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i
Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
(a) (b)
Scatterer
Ground wave
(e)
There are two reasons for propagation study when designing cellular system: first, it
provides necessary tool for calculating signal level covering different cells. In most
cases, coverage area is , therefore earth wave propagation can be adopted in such
condition. Secondly, it can calculate monkey-chatter interference and cochannel
interference.
There are three methods for predicatingsignal level radio coverage: the first one is
pure theory, which is applied to separate objects, such as mountain and other solid
objects. However, it ignores the irregularity of the Earth. The second one is based
upon measurement in various environments, including irregular landform and man-
made obstacles, especially the higher frequency and lower mobile antenna commonly
existing in mobile communication. The third method is the improved model upon the
above two methods, which considers the influence of mountains and other obstacles
upon the measurement and the refraction law.
In the cellular system, there are at least two propagation models: the first one is FCC
suggested model; the second one, established by Okumura, considers the actual
experience data.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
The Radio frequency from 3Hz to 3000GHz are separated into 12 bands, as shown in
Figure the following table. Frequency in different frequency spectrum has different
propagation characteristics. As to mobile communication, we only pay attention to
UHF spectrum.
Frequency Classification Designation
3 to 30Hz
Extremely Low
30 to 300Hz Frequency
ELF
300 to 3000GHz
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
① building reflected wave ② diffracted wave ③ forward wave ④ ground reflected wave
All the signal components compose a multi standing wave, the signal level of which
increases or decreases with corresponding changes of the components. The
synthesis signal level fades 20 to 30dB in a few car bodies away, the difference
between the maximum and the minimum is about 1/4 wavelength. A great number of
propagation paths result in so called multipath phenomenon, whose synthesis
amplitude and phase will undergo great fluctuation with the movement of mobile
stations. Usually, such phenomenon is called multipath fading or fast fading, as
shown in Figure 3-3. Essentially, multipath fading is a fast change. Besides, such
propagation character causes time dispersion phenomenon. The distribution of deep
fading point in space is approximately half wavelength away (900MHz is 17cm, 1800
or 1900Mhz is 8cm). If the mobile antenna is at the deep fading point at that time
(when mobile user in a car stay at the deep fading point because of redlight, we call it
Redlight Problem), voice quality is very poor. Therefore, related technologies like
hopping should be applied to solve this problem.
Studies show that if the mobile cell receives the amplitude, phase and angle of
respective component at random, then the azimuth angle of the synthesis signal and
the probability density function of amplitude are as follows:
1
p() = 2 0≤ ≤ 2π (3-1)
r2
p(r) = r
2 e (− 2 2 ) r≥0 (3-2)
Among them, “r” is the standard deviation. (3-1) and (3-2) represent the azimuth
angle is even distribution between 0 to 2π , while the probability density function of
electric field abides by Rayleigh Distribution. Therefore, multi path is also called
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
Rayleigh fading. As to this fast fading, the base station adopts the methods of time
diversity, frequency diversity and space diversity (polarity diversity). Time diversity
mainly adopts the methods of symbol interleave, error code checking and correcting.
Different code has different anti-fading characteristics. As to the air channel coding of
GSM mobile communication, please see related GSM protocol. The basic of
frequency diversity theory is the correlation bandwidth, i.e. after more than an interval
between two frequencies, their space fading characteristics are considered irrelevant.
A large number of test data shows that such irrelevancy can be obtained if the interval
between the two frequencies is larger than 200 KHz; frequency diversity mainly
adopts spread spectrum. In GSM mobile communication, hopping is simply applied to
obtain hopping gain, while in CDMA mobile communication, each channel works in
wide band (narrow band CDMA is 1. 25 MHz), which actually, is a spread frequency
communication. Space diversity mainly adopts the master diversity antenna receiving
method. Signals the base station receiving from the master and diversity channels are
respectively combined after equalization through the Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Equalizer (MLSE). Such master diversity receiving effect is guaranteed by the
irrelevancy received by the master diversity. Irrelevance refers to the signals received
respectively by the master antenna and diversity antenna having no fading at the
same time. It requires that the spacing between the master and diversity antenna is
10 times more than the radio signal wavelength (the antenna spacing is more than 4
meters in GSM900), or adopting polarity diversity to guarantee the signals received
by the master and diversity antenna having different fading characteristics. Mobile
station (mobile phone) has no such space diversity function with only one antenna.
The equalizing ability to different ranges (time window) of the base station receiver is
also a form of space diversity. In CDMA communication, when soft switching is
performed, the mobile station and multi base stations communicate at the same time
to select the best signal for handover, such is also a form of space diversity.
A great number of studies shows that the average signal levels received by the
mobile station, except for fast Rayleigh fading in instantaneous value, appear slow
changes as changing position, such change is called slow fading, as shown in Figure
3-3. It is caused by the shadow effect, and also called shadow fading. Buildings,
forest and topographical relief in the way of radio propagation will cause shadow in
electromagnetic field. The medium value of receiving signal level will change when
electromagnetic shadow is produced by different obstacles the mobile station
encounters. The change is depended upon the obstacle condition and working
frequency; changing rate has relations with obstacles and driving speed.
By studying this fading law, it shows that its medium value variation abides by
Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
Additionally, radio refraction coefficient changes as the climate conditions change with
times, as well as slow changes in vertical gradient of atmosphere dielectric constant,
which results in slow changes in signal level medium value in the same place as time
changing.
Statistics show that such medium value variation also abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. The distribution standard deviation is rt. Variation of signal medium value
in a larger range of distribution with time and place all abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution, so that their synthesis distribution still abides by Logarithmic Normal
Distribution. When communicating in land, usually, signal medium value variation as
time changing is less than that as place changing, so that such slow fading can be
ignored, r=rL. However, in fixed-point communication, slow fading shall be considered.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
Received power
Fast fading
- 20
Slow fading
-40
-60
Distance ( m)
10 20 30
In general, there are two influences in cellular environment: the first one is fast fading;
and the second one is slow changes in receiving signal level resulted from directly
visible path, i.e. long-term signal level change. That is to say, the channel works in
fast fading in accordance with Rayleigh distribution, and superimposes amplitude with
signal to meet with slow fading in Logarithmic Normal Distribution.
Of the equation, = 2,
is called path loss slope. In the actual cellular system,
according to measurement result, value ranges from 3 to 5.
Having the equation of path loss in free space, the actual propagation can be
considered between the two antennas on plain but imperfect surface. Suppose the
whole propagation path surface is absolutely plain (without refraction). The antenna
height of the mobile station is h c and h m respectively (A represents h c , and B
represents h m ), as shown in Figure 3-4.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
(a)
(b)
A
B
A' (c)
(a) multireflection (b) simple reflection (c) mapping method of finding path difference between stadia and
ground reflection
As compared with the path loss in free space, propagation path loss on plain grounds
is:
L p = 10 lg d − 20 lg h c − 20 lg h m (3-5)
Of which, = 4. This equation shows that if antenna height doubles, 6 dB can be
compensated for loss; while the receiving power of the mobile station changes with
the fourth power of distance, i.e. if distance doubles, the power received reduced by
12 dB.
Various landforms and ground objects differ greatly, so the impact on radio
propagation loss in mobile communication also varies. It is impossible to have
absolutely plain landform in actual application. Such complex landforms can be
divided into two types: “quasi smooth landform” and “irregular landform”.
“Quasi smooth landform” refers to the landform with gentle rolling topography, rolling
height less than or equal to 20 meters as well as slight difference in average surface
height. Okumura defines the rolling height as the difference between 10% and 90% of
rolling topography 10 kilometers ahead of the mobile station. CCIR defines it as the
difference between over 90% and over 10% of rolling topography 10 to 50 kilometers
ahead of the receiver. Other landforms are generally called “irregular landform”, which
can be divided into the following types based upon their conditions: hills, separated
mountains, slopping landform and water-and-land mixed landform and so on.
When analyzing propagation loss in urban areas and their nearby areas, we can also
classify “irregular landform” by congestion in regions as open area, dense urban area,
medium urban area and suburb area.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
F=0 v 1
= 20 lg
lg(0.5 + 0.62v) 0v<1
= 20 lg
lg(0.5e 0.45v ) − 1 v 0
= 20 lg
lg(0.4 − 0.12 − (0.1v + 0.38) 2 ) − 2.4 v < −1
= 20 lg
lg(−0.225/v) v < −2.4
(3-7)
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
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Climate conditions;
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
h m ---Mobile station antenna height (1-10 m), having average value 1. 5 m, unit: m;
d ---Distance between mobile stations, unit: km;
C m --The value is 0dB in medium-size cities or in suburb with medium woods density,
while 3 dB in big cities.
Lps = −
2[lg(f /28)]2 −
Urban area
Lp 5.4
(3-9)
In open areas, the propagation is revised as
2
L po =
L p Urbanarea −
4.78(lg f ) +18.33 lg f −
40.94
(3-10)
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
In the actual radio propagation environment, various relief shall be considered, which
is considered in ASSET planning software to improve propagation model. Consider
various ground objects and relief having influence on radio propagation in actual
environment so as to guarantee the accuracy of prediction result.
The model expression is as follows:
L p = K1 + K 2 lg d + K 3 (h m ) + K 4 lg h m + K 5 lg(H eff )
+ K6 lg(H eff ) lg d + K 7 diffn + K clutter
In the above expression (the following expressions are applied to macro cell):
K 1 ---the constant related to frequency;
Open area:
K clutter ---The revision coefficient of ground object in the prediction is: the field density
of the prediction point is revised based upon the clutter type of that point, and has
nothing to do with the clutter type in the propagation path. And all the losses in the
propagation path lie in the medium value loss;
d ---Distance between the base station and the mobile station, unit: km;
h m 、h eff ---The available height of mobile station and base station antenna, unit: m.
As to the radio propagation in different areas and cities, K value will have different
value owing to different landform and relief as well as different city environment. K
value and some clutter fading values used in radio propagation analysis in medium-
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
Loss in the area with window zone is generally less than that without
window zone.
Loss in the open area within buildings is less than that in the wall area
with corridors.
Fading in street wall with aluminum support frame is more than that
without aluminum support frame.
Loss in the building with isolation only added to the ceiling is less than
that in the building with isolation both added to the ceiling and inside
walls.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
d = 2 h eff + 2 h m
Per contra, if the expectation coverage range is known (when path loss is not the
major factor), the base station height can be calculated.
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
1.4.1 CW Basics
Correction for propagation model is required to obtain the radio propagation model in
accordance with local actual environment and to improve the accuracy of coverage
predication so as to lay a good foundation for network planning. CW test, say,
continuous wave test, is a necessary step for model correction by correcting data
obtained from CW test and digital map. The information of latitude and longitude of
these test data and incoming level form the data source of model correction.
Random process theory is used to analyze mobile communication propagation, which
can be expressed as follows:
r(x ) = m(x )r 0 (x ) (3-11)
In which, x is distance, r(x) is incoming signal; r0(x) is Rayleigh fading; m(x) is local value, i. e.
the mixture of long-term fading and space propagation loss, which can be expressed
as follows:
x+L
m(x ) = 1
2L r(y )dy
x−L (3-12)
In which, 2L is the average sample interval length, also called intrinsic length.
CW test is aimed to obtain the local average value of various locations in an area on
whole way, that is, the difference between r (x) and m(x) is as small as possible.
Therefore, The influence of Raleigh fading must be removed so as to obtain the local
average value. When a group of signal data r (x) is averaged, if the intrinsic length 2L
is too short, then the influence of Raleigh fading still exists; if 2L is too long, then the
normal fading will be averaged. Therefore, in CW test, to determine 2L has great
influence on the degree of approximation between the tested data and the actual local
average, as well as on the accuracy of the propagation model prediction corrected
through CW test. Li Jianye, a famous communication expert, has proved that, in GSM
system, the intrinsic length is 40 wave lengths; the difference between the tested data
and the actual local value is less than 1 dB by sampling 50 sampling points (the test
equipment and the error of digital map are ignored).
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
(2) The antenna height is above 5 meters over the nearest obstacle.
5m
The obstacle here refers to the highest building at the top of which the antenna is
located. The building as a station shall be higher than the average height of the
surrounding buildings.
CW test first needs a test base station to transmit RF signal with or without FM
modulation, then make a drive test by using CW test equipment. The base station
includes transmitting antenna, feeder cable, power amplifier and HF signal source.
The test system includes test receiver, GPS receiver, distance measuring instrument,
test software as well as portable PC. The sampling rate of the test receiver is as fast
as possible.
After the equipment of base station is installed in the selected test station, using the
power meter to measure the forward power and reflection power of the antenna.
Calculate the EIPR of the test base station. The calculation formula is below:
III. CW test
There are three sampling ways of the professional CW test equipment: sampling by
time, pulse and distance. General test equipment samples by time only. Test by
distance sampling can meet the Theorem of Lee’s requirement of sampling 36~50
sampling points with 40 wave lengths. The measure accuracy is very high. Speed is
not strict in distance sampling, but there exists an upper speed limit. The upper speed
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
limit (Vmax) has relation with the maximum sampling speed of CW equipment:
V max = 0.8/T sample (3-14)
During the test, test paths with various ground objects are selected as random drive
test. When the mobile station is within the distance of 3km away from the test base
station, the receiving signals are affected greatly by the building structure around the
base station, and the antenna height. The intensity difference between the signal level
parallel to the signal propagation direction and that vertical one is around 10dB.
Therefore, when testing on the street within 3km in radium of the base station, it is
better to sample the same amount of samples in longitudinal and lateral streets to
remove their effects. Test paths should not be selected on highways and on the wide
and flat streets, but on the narrow streets. Sample as much data as possible in each
test base station. Generally, it is better to test in each station over 4 hours. Stop
recording when the car stops for redlight.
The landform and ground objects are fixed within a period of time, so that in a
deterministic base station, the local average value is determined in a deterministic
location. The local average value is the data tested through CW test expectation,
which is also the closest value to propagation model predication value.
Digital map is needed for model correction. The digital map used in mobile
communication contains the geographical information such as relief height and
ground usage, which effect radio propagation in mobile communication. It is the
important fundamental data for planning software in model correction, coverage
prediction, interference analysis and frequency planning.
Propagation models developed for computer aided analysis are different, but based
on Okumura basic models, and provide modified parameters. Below is the specific
method of model correction based upon the above-mentioned ASSET planning
software. It needs to be pointed out that if the model parameters of the city similar to
the existing landform and ground objects, they can be directly applied to planning
prediction. It is unnecessary to redo CW test and model correction, thus saving labor.
Parameters from K1 to K7 in ASSET model are determined by specific propagation
environment, K(clutter) is the correction factor depended on different ground objects.
Different ground objects determine different K(clutter), these K parameters are gradually
fitted from CW test data. When CW test data obtained, K parameters can be acquired
in two ways: K parameter testing method and the minimum variance method.
Among a great many of K parameters in the standard model, the degree of influence
of each K parameter is different. By analyzing the models, we know that K1 and
K(clutter) are constant, which has nothing to do with the propagation distance and
antenna height; K3 and K4 are the height modifying factor of the mobile station. The
mobile station has slight changes in height (about 1. 5m), so that K 3 and K4 can be
eventually classified as micro-adjustment in the final stage, while the adjustment of
K2, K5 and K6 are determined by specific test data and test path.
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(1) the base station is the frequency source f, the frequency fˊreceived by the mobile
phone is
fˊ=f(1±V/c) (3-15)
In the formula, v is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select “+” when MS moves towards the base station and select “-” when it is away
from the base station.
(2) MS is the frequency source f, and the frequency fˊreceived by the base station is
fˊ=f/(1±U/c) (3-16)
In the formula, u is the travel speed of MS, c is the radio signal propagation speed
(3E8 m/sec)
Select “-” when MS moves towards the base station and select “+” when it is away
from the base station.
Below are several special conditions discussed:
(1) MS moves towards BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-7.
f 1
f 3
f 2
V ( k m / h )
The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCCH channel, BTS can
control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency
f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. f3 is the
frequency received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect. Below is the formulas
based on the above-mentioned:
f2=f1(1+v/c)
f3=f2/(1-v/c)
f3=f1(1+v/c)/(1-v/c)=f1(c+v)/(c-v)
The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=2v/(c-v) (3-17)
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
(1) MS moves away from BTS at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-8.
f 3
f 1
f 2
V ( k m / h )
The signal frequency of BTS is f1. Through FCH channel of BCH channel, BTS can
control MS to synchronize the frequency with BTS. MS receives the signal frequency
f2 because of the Doppler Effect, and transmits f2 to the base station. Frequency f3
received by BTS because of the Doppler Effect, below are the formulas based upon
the above-mentioned formula:
f2=f1(1-v/c)
f3=f2/(1+v/c)
f3=f1(1-v/c)/(1+v/c)=f1(c-v)/(c+v)
The relative frequency change is (f3-f1)/f1=-2v/(c+v) (3-18)
The travel speed of MS is slow as compared with signal propagation speed; therefore
relative frequency change is almost the same in these two conditions except for the
opposite direction. Frequency increases in the first condition, while decreases in the
second one.
The relation between the relative frequency and MS speed can be illustrated in Figure
3-9.
Figure 3-9 Graph of relation between the relative frequency and MS speed
The graph shows that when MS speed is 100km/h, the relative frequency change is 0.
19ppm. As to 900M frequency, the deviation is 171Hz, while 342Hz as to 1800M.
(3) MS moves between the two base stations at the speed of v, as shown in Figure 3-
10. When handover is performed, the deviation is the superimposition of the above
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
two conditions. MS obtains the monitoring information of the BCCH channel of the
neighboring cells through BA table, controls MS to adjust its frequency and a certain
number of kHz to monitor the neighboring cell level. Thus, it might appear Doppler
frequency changes, which make MS unable to receive the signals of the neighboring
cells correctly. Take the Figure 3-10 as an example, MS monitors BTS1 level, the
signal f2ˊ received by MS might appear between the two MS adjustment frequencies.
So that MS cannot correctly monitor BTS1 signal level. On the other hand, RXlev
information reported from SACCH shall be transmitted at least once every 30s. Such
long time information report will also result in abnormally monitoring the neighboring
cells level, which causes unsuccessful handover. The frequency change caused by
the Doppler Effect will effect the signal frequency f1(c+v)/(c-v) received by the base
station, which will receive data by f1 sampling clock. Receiving data error might be
another reason for effecting handover.
f 3 '
f 3
f 1 '
f 1
f 2 ' f 2
V ( k m / h )
B T S 1 M S B T S 2
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
Ignore part of the signals from the transmitting point to the receiver through ground
wave propagation (signals in ultra-high frequency and very-high frequency band can
be ignored), then the square of the ratio of the total receiving field density an the free
space density (unit: V/m) is:
E rec 2 2h t h r
E fs 4 sin( 2 ) = 4 sin 2 d (3-19)
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Wireless Network Planning Chapter 3 Radio Propagation Theroy
don’t block the first Fresnel zone, the diffraction loss is least. As to a point in the path
with d in length, its radium of the first Fresnel zone (the distance to the transmitter is
d t , and d r is the distance to the receiver) is:
d t d r d tkm d rkm
h 0 (m) = = 548
d d km f MHz (3-20)
Take an example to illustrate that: in typical cities, a point in the path with the
coverage range is 2km; suppose that the distance from this point to the transmitting
antenna is 100m, as to the frequency of 900MHz, this point’s first Fresnel zone is
h 0 5m.
On the definition basis of the first Fresnel zone, define the nth Fresnel zone as the
reflection-point set, in which its propagation is half wavelength more than the n-1 th;
the phrase difference between the two reflection paths is 180 degree. The radium of
the nth Fresnel zone is:
nd t d r nd tkm d rkm
h n (m) = = 548
d d km f MHz (3-21)
If the direct path jumps over the wavy terrains and ground buildings, then the
reflected wave will have positive effect on direct wave; otherwise it might become the
obstructive multi-path interference. The obstructive effect grows as the frequency
increases. Therefore, the height of antenna shall be built as high as possible above
the ground. This conclusion will be applied to the below-mentioned antenna project
designing. As a matter of fact, according to experience, if 55% of the first Fresnel
zone, used for stadia microwave link designing remain unobstructed, then the
conditions of other Fresnel zones won’t affect the diffraction loss.
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Thus, we can make use of ASSET software to complete the entire planning process.
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