).
From the equivalent circuit, the performance of the motor can be predicted.Total impedance
as referred to stator is
The characteristics of single phase induction motors are identical to 3-phase induction motors
except that single phase induction motor has no inherent starting torque and some special
arrangements have to be made for making it self starting. It follows that during starting period
the single phase induction motor must be converted to a type which is not a single phase
induction motor in the sense in which the term is ordinarily used and it becomes a true single
phase induction motor when it is running and after the speed and torque have been raised to a
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point beyond which the additional device may be dispensed with. For these reasons, it is
necessary to distinguish clearly between the starting period when the motor is not a single
phase induction motor and the normal running condition when it is a single phase induction
motor. The starting device adds to the cost of the motor and also requires more space. For the
same output a 1-phase motor is about 30% larger than a corresponding 3-phase motor.
The single phase induction motor in its simplest form is structurally the same as a
poly-phase induction motor having a squirrel cage rotor, the only difference is that the single
phase induction motor has single winding on the stator which produces mmf stationary in
space but alternating in time, a poly phase stator winding carrying balanced currents produces
mmf rotating in space around the air gap and constant in time with respect to an observer
moving with the mmf. The stator winding of the single phase motor is disposed in slots
around the inner periphery of a laminated ring similar to the 3-phase motor.
Fig. . Elementary single phase induction motor.
An induction motor with a cage rotor and single phase stator winding is shown
schematically in Fig. 9.1. The actual stator winding as mentioned earlier is distributed in slots
so as to produce an approximately sinusoidal space distribution of mmf.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Suppose the rotor is at rest and 1-phase supply is given to stator winding. The
current flowing in the stator winding gives rise to an mmf whose axis is along the winding
and it is a pulsating mmf, stationary in space and varying in magnitude, as a function of time,
varying from positive maxi-mum to zero to negative maximum and this pulsating mmf
induces currents in the short-circuited rotor of the motor which gives rise to an mmf. The
currents in the rotor are induced due to transformer action and the direction of the currents is
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such that the mmf so developed opposes the stator mmf. The axis of the rotor mmf is same as
that of the stator mmf. Since the torque developed is proportional to sine of the angle between
the two mmf and since the angle is zero, the net torque acting on the rotor is zero and hence
the rotor remains stationary.
For analytical purposes a pulsating field can be resolved into two revolving
fields of constant magnitude and rotating in opposite directions as shown in Fig. 9.2 and each
field has a magnitude equal to half the maximum length of the original pulsating phasor.
Fig. Representation of the pulsating field by space phasors.
These component waves rotate in opposite direction at synchronous speed. The
forward (anticlockwise) and backward-rotating (clockwise) mmf waves f and b are shown in
Fig. In case of 3-phase induction motor there is only one forward rotating magnetic field and
hence torque is developed and the motor is self-starting. However, in single phase induction
motor each of these component mmf waves produces induction motor action but the
corresponding torques are in opposite direction. With the rotor at rest the forward and
backward field produce equal torques but opposite in direction and hence no net torque is
developed on the motor and the motor remains stationary. If the forward and backward air
gap fields remained equal when the rotor is revolving, each of the component fields would
produce a torque-speed characteristic similar to that of a poly phase induction motor with
negligible leakage impedance as shown by the dashed curves f and b in Fig.
The resultant torque-speed characteristic which is the algebraic sum of the two component
curves shows that if the motor were started by auxiliary means it would produce torque in
what-ever direction it was started.
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Fig. . Torque-speed characteristic of a 1-phase induction motor based on constant
forward and backward flux waves.
In reality the two fields, forward and backward do not remain constant in the air gap
and also the effect of stator leakage impedance cant be ignored. In the above qualitative
analysis the effects of induced rotor currents have not been properly accounted for.
When single phase supply is connected to the stator and the rotor is given a push
along the forward rotating field, the relative speed between the rotor and the forward rotating
magnetic field goes on decreasing and hence the magnitude of induced currents also
decreases and hence the mmf due to the induced current in the rotor decreases and its
opposing effect to the forward rotating field decreases which means the forward rotating field
becomes stronger as the rotor speeds up. However for the backward rotating field the relative
speed between the rotor and the backward field increases as the rotor rotates and hence the
rotor emf increases and hence the mmf due to this component of current increases and its
opposing effect to the backward rotating field increases and the net backward rotating field
weakens as the rotor rotates along the forward rotating field. However, the sum of the two
fields remains constant since it must induce the stator counter emf which is approximately
constant if the stator leakage impedance drop is negligible. Hence, with the rotor in motion
the torque of the forward field is greater and that of the backward field is less than what is
shown in Fig. The true situation being as is shown in Fig.
STARTING OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
The single phase induction motors are classified based on the method of starting method and
in fact are known by the same name descriptive of the method. Appropriate selection of these
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motors depends upon the starting and running torque requirements of the load, the duty cycle
and limitations on starting and running current drawn from the supply by these motors. The
cost of single phase induction motor increases with the size of the motor and with the
performance such as starting torque to current ratio (higher ratio is desirable), hence, the user
will like to go in for a smaller size (hp) motor with minimum cost, of course, meeting all the
operational requirements. However, if a very large no. of fractional horsepower motors are
required, a specific design can always be worked out which might give minimum cost for a
given performance requirements. Following are the starting methods.
(a) Split-phase induction motor. The stator of a split phase induction motor has two
windings, the main winding and the auxiliary winding. These windings are displaced in space
by 90 electrical degrees as shown in Fig. . The auxiliary winding is made of thin wire (super
enamel copper wire) so that it has a high R/X ratio as compared to the main winding which
has thick super enamel copper wire. Since the two windings are connected across the supply
the current I
m
and I
a
in the main winding and auxiliary winding lag behind the supply voltage
V, I
a
leading the current I
m
Fig. This means the current through auxiliary winding reaches
maximum value first and the mmf or flux due to I
a
lies along the axis of the auxiliary winding
and after some time (t = /w) the current I
m
reaches maximum value and the mmf or flux due
to I
m
lies along the main winding axis. Thus the motor becomes a 2-phase unbalanced motor.
It is unbalanced since the two currents are not exactly 90 degrees apart. Because of these two
fields a starting.
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Fig.(a)Split phase induction motor Connection
Fig. (b) Phasor diagram at starting
Fig. (c) Typical torque-speed characteristic.
The capacitor start induction motor is also a split phase motor. The capacitor of suitable value
is connected in series with the auxiliary coil through a switch such that I
a
the current in the
auxiliary coil leads the current I
m
in the main coil by 90 electrical degrees in time phase so
that the starting torque is maximum for certain values of I
a
and I
m
. This becomes a balanced
2-phase motor if the magnitude of I
a
and I
m
are equal and are displaced in time phase by 90
electrical degrees. Since the two windings are displaced in space by 90 electrical degrees as
shown in Fig. 9.6 maximum torque is developed at start. However, the auxiliary winding and
capacitor are disconnected after the motor has picked up 75 per cent of the synchronous
speed. The motor will start without any humming noise. However, after the auxiliary winding
is disconnected, there will be some humming noise.
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