Memory

Short term and long term memory STM 7 +/- 2 20-30 seconds acoustic LTM unlimited unlimited Semantic (meaning) SM all sensory experience to second sense specific

CAPACITY DURATION ENCODING

Encoding: the way in which information is stored/put into/processed into memory, eg acoustic, visual,
semantic.

Research into STM and LTM

Peterson and Peterson studied STM using an interference task

Nonsense trigrams (3 random consonants) were shown to the participants and were asked to recall them after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. During the pause, they counted backwards in threes (interference task) Results: People, who recalled them after 3 seconds, were 80% correct. People, who recalled after 18 seconds, were 10% correct. Conclusion: without rehearsal, little can stay in STM longer than 18 seconds- it has a limited capacity. Strengths Was a lab experiment so all variables were controlled and it was reliable Weaknesses Lacks EV: nonsense trigrams are artificial. Real-life memories may have lasted longer Only one type on stimulus was used. Duration may depend on stimulus, eg could have tried it also with pictures.

Bahrick et al looked at LTM in a natural setting

392 participants aged 17 74 were tested. There were various tests including: A free recall test, where participants tried to remember names of people in a graduate class, a photo recognition test, consisting of 50 pictures and a name recognition test for ex-school friends. Results: participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in identifying names and faces but free recall was 60%. After 48 years they were accurate 80% for verbal and 70% visual and their free recall was 30% accurate. Conclusion: evidence of very long term memories in a real-life setting. Recognition was better than recall, showing that LTM is a huge store of information but needs prompts when remembering VLTMS. Strengths Field experiment so had high EV Weaknesses Couldnt control all the variables as it wasnt a lab experiment. The researchers assumed that last contact with their classmates would have been when they left school. Little consideration seems to have been made of participants seeing classmates in the intervening years or even of them having looked through yearbooks themselves! Only one type of recall (visual) was tested so cant generalise to other types of information held in LTM

Jacobs investigated different capacities of STM and LTM

Participants were shown a string of letters or digits and had to repeat them back in the same order. The number of letters/digits increased until the participant was incorrect. Results: the majority was 9 digits and 7 letters. Also, capacity they could recall increased with age during childhood. Conclusion: STM has a limited storage capacity of 5-9 items. Strength of STM increased with age due to increased brain capacity or use of memory techniques.

Strengths

Weaknesses
Like most memory research this lacks ecological validity. Youre using your memory for an artificial task. Previous sequences could add confusion

Baddeley looked at encoding

Participants were shown 4 sets of words Acoustically similar (man, mad, mat) Acoustically dissimilar (pit, cow, bar) Semantically similar (big, large, huge) Semantically dissimilar (good, hot, pig) The experiment was in an independent groups design and participants were asked to recall the words immediately or after a 20 minute task. Results: problems recalling acoustically similar when recalling list immediately and when recalling after a task, the problems were with semantically similar words Conclusion: when we recall info from STM, acoustically similar words get confused which suggest that STM relies on acoustic encoding. When we recall from LTM, semantically similar words get confused which implies that LTM uses on semantic encoding.

Strengths

Weaknesses
Lacks EV, was an artificial task and lack of control due to independent group design Doesnt consider other methods of encoding, Posner found that visual encoding can take precedence over acoustic as AA was processed over Aa despite no different sound+

Models of memory
Mutli-store model Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
3 stores in memory Information from environment goes into sensory memory; its then encoded and goes to STM. After being further processed and rehearsed, its transferred to LTM

Strengths
Primacy effect: participants can recall first items from a list the best as earlier items are rehearsed better and therefore are in LTM Recency effect: last few items are better remembered as they are still in STM People with Korsakoffs syndrome can recall last few items as they have an unaffected STM but their LTM is poor: shows there are separate stores like the model suggests

Weaknesses
In real life, people dont always rehearse to transfer information to LTM. Some items, like smells, cant be rehearsed Model is over-simplified. Evidence from brain damaged patients suggest several short term and long term stores In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different kinds of knowledge, such as remembering how to play a computer game, the rules of subtraction and remembering what we did yesterday are all stored within a single, long-term memory store. Indeed different types of long-term memory have been identified, namely episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge).

Working memory model

The working memory model replaced the idea of a unitary STM. It suggests a system involving active processing and short-term storage of information Central Executive: The central executive has a supervisory function and controls the slave systems. It has limited capacity but can process information from any sensory modality. Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad (inner eye): limited capacity, temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information. The phonological loop a limited capacity, temporary storage system for holding verbal information in a speech based form. It consists of two parts: o Phonological Store (inner ear) Holds information in speech-based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. o Articulatory control process (inner voice) It circulates information round like a tape loop; repetition retains the information in working memory. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store.

Strengths
Case study of KF suggested impaired articulatory loop as problems with recalling words presented verbally but not visually It explains a lot more than the multistore model. It makes sense of a range of tasks - verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem solving and visual and spatial processing. The working memory applies to real life tasks such as reading (phonological loop), problem solving (central executive) and navigation (visual and spatial processing)

Weaknesses
It fails to account for musical memory because we are able to listen to instrumental music without impairing performance on other acoustic tasks. Doesnt explain central executive, we dont know its capacity

VSS implies that all spatial information was first visual (they are linked). However, Lieberman points out that blind people have excellent spatial awareness although they have never had any visual information

Case Study of K.F. - Shallice & Warrington (1970) This study proves that the different parts of the multi-store model can be damaged separately because K.F's LTM was unaffected by the motorbike accident while his STM was severely damaged. Case Study of H.M. - Milner et al (1978) This study supports the theory that the multi-store model can be affected at individual parts because while H.M's STM and LTM both worked almost normally, he lost the ability to transfer the information from the STM to the LTM, however he could recall information from the LTM to the STM.

Eyewitness testimony
EWT is evidence produced by people who witnessed a particular event. It relies on recall from memory.

Loftus and Palmer proved that leading questions can affect accuracy
Participants were shown a film of a car crash and were asked how fast do you think the cars were going when they hit/smashed/collided/bumped/contacted? (different word for each group) Smashed gave the highest estimated speed average of 41 mph whereas contacted gave lowest average of 32 mph 3 groups were asked the same question with either smashed, hit or no indication of the speed. They were then asked a week later: did you see any broken glass? There wasnt actually any broken glass, but the majority of those who said yes h ad been asked the smashed question

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

Conclusion: leading questions can affect peoples accuracy of the event Strengths Weaknesses

Its useful and helps police interviews become more accurate

Video wouldnt be as emotionally arousing; a later study shows that people who actually witnessed a robbery were more accurate in describing the robber. Experimental design leads to demand characteristics. Results could have been skewed due to people realising the aim: effects reliability and validity

Loftus and Zany: showed a film of a car accident and asked participants whether they saw a or the broken light. 7% of a said yes but 17% of the said yes- shows the use of the or a affected accuracy.

Factors affecting EWT Valentine and Coxon found that AGE effects EWT
There were 3 groups: children, young adults and elderly. They were shown a video of a kidnapping and were asked leading and non-leading questions. Results: the elderly and children group gave more incorrect answers to the non-leading questions. Conclusion: age does affect EWT Strengths Useful for police investigations to know when questioning Weaknesses Video wouldnt be as emotionally arousing; a later study shows that people who actually witnessed a robbery were more accurate in describing the robber.

Flin et al (1992) staged an incident and questioned children and adults about it a day later and again five months later. Both groups (young and old) performed equally well the following day but after five months the childrens group had forgotten significantly more suggesting the EWT of children becomes less reliable over time.

Loftus found that ANXIETY also affects EWT

Using an independent groups decision, a discussion was heard in a nearby room. In the first groups, someone came out holding a greasy pen and in the second, someone came out with a knife covered in blood. The participants then had to identify the man from 50 photos. Results: with the pen, participants were 49% accurate and with the knife, 33% were correct. Conclusion: when anxious, participants focus on weapon at expense of other details. Strengths High ecological validity as participants werent aware it was staged Useful for police Weaknesses Ethical considerations: stress at the sight of the knife

Yuille and Cutshall wanted to investigate the accuracy in recall of eyewitnesses to a real crime
In Vancouver, a thief tied up a gun-shop owner and stole money and guns from the shop. The thief ran off and the owner freed himself and armed himself with a gun. The owner went outside to take note of the thief's registration number. However, the thief wasn't in the car yet and shot the owner twice from six feet away. After a momentary pause, the owner shot the thief with all six bullets from his revolver and killed him.

20 eyewitnesses were contacted by researchers 4 - 5 months after the event . 13 people agreed to participate in the study and they were all aged 15-32 ( three were female and ten were male). They used the same interviewing procedure as the police had used allowing them to give their account first and were then asked questions. As one of the aims was to look into the effects of leading questions, half the group were asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half if they saw the broken headlight, when in fact there was no broken headlight in the thiefs car. Similarly, half of the participants were asked about a yellow panel on the car, and the others about the yellow panel, whereas the quarter panel was really blue. Result: The study showed that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. There were several factors which made this true, including correctly recalling large numbers of accurate details; almost always arguing the misleading questions and a healthy comparison between the police and researcher interviews.

Strengths Great care was taken when counting the details from the real incident to make sure that the witnesses testimonies did not alter that which really happened, and this scoring procedure allowed for reliable findings This is a field study that looks at a real incident with real eyewitnesses. It therefore has strong validity, which laboratory experiments which had been previously used to look at testimony lacked

Weaknesses Lacks generalizability as this was a one-off incident and a field study

weak points in the scoring, eg a question based on age: the thief was actually 35 years of age, and when asked to estimate the age, most eyewitnesses said he looked as though he was in his early 20s which was marked as an inaccurate memory, even though he really did look that age

Cognitive interview
Is used to increase accuracy of witnesses recall during police questioning, reduces effect of leading questions and enhances memory recall

Stages of the interview

Report everything: It encourages witnesses to report all detail that they can remember regardless of how trivial it may appear Context reinstatement: It tries to recreate the scene of the incident in the mind of the witness, this includes the sights, sounds and smells but also crucially it attempts to model the emotions and feelings of the person at the time. Recall in reverse order: It encourages witnesses to recall events in different orders, for example starting half way through a sequence of events and then working backward

Why they might work

Points one and two reinstate context. They get the witness to mentally revisit the scene and mentally reconstruct the incident in their mind.

Evidence suggests that we are more likely to recall information if it is in a similar context to when it was first experienced or learned, so putting ourselves in a similar state of mind should aid recall.

Points three and four are based on the idea that once a memory has been stored there is more

Recall from a different perspective: It encourages witnesses to view the scene as others present may have seen it, for example as other witnesses, the victim or the perpetrator may have seen the incident.

than one way of getting at it or retrieving it.

Geiselman et al looked at cognitive interview

They staged an intruder carrying a blue rucksack entering a classroom and stealing a projector. Two days after, people were questioned. In an independent groups design, participants had a cognitive or standard interview. They were asked was the guy in the green backpack nervous? they were then asked what colour his backpack was. Results: participants in cognitive interview were less likely to recall the rucksack being green than those in standard interview. Shows that cognitive was more reliable. Strengths High ecological validity as they believed it was happening Weaknesses The cognitive interview contains several components and it is unclear as to whether all the components contribute to the success of the technique. Independent group designs: other factors such as individual differences may have affected how much information was recalled

Useful for police

Strategies for memory improvement

Verbal Mnemonics Acronyms: Where each initial of each word makes a new word e.g. JFS Acrostics: Creating a memorable sentence using the first letters of each word e.g. Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain. Chunking: Separating information in to groups and giving each group a meaning to help you remember the sequence e.g. ABCHIKOGIG ABC HI KO GIG

Visual Mnemonics Mind Mapping: Creating a map of branches of information coming from other information. It can be memorable by using different colours, shorter words, images, clarity and personalising it. Keyword Method: Using an image to link two different pieces of information e.g. by imagining a horse with a large eye, it can be remembered that the word caballo (spanish for horse) is pronounced cab eye-oh Method of loci: You would think of a route you take regularly and you would then associate the words to locations on the route.

Strengths

Weaknesses Memorising doesnt mean understanding You still need to remember the mnemonic

Bower memory studies on visual mnemonics

They gave participants 12 lists of 10 nouns to recall, one group used the story method whereas the other group did not.

Results: The group who used the story method recalled 93% of the nouns compared to only 13% in the other
group. In another experiment, Bower gave participants 100 cards each with two unrelated words. One group simply memorised the words and the others were asked to produce a visual image linking the two words (e.g. door and cat). Results: When cued (given the first word e.g. door) the visual imagers were far more likely to recall the second word (80%) than the non-imagers (45%). Strengths Control condition means that independent variable can be effectively measured Weaknesses Lacks EV- they wouldnt have asked these tasks in real life

Attachment
Attachment: a strong emotional bond
Attached infants show desire to be close to the primary caregiver and show distress when separated and pleasure when reunited.

Learning Theory (behaviourist theory)

Classical conditioning Getting food gives the baby pleasure and this pleasure is fulfilled whenever the mother is around to feed it. An association is therefore formed between the mother and food, so whenever the mother is around the baby will feel pleasure. Operant conditioning Babies feel discomfort and displeasure and therefore feel a desire to remove these negative feelings. They discover that if they cry, their mother will come and feed them- so the discomfort is removed through negative reinforcement. The mother is therefore associated with food and the baby will want to be close to her, as the baby is rewarded when she is near.

Harlow showed that comfort is important

He wanted to find out whether babies would prefer a source of food or a source of comfort. In lab experiments, rhesus monkeys were raised in isolation and had a choice of two surrogate mothers. One was made of wire mesh and had a feeding bottle whereas the other was cuddly and made of cloth. Results: the monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth surrogate and only used the wire one to feed. The cloth mum gave them comfort. Conclusion: infant monkeys formed a greater attachment with the figure that supplied comfort. Without actual comfort from a real mother, they grew up emotionally and socially disturbed- showing the importance of attachment. Strengths Lab experiment strict control of variables. Weaknesses But humans are more complex animals and it is therefore difficult to apply this study directly to human behaviour Problems with ethics as the monkeys were psychologically damaged The monkeys were isolated and not in their natural environment, so the study lacks EV.

These finding were useful in real-life as it led to babies in incubators to be given blankets

Schaffer and Emerson did a longitudinal study of 60 babies at monthly intervals for the first 18
months of life. The children were all studied in their own home and a regular pattern was identified in the development of attachment. The babies were visited monthly for approximately one year, their interactions with their carers were observed, and carers were interviewed. Evidence for the development of an attachment was that the baby showed separation anxiety after a carer left. They discovered that baby's attachments develop in the following sequence: Up to 3 months of age - Indiscriminate attachments. The new-born is predisposed to attach to any human. Most babies respond equally to any caregiver. After 4 months - Preference for certain people. Infants they learn to distinguish primary and secondary caregivers but accept care from anyone; After 7 months - Special preference for a single attachment figure. The baby looks to particular people for security, comfort and protection. It shows fear of strangers (stranger fear) and separation anxiety After 9 months - Multiple attachments. The baby becomes increasingly independent and forms several attachments.

Conclusion: of the study indicated that attachments were most likely to form with those who responded
accurately to the baby's signals, not the person they spent most time with. The most important fact in forming attachments is not who feeds and changes the child but who plays and communicates with him or her.

Strengths Since babies were observed in their own homes (a natural environment) we can assume that the study is high in ecological validity; the findings can be generalised to the real world.

Weaknesses However, accuracy of data collection by parents who were keeping daily diaries whilst clearly being very busy could be questioned.

Research into culture

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenbergs meta-analysis found secure attachment was the most common in all cultures studied. The lowest % of secure attachment was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain. Avoidant attachment was more common in West Germany but rare in Israel and Japan. BUT, some studies had limited samples eg UK had 72 pairs whereas China had 25. Sample may not even represent whole population- lacks EV. Comparative data is more reliable however as it only looked at studies with an identical methodology (SS) in gathering their data

^^found intra-cultural variations as everyone in a culture has different practices eg middle class and working class in UK have different child-rearing techniques. A country therefore doesnt represent a culture. Evidence for Bowlby: he argued it is innate, and therefore effects infants of every culture. Cross cultural similarity shows s this.

Cross cultural similarities

Ainsworths Ugandan study naturalistic observation of infants in Uganda used their mothers as a secure base and mothers of securely attached shower greater sensitivity similar to America and UK demonstrates universal similarities despite Uganda being collectivist culture and USA being individualistic

Cross cultural differences

Grossman and Grossman on German infants

found they were more insecure than secure could be due to different childbearing practices eg German culture involves keeping distance between child and parent so less proximity-seeking behaviours in strange situation and thus appear to be insecurely attached

Foxs Israeli kibbutzim study infants were mostly cared for in a communal childrens home by nurses attachment was tested using strange situation with nurse and mother, infants appeared equally attached but not in reunion behaviour- showed greater attachment to mother suggesting mothers were still the primary attachment figure demonstrates monotropy being universal, despite differences in childcare practices

Takahashi looked at Japanese infants using SS similar rates of secure attachment to USA, but higher rates of insecure-resistant and no insecure-avoidant very distressed when left alone- for 90% of infants the study was stopped due to childcare, as infants rarely experience separation from mother which would make them appear insecurely attached

Strengths

Weaknesses Depends on researcher- there is observer bias: interpreting childs behaviour on their own cultural expectations and this may differ between researchers. Lacks validity Imposed etic: Ainsworth used her own cultural views of attachment as an American to define it, which may not be the same for all. Eg separation anxiety: on kibbutzim, children are used to not living with parents and therefore wouldnt be distressed on separation, they would be classified as insecurely attached doesnt take differences of cultures into account.

Secure attachment is the norm for all cultures which shows attachment as innate and universal. But there are cross cultural differences, so secure attachment should be defined specific to the culture.

Ethological approach
Ethology- the study of animals in their natural environment Konrad Lorenz found that geese automatically attach to the first moving thing they see after hatching and follow it everywhere IMPRINTING, which occurs during a CRITICAL PERIOD.

John Bowlbys evolutionary theory

Bowlbys theory of attachment suggests attachment is important for a childs survival. Attachment behaviours in both babies and their caregivers have evolved through natural selection and infants are innately programmed to form an attachment. This is a biological process and takes place during a critical period. The role of social releasers, such as crying and smiling, is emphasised. The childs relationship with a PCG provides an internal working model which influences later relationships. This concept of monotropy suggests that there is one relationship which is more important than all the rest

Strengths There is evidence- Harlows study shows we have an evolved need to attach and suggests social and emotional damage if there is no attachment Attachment does effect later romance in life, Hazan and Shavers love quiz found that people who had an avoidant and unhappy childhood due to parents were more likely to divorce and felt extremely jealous and obsessive

Weaknesses Disagrees with Schaffer and Emerson, who found that children form multiple attachments and may not even attach to their mother A poor early start can be overcome by positive experiences at school and good adult relationships (Rutter & Quinton 1988).

KEY VOCAB
Sensitive/critical period- period when human attachment occurs, approx first 2 years Imprinting- process of attaching to first moving being that the animal sees, takes place during sensitive/critical period and is irreversible Social releasers- eg crying, high forehead, big eyes, smiling. These all trigger an attachment response from the adult, which is needed for survival Secure base- attachment provides attachment allowing baby to explore their environment and develop socially and cognitively Monotropy- infants become most attached to those who respond most sensitively/correctly to them and one special relationship in formed.

Internal working model- This internal working model is a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding the world, self and others. The primary caregiver acts as a prototype for future relationships via the internal working model.

Types of Attachment

SECURE
Theres a strong bond between the child and its caregiver. If theyre separated, the infant becomes distressed and when reunited, the child is easily comforted. These promote healthy cognitive and emotional development.

INSECURE
The bonds between child and caregiver are weaker. Ainsworth et al came up with two types: INSECURE-AVOIDANT
Child doesnt become distressed if separated from their caregiver and can be comforted by a stranger Child is uneasy around their caregiver but becomes upset if theyre separated. Comfort cant be given from strangers and is often resisted from the caregiver.

INSECURE-RESISTANT

Ainsworth et al found that infants reaction in a strange situation shows whether the infant is securely
attached In a controlled observation, 12-18 month old infants were left in a room with their mother. A stranger would enter the room, talk to the mother and then approach the baby. The mother would them leave them alone together. The mother would then return and comfort the baby. The baby would then be left alone, and the stranger would come in after a few minutes and attempt to comfort it. The mother would return after the stranger has tried. Results: 15% of infants were insecure avoidant and 15% were insecure-resistant, 70% were securely attached as they avoided strangers without the mother and became distressed if she left. Conclusion: infants showing different types of reactions to their carers have different types of attachment

Strengths Had strict control of variables and so the results were reliable. Marrone (1998), although the Strange Situation has been criticized for being stressful, it is simulating everyday experiences, as mothers do leave their babies for brief periods of time in different settings and often with unfamiliar people such as baby sitters.

Weaknesses Lab experiment means the study was artificial, and it lacks EV The parents may have changed their behaviour as they knew they were being observed, which could have affected the childs behaviour.

The new situation for the child might have affected their behaviour and so might not be accurate in real life.

Important findings from Strange Situation research

The causes of different attachment types are debatable: could be sensitivity of caregivers or their inborn temperament

Cultural differences are found: Grossman et al claimed that more avoidant infants may be found in Germany due to the value of German dependence. Avoidance is seen as good.

The strange situation doesnt show characteristics of the child: it only shows the childs relationship with a specific person, might react differently with different carers

Attachment type may influence later behaviours

Secure: more confident, form strong, trusting adult relationships

Avoidant: behaviour problems difficult to form trusting relationships

Resistant: insecure and attention seeking and have strong feelings on dependency on partners

Disruption of attachment
Separation: a child is away from a caregiver its attached to for a relatively short time, just hours or days Deprivation: loss of something that is wanted or needed. Maternal deprivation is the loss of the primary caregiver; the loss is more long-term or even permanent Effects of separation PDD model
PROTEST: child will protest at being separated from mother or other attachment figure by crying, panicking, calling for its mother DESPAIR: after a day of two, they lose interest in surroundings and become withdrawn with occasional crying. Will eat and sleep less DETACHMENT: after a few days, the child becomes alert again. It cries less and seems to have recovered. But its previous attachment may be permanently damaged- loss of security and trust.

Strengths Is useful as has implications for childcare. Findings suggest separating a child from its carers should be avoided.

Weaknesses Studies show that children who receive foster care do better than those in an institutionalised setting. children can still cope with separation as long as they still receive one-on-one emotional support Separations do not necessarily produce PDD effects. Many factors influence how a child reacts, eg age or quality of care during separation.

Robertson and Robertson found evidence for PDD model

In a naturalistic observation, several children who experienced short term separations from their carers were observed and filmed. Eg, a boy stayed in a residential nursery for 6 days while his mother had another baby. Results: John passed through protest for the first day or two. Then despair- tried to get attention from nurses but then gave up. Then he showed detachment- he was more active and content. When his mother came to collect him, he was reluctant to be affectionate. Conclusion: short-term separation has bad effects, including possible permanent damage Strengths Has EV as was in a natural setting Weaknesses Reaction may have been to new environment instead of separation, or that he wasnt getting enough attention variables couldnt be severely controlled.

Bowlby studied longer-term maternal deprivation

1. Deprivation from the main carer during critical period (first 3-5 years) will have a harmful effect on a childs emotional, social and intellectual development 2. Long term effects of deprivation include separation anxiety which leads to problem behaviour, eg being clingy and needy. Future relationships may be affected by this emotional insecurity.

Bowlby: the 44 juvenile thieves

Case studies were completed on the backgrounds of 44 adolescents who had been referred to the clinic where Bowlby worked because theyd been stealing. There was a control group of 44 emotionally disturbed adolescents who didnt steal. Results: 17 of the thieves experienced frequent separations from their mothers before the age of two, compared with 2 in the control group. 14 of the thieves were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths. 12 of these 14 had experienced separation from their mothers. Conclusion: deprivation of the child from its main carer can have harmful long-term consequences. Strengths Provides a link between criminals and deprivation, which can be prevented. Weaknesses Other factors could have influenced criminal behaviour. Study relies on retrospective data.

Other long term effects:

Goldfarb found that orphanage children who were socially and maternally deprived were later less intellectual and socially developed. This supports Bowlbys claims.

Anaclitic depression: appetite loss, sleeplessness and impaired social and intellectual development Deprivation dwarfism: infants are psychically underdeveloped due to emotional deprivation

Privation: never forming a bond with a caregiver

Curtiss The case of Genie
o o o o A girl suffered extreme cruelty from her parents and never formed any attachments She was kept in a high chair with a potty in the seat for most of her childhood and was beaten if she made any sounds. She didnt get the chance to play with toys or interact with other children She was discovered when she was 13 and was physically underdeveloped and could only speak with animal-like sounds After a lot of help she later learned some language but her social and intellectual skills never fully developed. Weaknesses One off study, findings arent consistent

Strengths Has EV as was in a natural setting

Quinton et al compared 50 women who had experienced institutional care as children and 50 who didnt. The women raised in institutions were more likely to have parenting difficulties- suggesting a CYCLE of privation.

The effects of day-care on child development Clarke et al (1994) found positive effects of day care
It was a series of separate observations to examine the effects of the day care. One experiment looked at the peer relationships of 150 children aged 2-3 years, who came from different social backgrounds. In another, the strength of attachment in a group of 18-month olds who had at least 30 hours a week was measured- used the strange situation. Results were compared to children who had less than 10 hours a week of day care Day-care: temporary care provided Results: 2-3 year olds were good at coping with social by someone other than the parents situations and negotiating with each other. In the strange or guardians they live with. Eg day situation experiment, the 18 months who had high intensity day-care were distressed when separated from their mothers in nurseries, child-minders and comparison to low intensity nannies Conclusion: day-care can have positive effects on the development peer relationships 2-3 year olds. Attachment in 18month olds is not affected by temporary separation Strengths Weaknesses Observations were controlled, so could be easily Artificial study- lacks EV and results cant be replicated generalised to other children

Shea (1981) also found positive effects of day care Infants between 3 and 4 were videotaped in the playground during their first 10 weeks at nursery school. Their behaviour was assessed in terms of rough-and-tumble play, aggression, frequency of peer interaction, distance from teacher and distance from nearest child Result: Over the 10 weeks the childrens peer interaction increased and their distance from the teacher decreased. Decrease in aggression and increase in rough-and-tumble play. The increase in sociability was more evident in those who attend day-care 5 times a week than those who went 2 days a week Conclusion: day care causes children to become more sociable and les aggressive
Strengths Has EV as was in a natural setting Weaknesses Behaviour was open to interpretation- findings could be biased. Eg could be hard to differentiate between aggression and rough-and-tumble play

Belsky and Rovine (1988) found negative effects of day-care Infants were placed in the strange situation. One group had experienced no day care and one had had at least 20 hours per week before their first birthday Results: infants who received day-care were more likely to have insecure attachment Conclusion: day-care has a negative effect on an infants social development Strengths DiLalla (1998) also found negative effects on peer relationships. The more day-care, the less prosaically they behaved, eg the less they helped/shared Controlled observation, so good control of variables Weaknesses Lacks eve

Research has affected day care practices Scar 1998 identified several factors that make good day care: good staff training, adequate space, appropriate toys and activities, good ratio of staff to children, minimising turnover so children can form stable attachments TATRA Vandell et al found that children with good quality of day care were more likely to have friendly interactions with others compared to those receiving lower quality day care