3 Generalized Multinomial Theorem 3.1 Binomial Theorem Theorem 3.1.

1
If

x1, x2

are real numbers and

n

n x1+ x2 =
r =0 n

n is a positive integer then n! n r x1 - x2r (n -r)! r!

(1.1)

= n r x1n-rx2r
r =0

(1.1')

Binomial coefficients and those calculation methods

The coefficient n r in (1.1') is called Binomial Coefficient . This is calculated by factorials according to (1.1), or is more simply calculated by the following Pascal's triangle.

0 1 2 3 4

0
1

0
2

1
2

1 2 1 3 6 4 1 1

0
3

1
3

2
3

0
4

1
4

2
4

3
4

3 4

Sum of binomial coefficients

r = 2 n r =0

(1.1")

This follows immediately by substituting

x1 = x2 = 1

for (1.1').

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3.2 Generalized Binomial Theorem 3.2.1 Newton's Generalized Binomial Theorem Theorem 3.2.1
Let

( z) be a Gamma Function and

|x|< 1
n r =0

be a real number, the following formulas hold .

(1) When

(1+ x) =

n r ( +1) xr = x ( -r +1) r! r =0 r

(1.0)

(2) When x1 >x2

x1+ x2 =
r =0

=
r =0

r x

( +1) r x -xr ( -r +1) r! 1 2 -r r

1

(1.1)

x2

(1.1')

Proof
(1) is proved later and we prove (2) here.

1>

|b| = |a|

follows from |a| >|b| . Hence, according to (1) in Theorem3.2.1,

b a

b (a +b) = a 1+ a =a

= a

b 1+ a

1 + 1 2 + 3 + = a + a b + a b + 0 1 2 3 a b
b + a b a
2

b a

-1 1

-2 2

-3 3

Replacing

a , b by x1 , x2 , we obtain (1.1'). And replacing these coefficients by gamma functions,

we obtain (1.1).

Example

-1 r 1 = x = (-1)rx r = 1- x 1+ x 2 - x 3 +- r =0 r =0 1+ x r
Note
When

|x| < 1

=0

( +1) (1) 0 0 (1) r -r r = + x x x x x1- x2r = 1 1 2 1 2 -r +1) r! (1) 0! -r +1) r! r =1 ( r =0 (

When

= -1, -2, -3, ,

according to formulas1.3.1 in 1 .3 (Singular Point Theorems)

x -r +1) 1 r =0 (

( +1)

-r r

x2 = (-1)r
r =0

(- + r -1)! -r r x x (- -1)! 1 2

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General Binomial Coefficients and those calculation methods

The coefficient

in (1.1') is called General Binomial Coefficient.

This is calculated by the following expressions.

r
where

( -1) ( -2) ( -r +1)

r!

( -r +1) r ( +1) = (1)r ( -r +1) (r +1)

()r

is Pochhammer Symbol

()r= ( +1) ( +2) ( + r -1) .

General Binomial Series

The series with general binomial coefficient binomial coefficient is not usually

can be called General Binomial Series. Since a general When

0, it is generally an infinite series.

is a natural number by chance,

= 0 for r > . So
r =0

terminats at

and reduce to sum of binomial coefficients

r r =0

However such a case is an exception. Once the general binomial coefficient was used, upper limit of should be

Intrinsically, notation such that

x1 r =0 r
n

-r

x2r

is a wrong way.

Sum of general binomial coefficients

r =0
later.

r = 2

> -1
x1 = x2 = 1 ,

(1.1") in fact, it holds also in this case. This is clarified

Although the Theorem 3.2.1 has not allowed

3.2.2 Bidirection of Generalized Binomial Theorem

In July, 2010, I have noticed that there is bidirection in Newton's Generalized Binomial Theorem. I describe it as a theorem.

Theorem 3.2.2
The following expressions hold for the arbitrary real number p.

(1+ x)

x r = p p -r x

r =0
r =0

x <1
p -r

( 2.1)

x >1

( 2.2)

Proof
When n is a natural number, the following binomial theorem holds.

(1+ x)n = n r x r
r =0

(2.0)

Since n r =

0 for r >n

, (2.0) can be written as follows.

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Extending n to the real number p ,

(1+ x)p =
r =0

r
p

xr =
r =0

Let

ar =

(p -r +1) r!

(p +1)

xr .

Then

(p -r +1) r! (p +1) r+1 x ar+1 (p -r) (r +1)! (p -r)x = = r +1 ar (p +1) xr (p -r +1) r!

(p +1)

xr

(2.1)

From this,

lim r

ar+1 ar

= lim
r

(p -r)x r +1

= lim
r

(p /r -1)x 1+1/r

= |x|
= -x 1

According to d'Alembert's ratio test, (2.1) converges if

n

|x|< 1 .

Next, writing the right side of (2.0) to an opposite direction,

(1+ x)n = n n-r x n-r

r =0

Extending n to the real number p ,

Let

p (p +1) p r p r (2.2) x x - = p -r +1) r! r =0 r =0 ( p -r (p +1) p r x - -1 a (p +1) (p -r) (r +1)! p -r r+1 p r = = ar = x - . Then (r +1)x (p -r +1) r! ar (p +1) p r x (p -r +1) r! (1+ x)p =

From this,

lim r

ar+1 ar

= lim
r

p -r (r +1)x

= lim
r

p /r -1 (1+1/r)x

= -1 x

1 |x|
Q.E.D.

According to d'Alembert's ratio test, (2.2) converges if

|x|> 1 .

Graphical Example
When p = 2.1, if both sides are drawn on a graph, it is as follows. |x|< 1 and |x| > 1 are continuing on x = 1 and we find that this theorem is right

p := 2.1: m:=100:
Left hand

f := x-> (1+x)^p

x (1 x)
Right: |x| < 1

g := x-> sum(binomial(p,r)*x^r, r=0..m)

m p r0

Right: |x| > 1

h := x-> sum(binomial(p,p-r)*x^(p-r), r=0..m)

m p pr x pr r0

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Remark
Though it seems that (2.1) and (2.2) are pairs, I can find (2.2) in no text. I wonder why ? It seems that bidirection like Theorem 3.2.2 holds universally in

f(x , r) . r =0 r

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3.3 Multinomial Theorem Theorem 3.3.1

For real numbers

x1, x2, , x and natural numbers n , r1 , r2 , , r-1 , n! n -r --r-1 r1 r n x1 1 x2 x-1 x1+ x2++ x = - -! r1! r-1! r-1 n r1 = n r1 r1 r2 r-2 r-1 x1
r1 =0 r2 =0 r-1 =0 n r1 r-2

(1.1)

n -r1

x21

r -r2

x-1

(1.1')

where

denotes the sum of all possible combinations of n , r1 , r2 , , r-1 .

Proof
Since it is complicated about (1.1), it is omitted, and we prove only about (1.1'). According to (1.1') in Theorem 3.1.1 , the following expressions hold.

r1 x1 n x1+ x2+ x3+ x4++ x = =0

n
r1

n -r1

x2+ x3+ x4++ x x3+ x4++ x

r3 r2

r1

(1)

x2+ x3+ x4++ x x3+ x4++ x

r2

r1

= r1 r2 x21
r2=0 r2

r1

r -r2

(2)

= r2 r3 x32
r3=0 r-3

r -r3

x4++ x

(3)

-3 x-2 + x-1 + x =

-3 r -2 x-2 r -3 r =0
-2

- r-1

-2 x-1 + x

( -2) ( -1)

-2 x-1 + x
r

-2 r -1 x-1 r -2 r =0
-1

r-2

- r-1

x -1

Substituting (2), (3), ,( -2) ,( -1) for (1) one by one, we obtain (1.1').

How to obtain multinomial coefficients

(1.1) is very difficult expression. Although we have to obtain all possible combinations of

n1 , r2 , , r-1 first, this is not easy. This means to get repeated combinations.
Since I found out the algorithm which generates these without leak, I present it here.
4 Example: The expasion of x1 + x2 + x3

Step1 Make x1 , x2 , x3 correspond to 1,2,3 , and arrange four (number of power) '1' on the 1st row. Step2 Add a row new whenever count up. Step3 If 3 is exceeded then carry up and arrange the number of the left colulumn in right.columns.
As a result of repeating Step 2,3, if the number in all columns was set to 3, go to Step4. p q r Step4 Generate the product x1 x2 x3 by making 1,2,3 correspond to x1 , x2 , x3 .

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3

x1x1x1x1 x1x1x1x2 x1x1x1x3

4 x1 3 x1 x2 3 x1 x3

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1 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

x1x1x2x2 x1x1x2x3 x1x1x3x3 x1x2x2x2 x1x2x2x3 x1x2x3x3 x1x3x3x3 x2x2x2x2 x2x2x2x3 x2x2x3x3 x2x3x3x3 x3x3x3x3

2 2 x1 x2 2 x1 x2 x3 2 2 x1 x3 3 x1 x2 2 x1 x2 x3 2 x1 x2 x3 3 x1 x3 4 x2 3 x2 x3 2 2 x2 x3 3 x2 x3 4 x3

red: carry up, green: arrange numbers

Step5 Calculate multinomial coefficients by

4!/(p! q! r!)
3

from

p q r x1 x2 x3

Step6 Multiply each terms by the multinomial coefficient, and add these.

x1+x2+x 3 = 4!0!0! x1 + 3!1!0! x1 x2+ 3!0!1! x1 x3+ 2!2!0! x1 x 2 + 2!1!1! x 1 x2 x3 4! 4! 4! 4! 4! 2 2 3 2 2 x1 x3 + x1 x2 x1 x2 x3+ x1 x2 x3 x x3 + + 2!0!2! 1!3!0! 1!2!1! 1!1!2! 1!0!3! 1 3 4! 4! 4! 4! 4! 4 3 2 2 3 x2 x2 x3+ x2 x3 + x2 x3 x4 + + + 0!4!0! 0!3!1! 0!2!2! 0!1!3! 0!0!4! 3 +
i.e. 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 x1+ x2+ x3 = x1 + 4x1 x2 + 4x1 x3+ 6x1 x2 + 12x1 x2 x3 + 6x1 x3 2 3 2 3 + 4x1 x2 + 12x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 x3 + 12x1 x2 x3 3 2 2 4 3 4 + x2 + 4x2 + x3 x3 + 6x2 x3 + 4x2 x3

4!

4!

4!

4!

2 2

4!

Remark
Although (1.1) is expression by multinomial coefficients, to obtain the multinomial coefficient directly is difficult like this example. However, correct this in the descending order of the power of

x1

as follows.

3 2 4 4 2 2 x1+ x2+ x3 = x1 + 4x1 x2 + x3 + 6x1 x2 + 2x2 x3 + x3 2 3 2 3 + 4x1x2 + 3x2 + x3 x3 + 3x2 x3 3 2 2 4 3 4 + x2 + 4x2 + x3 x3 + 6x2 x3 + 4x2 x3 Hence it turns out that this is decomposed into the nest of binomial expansion. In the right hand, since subscripts and powers are chained, this expression is very intelligible and fit also for the program.

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Sum of multinomial coefficients

n r1 r1 r2 r -2 r -1 = n =0 r =0 r =0 r
1 2
-1

r3

r-2

(1.1")

Proof
n -r n r =n r1 1r = (1+1)n = 2n
r =0 n r =0 n n

r r s = n r1 n n r r s = r =0 s =0 r =0 s =0 r =0
n r s n r s

n -r r

2 = (1+2)n = 3n
n

rr s s t =n r1 n n r r s s t = r =0 s =0 t =0 r =0 s =0 t =0 r =0
Hereafter, by induction we obtain the desired expression.

n -r r

3 = (1+3)n = 4n

Example: Sum of multinomial coefficients of x1+x2+x3

Let's calculate sum of multinomial coefficients in the previous example. Then as follows. 4

1+4+4+6+12+6+4+12+12+4+1+4+6+4+1 = 81 = 3

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3.4 Generalized Multinomial Theorem

Although I do not know whether the theorem like generalized multinomial theorem exists or not , since this is essential for Higher Calculus of Function Product, I present this here.

Theorem 3.4.1
When and

( z) denots the gamma function,

for any real number

, any positive integers r1 , r2 , , r-1

, x1 >x2+ x3++ x

the following expressions hold. (1.1)

( +1) -r --r-1 r1 r x1 1 x2 x-1 x1+ x2++ x = - -r-1 r1! r-1! r1 r-2 r1 r1 r-2 -r r r -r = x1 1 x21 2 x-1 r1 =0 r2 =0 r-1 =0 r1 r2 r-1

(1.1')

where

denotes the sum of all possible combinations of , r1 , r2 , , r-1 .

Proof
Since it is complicated about (1.1), it is omitted, and we prove only about (1.1') . According to Theorem 3.2.1 and Theorem 3.3.1 , the following expressions hold.

x1 x1+ x2+ x3+ x4++ x = r1=0 r1

x2+ x3+ x4++ x =
r1
r1 r2 r-2

-r1

x2+ x3+ x4++ x

r1

r1 r2 r2 r3 r -2 r -1 x21 =0 r =0 r =0 r
2 3
-1

r r -r2 r2-r3 x3 x-1

Substituting the latter for the former and replacing binomial coefficients by general binomial coefficients, we obtain (1.1').

How to obtain general multinomial coefficients

It is not impossible to obtain directly general multinomial coefficients in a similar way in the previous section. But it is many labor and a little profit. It is good to treat (1.1) only as a conceptual definition and to perform actual calculation by (1.1'). But if we dare perform the direct calculation, it is as follows.

Example 1: The expasion of x1+ x2+ x3

3. 2 = (a +b +c)

3.2

(3.2+1)

(3.2+1)0!0! (3.2+1) (3.2+1) a 2.2 b + a 2.2c + (2.2+1)1!0! (2.2+1)0!1! (3.2+1) (3.2+1) (3.2+1) a 1.2 b 2+ a 1.2bc + a 1.2c 2 + (1.2+1)2!0! (1.2+1)1!1! (1.2+1)0!2!

a 3.2

(3.2+1) 3.2 0! a 0!0! (3.2+1)0! 1! (3.2+1) 2.2 1! + a b+ c 0!1! 1!0! (2.2+1)1! 2! 2! (3.2+1) 1.2 2! + a ab 2+ abc + ac 2 1!1! 0!2! 2!0! (1.2+1)2!

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+ =

3! 3! 3 (3.2+1) 0.2 3! 3 3! 2 a b + b c+ bc 2+ c 2!1! 0!3! 3!0! 1!2! (0.2+1)3!

0
3.2

a 3.2 +

1 3.2 + 3 a
3.2

a 2.2(b +c) +
0.2

2 a
3.2

1.2

2 2 b +2bc +c

3 2 2 3 b +3b c +3bc +c +

In fact, when

a =2, b =4, c =-3

if we calculate the expansion of

3. 2 (a +b +c) ,

it is as follows.

When the harf double series was calculated to the 15 th term, both sides became equal. This shows that (1.1') is right.

Example 2
Since may be an arbitrary real number in the Theorem 3.4.1, we may reverse the sign as follows.
r1 r-2

x1+ x2++ x
Of course,

=
r1 =0 r2 =0

r-1 =0

r r r
r1
2

-
1

r-2
-1

x1

--r1

x21

r -r2

x-1

may be a natural number -n

r1

as follows.
r-2

x1+ x2++ x
Indeed, assuming

=
r1 =0 r2 =0

r-1 =0

r r r
-n
1

r1
2

r-2
-1

x1

-n -r1

x21

r -r2

x-1

1>|x + y| =
r =0 s =0 r

(1+ x + y)

-2

r s x
-2 r

r-s s

When both sides are illustrated by three dimensions, it is as follows . We can see both planes are overlapped exactly.

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Sum of General Multinomial Coefficients

r1 =0 r2 =0 r1

r1

r-2

r-1 =0

r r r
r1
2

r-2
-1

> -1

(1.1")

As is expected, this does not hold as an equation. This multiple series does not converge. Let

Sn =
r1 =0 r2 =0

r-2

r-1 =0

r r r
r1
2

r-2
-1

Then, when

n , Sn
4 74.2

oscillate and diverge. And

becomes the median of this oscillating divergent series.

For example, when n Sn

=4 , =3.1 , n , Sn
5 72.9 6 74.2 7 72.6

are as follows. 9 71.2 10 77.7 11 65.5 12 89.7 13 39.9

74.9
3.1

And this graph is as follows. We can see that 4

is the median of the oscillation.

2007.07.06 K. Kono

Alien's Mathematics

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