Sandra Somerville Introduction to Applied Social Sciences 4002SWBAP

Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Freud, whose approach looked at the importance of childhood experiences. The emphasis here is on the feelings and emotions that are rooted deeply within the unconscious mind, which reflect back to these early experiences (Neel, 1 !1". #ccording to Freud, the mind di$ides into two parts, the conscious and the unconscious. The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings inside of one%s current awareness (&ayes, 1 '".

The unconscious mind is a pool of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories outside of the conscious awareness. The unconscious mind houses the unacceptable or unpleasant feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict ((eber, 1 1". Freud suggests the

unconscious mind is the dominant influence of beha$iours and experiences of an indi$idual e$en though all remain unaware of these underlying influences (&ayes, )**)". +t is from the unconscious mind that Freud%s theory of ,defence mechanisms% e$ol$ed. -efence mechanisms safeguard the conscious mind against feelings and thoughts that are otherwise too difficult to cope with. +solation is a defence

mechanism that seeks to reduce anxiety by thinking about e$ents in a cold, clinical way, therefore blocking feelings and emotions (.ayne, 1 *".

+n the fifth paragraph of the case study, isolation is a defence mechanism used by /ary when asked about the whereabouts of 0osh. 1he explains he returns to the

family home when he needs food or sleep. /ary uses intellectual reasoning to isolate herself from the emotional stress and conflict and remains distant from the

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reality of the situation. /ary unconsciously protects herself from the emotion of re2ection by her partner by talking it through intellectually (3rain, )**4". .eha$iourism suggests that all beha$iours are learned and therefore can be unlearned. This perspecti$e is primarily concerned with obser$able, measurable beha$iour, suggesting that the en$ironment determines one%s beha$iour as opposed to internal e$ents like thinking and emotion. #ccording to beha$iourism,

en$ironmental factors, known as stimuli, affect beha$iour, known as the response (3rain, )**4". The beha$iourist approach has two main processes whereby people learn from their en$ironment. 3lassical conditioning, associated with Pa$lo$,

in$ol$es learning by association (5antt, 1 67". 8perant conditioning, associated with 1kinner, looks at what happens prior to the beha$iour (ante9seedant" and what happens after the beha$iour (the conse:uence". This approach looks at how the conse:uence controls the beha$iour (1kinner, 1 !'". #n example of operant conditioning would be 5emma kicking 0ames. 5emma

obser$es /ary reacting in a hostile way towards 0ames (the anti9seedant". 5emma kicks 0ames (the beha$iour" which prompted a smile (the conse:uence" from /ary. The smile (positi$e re9enforcement" will learn 5emma to beha$e in this much more fre:uently, as it gains her mother%s appro$al (1kinner, 1 !'". 3ogniti$e Psychology is concerned with how people process information, comparing the human brain to that of computers. Piaget was the most influential psychologist in the area of cogniti$e de$elopment. 3ogniti$e psychologists study what processes are actually going on in the mind in order to explain beha$iours. &ow a person understands a situation can then determine what method they adopt to deal with it.

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This perspecti$e looks to changing the thought process with a $iew to impro$e beha$iour (&ayes, )**)". +n the third paragraph, /ary%s cogniti$e influences go$ern the interpretation of a $isit from 0ames. 0ames%s appearance (the stimuli" pro$okes /ary to react in an

aggressi$e manner (the beha$iour" directed at him. /arys% thought process then becomes the dominant factor contributing to her beha$iour (&ayes, )**)". +n social learning theory, .andura suggests beha$iour de$elops through obser$ation from the en$ironment. This theory crosses between cogniti$e, beha$ioural, and

en$ironmental influences (1udbery, )*1*". 3hildren ha$e $ery powerful influences that surround them, parents being one of the strongest. Parents can be obser$ed by their children who, then in turn, encode their beha$iour and then may, at a later date, go on to imitate it ((eber, 1 1".

/ary is a powerful influence upon 1am and as his mother is an important close role model. +n the case study, ele$enth paragraph, 1am (the obser$er" appeared

expressionless, displaying a lack of interest towards others. /ary (the model" sat motionless and made no gestures towards 1am. This would indicate that 1am had obser$ed /ary and was adopting her beha$iour by not interacting and being unresponsi$e (3rain, )**4". &umanistic psychology emphasises the study of the whole person known as a holistic approach. The humanistic perspecti$e looks through the eyes of an obser$er and through the eyes of the person doing the beha$ing. They centre on the $iew that each person is uni:ue and has the free will to change at any time of their li$es to

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de$elop their own well9being and happiness as human beings, leading to self9 actualisation (;ogers, 1 41". ;ogers and /aslow are the most significant and influential theorists of the humanistic perspecti$e. &umanistic psychology critici<es the scientific approaches of beha$ioural and cogniti$e psychology in that it fails to acknowledge the personal and sub2ecti$e experiences of the world of human beings (.ayne, 1 *". ;ogers

re2ected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and beha$iourism and maintained that we beha$e as we do because of the way we percei$e our situation (;ogers, 1 41". /aslow%s &ierarchy of Needs looks at belonging as one of the more basic needs, coming 2ust abo$e health and safety. The case study, paragraphs fi$e and six,

indicates /ary is lacking in this need. 0osh is fre:uently absent from the family home, lea$ing /ary with the responsibility of childcare and housekeeping alone. /ary is $oid of the lo$e and affection a partnership should bring. This pre$ents /ary from de$eloping self9worth or esteem and hinders self9actualisation. /ary%s low

self9esteem could explain her aggressi$e beha$iour in combination with her becoming tearful and emotional and could be the reason for the deterioration of her childcare and housekeeping duties (;ogers, 1 41", &umanitarian theories interlink with =rikson> psychosocial de$elopmental theory and has strong Freudian influences. This theory asserts that people experience eight stages of human de$elopment drawn from the extended ideas of Freudian psychosexual de$elopment. =ach stage experiences eight >psychosocial crises>

(internal conflicts" characterised by a conflict between two opposing positions or attitudes, which then help to define growth and personality (/ayhew, 1 !".

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+n the se$enth stage (ages '* ?64" of =rikson% theory the crisis looks at generati$ity conflicting with stagnatation (Neel, 1 !1". #dults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by ha$ing children or creating positi$e changes, perhaps in their working en$ironment, that benefits other people. 1uccess leads to feelings

of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow in$ol$ement in the world. The important e$ents surrounding this stage emphasise family and work '".

(&ayes, 1

The second paragraph in the case study described how 0ames experienced feeling inade:uate when he socialised with his friends, whose salaries far surpassed his own. The se$enth stage of =rikson% theory suggests that 0ames has become

despondent in his work. &is low salary has o$ershadowed his career, which he now appears to see as almost tedious and monotonous. This could explain his beha$iour when dealing with /ary (ninth paragraph" whereby he becomes :uite abrupt. +n the ele$enth paragraph, 0ames relates how he feels to what he refers to as ,/ary%s fed up look.% (.ayne, 1 *".

@nless 0ames can o$ercome the crisis at the se$enth stage of =rikson%s% theory of de$elopment he risks being unable to feel a sense of fulfilment at the eighth stage of de$elopment, (age 64 ? death". +ntegrity is in conflict with despair at this stage and the emphasis is a reflection on life. 8lder adults should to look back on life and experience a sense of achie$ement. 1uccess at this stage leads to feelings of 1uccess at this

wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

stage de$elops feelings of wisdom, while failure leads to feelings of regret, bitterness, and despair (.aumeister, 1 7".

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#ttachment theory, first de$eloped by .owlby, emphasises the link between early infant separations with the mother and later malad2ustment. This theory suggests children ha$e a biological instinct to seek out a significant figure, usually a parent, who offers comfort and protection as and when re:uired. This offers the child a secure base to return to as they begin to explore their en$ironment (3rain, )**4". The infant will respond to separation from the attachment figure with distress and aggression. This relationship is essential as it regulates the hormone le$els of both the child and the attachment figure. These bonds facilitate the de$elopment and maintenance of mental representations of the self and others (internal working model" and form the basis by which indi$iduals come to understand their en$ironment (&owe, 1 4".

.owlby suggested that a child would initially form only one primary attachment (monotropy" and that this relationship acts as a prototype for all future social relationships. This theory also suggests that if no attachment has formed before the age of fi$e then the child will suffer from irre$ersible de$elopmental conse:uences, such as reduced intelligence and increased aggression (&owe, 1 4". ;esearch

since suggests that early attachments can ha$e a serious impact on later relationships. For example, a secure attachment in childhood tends to result in high self9esteem, strong romantic relationships and the ability to be open and expressi$e to others (.aumeister, 1 7".

Further research by #insworth described three ma2or styles of attachmentA secure attachment, ambi$alent9insecure attachment and a$oidant9insecure attachment. Bater, research by /ain and 1olomon (1 C6" added a fourth attachment style called disorgani<ed9insecure attachment (1udbery, )*1*".

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The case study suggests that 1am has formed an anxiousDa$oidant attachment with /ary. 1am does not seek out any physical contact with /ary, who, in turn, appears to show little acceptance of 1am (ele$enth paragraph". 1am may ha$e tried to gain acceptance from /ary but upon continual re2ection, he further withdraws. Fearing

this re2ection could explain why 1am appears unresponsi$e and remote. 1am could be at risk of de$eloping low self9esteem and a negati$e self9concept because of /arys% neglectful parenting (&arris, 1 !C". 1am could ha$e formed a selecti$e attachment to 5emma. This becomes e$ident when he follows 5emma from the kitchen to the li$ing room (ele$enth paragraph" and pulls himself up onto a chair to be near her. 5emma cannot pro$ide a secure base for 1am, consider her age, but she can pro$ide the acceptance that 1am cra$es but does not get from /ary. #s 1am grows and de$elops the little acceptance he gets from /ary could decrease, as would appear to be e$ident with .en (1udbery, )*1*". /ary has allowed .en to wander around the local area since he could barely walk and it would appear that this is where he spends the ma2ority of his time. 3hildren need regular contact on a daily basis with their primary carer in order to de$elop a secure attachment. #ssuming that .en and /ary did not ha$e regular interactions would suggest that .en had also de$eloped an anxiousDa$oidant attachment with /ary (.ayne, 1 *".

.eha$iours associated with ambi$alent attachment go from one extreme to the other. #ll of the children may show interest in spending time with 0osh but could also be fearful. 0osh is inconsistent in his parenting style, (se$enth paragraph" appearing kind and warm but e:ually harsh and re2ecting. The children may ha$e de$eloped

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ambi$alent responses to 0osh, not knowing what to expect because 0osh is unpredictable (3rain, )**4". The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are a$ailable and responsi$e to their child>s needs establish a deep sense of security in their children. /others should stri$e to de$elop a secure emotional bond whilst dealing with their own personal and any psychological difficulties they may be experiencing (.ayne, 1 *".

+t is clear from the case study that /ary is experiencing difficulties, which could indicate she may be suffering from some form of depression. 3linical depression, ma2or depression, unipolar depression, or unipolar disorder are mental disorders characteri<ed by an all9encompassing low mood accompanied by low self9esteem, and by loss of interest normally en2oyable acti$ities (&arris, 1 !C". Postpartum depression (PP-", also called postnatal depression, is a form of clinical depression, which occurs in women after they ha$e carried a child. 1ymptoms occur usually in the first few months, and may last up to se$eral months or e$en a year (&ammen, )**1". ;ecent research shows that three9:uarters of women experiencing postnatal depression go undiagnosed because they are ashamed to speak about their feelings (3oleman, )*11". 3haracteristics include sadness, fatigue, changes in sleeping and eating patterns, reduced libido, crying episodes, anxiety, and irritability (&arris, 1 !C". 3onsiderations of multiple factors help to e$aluate the mental capacity of /ary, as a depressed mother, to pro$ide a safe and comfortable en$ironment that can support the healthy and emotional de$elopment of her children. 1uch factors encompass

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/ary%s present social and en$ironmental structures, her insight, and her ability to accept help all combine to assist the e$aluation (/urray, 1 4".

;esearch by .rown and &arris (1 !C" looked at the relationship between poor parental childhood care and mothers with low self9esteem and a negati$e $iew of the self. They suggested that poor attachment in childhood could make women psychologically $ulnerable when faced with stress and therefore the risk of depression becomes significantly higher. The lack of emotional of support from 0osh places the ma2ority of responsibility for the children upon /ary. #lthough /ary and 0osh remain together, she is $oid of

the physical and emotional connection that being in a relationship should bring. +solation con$ersely means being and feeling excluded from the usual life experiences, this logically is characterised by feelings of loneliness, alienation, social withdrawal or non9participation, characteristics that could describe /ary (/urray, 1 4".

=n$iromental and social factors restrict /ary%s opportunities and limit her choices. Financial restraints, with 0osh unemployed and three children to support, place additional pressure upon /ary (&erbert, 1 C". #s a result, /ary unconsciously

exhibits increased negati$e emotions towards her children, making her less responsi$e and less sensiti$e to their needs. /ary then becomes less emotionally a$ailable and has a less successful maternal role attainment. #s a result, all the children are less securely attached (&owe, 1 4".

+n this $iew, /ary does not ha$e a mental illness, but instead it is the external influences of her en$ironment that impact on her abilities to care for her children.

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+t could be possible /ary has been suffering from undiagnosed postnatal depression since the birth of 1am, possibly e$en since 5emma and this pro9longed suffering could pre$ent /ary ha$ing a realistic $iew on life. /ary could be more likely to 2ump to conclusions and interpret situations in extreme and unhelpful ways, clouding her 2udgement (;achman, )**1". &owe$er, it is important to remember a psychological problem such as depression sometimes has psychological causes. #n underacti$e thyroid gland can make a person feel apathetic and depressed and an o$eracti$e one can produce anxiety and irritability. .oth conditions re:uire medical attention and must be either ruled out or treated. 3learly, it is not sensible to treat a form of distress that has a physical basis with a psychological method of change (/ayhew, 1 !".

Taking a biological approach into inter$ention /ary may benefit from anti depressants on a short9term basis. /ary appears hostile and resentful towards

0ames, which could hinder progress on any inter$entions that may otherwise pro$e successful.. #nti9depressants could pro$ide /ary with the moti$ation to want to make an effort to impro$e her life (&ammen, )**1". -e$eloped by ;ogers, person9centred therapy in$ol$es a close personal relationship between client and therapist. The client determines the general direction of therapy, while the therapist seeks to increase the client>s insight and self9understanding through informal clarifying :uestions. Two ma2or ob2ecti$es of person9centred therapy are enhanced self9esteem and greater openness to experience (;ogers, 1 41".

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1elf9actuali<ation is a central plank underlying person9centred therapy. +t refers to the tendency of all human beings to mo$e forward, grow, and reach their fullest potential. (hen humans mo$e toward self9actuali<ation, they tend to be concerned for others and beha$e in honest and constructi$e ways. The concept of self9 actuali<ation focuses on human strengths rather than human deficiencies. #ccording to ;ogers, negati$e attitudes about oneself can hinder or block the process of self9 actuali<ation (1haffer, 1 !C".

3ongruence refers to the openness and genuineness of the social worker and a willingness to relate to /ary. This includes an ability to share the significant emotional reactions of /ary. This does not mean, howe$er, that the social worker should disclose their personal problems to /ary or di$ert the focus of therapy in any way. The emphasis here is to allow /ary to self analyse her own condition and to disco$er her own plausible solutions (1haffer, 1 !C".

/ary should be encouraged to talk without interruptions or guidance in any direction other than where she wishes to go. This attitude creates a nonthreatening context in which /ary should be free to explore and share painful, hostile, defensi$e, or abnormal feelings without worrying about personal re2ection by the social worker. This unconditional positi$e regard means that the social worker accepts /ary totally for who she is without being 2udgemental (;ogers, 1 41".

The social worker should try to empathise or appreciate /ary%s situation from her point of $iew and show an emotional understanding and sensiti$ity throughout. # primary way of con$eying this empathy is by acti$e listening, this shows careful and

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percepti$e attention to what /ary is saying. +n addition, paraphrasing or summari<ing what /ary may ha$e 2ust said is confirmation to /ary that she is being listened and can learn her to become self reflecti$e ((eber, 1 1".

(ith person centred therapy, /ary will look into her past as well as build on a sustainable future that is spiritually, emotionally and socially fulfilling. /ary will fully explore herself alongside the attitudes, beha$iours and feelings associated with her e$eryday experiences. Positi$e outcomes for /ary would pro$ide an opportunity for her to come to terms with her difficulties and challenges and to realise her hopes and dreams (Neel, 1 !1". .eha$iourists ha$e critici<ed person centred therapy for lacking structure and by psychoanalysts for actually pro$iding a conditional relationship. Ne$ertheless, it has pro$en to be a $astly effecti$e and popular treatment (1kinner, 1 !'". 3ogniti$e .eha$ioural Therapy is another area of inter$ention that could be successful on /ary. 3.T can help change her thought process (3ogniti$e" to shape the action taken (.eha$iour". The focus would be on the immediate problems faced by /ary, rather than the causes of distress or symptoms in her past and it would seek out ways to impro$e state her of mind now (3rain, )**4". 3.T would help /ary to make sense of her o$erwhelming problems by breaking them down into smaller parts, making it easier for her to see their connections and implications on her. This would take firstly a situation or a problem and look at the thoughts /ary had in relation to it. This then would mo$e on to her emotions, how did she feel, happy, ner$ous maybe sadE /o$ing on to what, if any, physical

reactions she may experience, did she feel nauseous perhapsE Finally what action

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did /ary take and how the same situation can be approached differently, altering the outcome (&arris, 1 !C". +f a situation led to /ary feeling depressed, she would then brood on what happened and end up feeling worse. /ary is in a situation whereby she is unable to break it down and so she becomes caught in a ,$icious circle% of e$ents (&ammen, )**1". 3.T can help /ary to break this $icious circle of altered thinking, feelings and beha$iour. (hen she can see the parts of the se:uence clearly, she can change them 9 and so change the way she feels. 3.T will endea$our to get /ary to a point where she is able to think through and find her own ways to work through the challenges she is now facing (1udbery, )*1*".

.ibliography .aumeister, ;. F. (1 Plenum Press 7" 1elf9=steemmA The Pu<<le of Bow 1elf9;egard, Bondon,

.ayne, P. N. (1 *". Applied Psychology For Social Workers ()nd =dition ed.". &ampshireA Palgra$e.

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3oleman, N. ()*11, No$ember )1". How to spot the signs of postnatal depression and how to treat it. ;etrie$ed 0anuary 1), )*1), from /ail8nlineA httpADDwww.dailymail.co.ukDhealthDarticle 3rain, (. ()**4". Theories of Development: oncepts and Applications (4th =dition ed.". BondonA Pearson =ducation. 5antt, (. &. (1 67". Pavlov:!ect"res on (ishartA Bondon. onditioned #efle$es (7rd ed.". Bawrence F

&ammen, 3. ()**1". Depression (7rd =dition ed.". 1ussexA Psychology Press Btd. &arris, 5. .. (1 !C". Social %rigins of Depression: A St"dy of Psychiatric Disorderin Women& Bondon A Ta$istock. &ayes, N. ()**)". Psychology in Perspective ()nd =dition ed.". BondonA Palgra$e. &ayes, N. (1 '". Teach 'o"rself Psychology& BondonA &odder F 1toughton. C". Tro"(led Families Pro(lem hildren& 1ussexA (iley.

&erbert, 3. (.91. (1

&olland, 1. ()*11". hild and Family Assessment in Social Work ()nd =dition ed.". BondonA 1age Publications. &owe, -. (1 /ayhew, 0. (1 4". Attachment Theory for Social Work Practice& Bondon A /ac/illan. !". Psychological hange& BondonA /ac/illan Press Btd.

/urray, 0. (1 4". Prevention of An$iety and Depression in )"lnera(le *ro"ps& BondonA 5askell. Neel, #. F. (1 !1". Theories of Psychology& BondonA @ni$ersity of Bondon Press Btd. Norton, N. 0. ()**4". o"ld Do +etter& =dininburghA .arrington 1toke.

;achman, 1. ()**1". An$iety ()nd =dition ed.". 1ussexA Psychology Press Btd. ;ogers, 3. (1 41". lient-centered Therapy:,ts Theory& BondonA 3onstable. Self-.steem: The P"//le of !ow Self-#egard& (1 "rrent Practice- ,mplications and 7". BondonA Plenum Press.

1haffer, 0. .. (1 !C". H"manistic Psychology& BondonA Prentice9&all +nternational +nc. 1kinner, .. F. (1 !'". A(o"t +ehavio"rism& BondonA 0onathan 3ape Btd. 1udbery, 0. ()*1*". H"man *rowth and Development& BondonA ;outeldge. (eber, #. B. (1 1". ,ntrod"ction To Psychology& New GorkA &arper3ollins.

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