FORMAT i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Introduction Historical Perspective on Dental Casting Alloys. Metallic Element used in dentistry.

Desirable Properties of casting Alloys. Classification of Dental casting Alloys. Alloys for all Metal and Resin eneer Restoration a. !old Alloys. b. "ilver Palladium Alloy c. Aluminium #ron$e Alloy. vii) Heat %reatment of &ig& noble and 'obel metal alloy. a. !old ( Platinum) Palladium alloy b. !old ( Palladium "ilver alloy c. !old ( Palladium alloy. i*) i) ii) iii) iv) 'oble Alloys for Metalic Ceramic Restoration a. Palladium #ased Alloy Palladium silver alloy Palladium Copper alloy Palladium Cobalt alloy Palladium ( !allium ( "ilver and Palladium ( !allium ( "ilver ( !old alloy. *) #ase Metal Alloys for Cast Metal and Ca Metal Ceramic Restoration. a. Classification b. Handling Ha$ard and Patients Ha$ard

viii) Hig& 'oble Alloy for Metal Ceramic Restoration

c. Cobalt ( c&romium alloys. d. 'ic+el ( C&romium Alloys. e. Aluminum #ron$e. *) *i) *ii) Metals for Partial Denture Alloys. %itanium Conclusion.

Dental Casting Alloys

Metals and alloys &ave many uses in dentistry. "teel alloys are commonly used for t&e construction of instruments and of ,ires for ort&odontics. !old alloys and alloys containing c&romium are used for ma+ing cro,ns- inlays and denture bases ,&ilst dental amalgam- an alloy containing mercury- is t&e most ,idely used dental filling material. .it& t&e e*ception of Hg- metals are generally &ard and lustrous at ambient temperatures- and &ave crystalline structures in ,&ic& t&e atoms are closely pac+ed toget&er. Metals are opa/ue and are good conductors of bot& &eat and electricity. %&e s&aping of metals and alloys for dental use can be accomplis&ed by one of t&ree met&ods- namely- casting- cold ,or+ing or amalgamation. Casting involves &eating t&e material until it becomes molten. .&en it can be forced into an investment mould ,&ic& &as been prepared from ,a* pattern. Cold ,or+ing involves mec&anical s&aping of t&e metal at relatively lo, temperatures- ta+ing advantage of t&e &ig& values of ductility and Malleability possessed by many metals. "ome alloys can be mi*ed ,it& mercury to form a plastic mass ,&ic& gradually &ardens by a c&emical reaction follo,ed by crystalli$ation. %&e material is s&aped by pac+ing it into a toot& cavity ,&ilst still in t&e plastic state.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

%&e 01t& century generated substantially ne, c&anges to dental prost&etic materials. %&e ma2or factors t&at are driving ne, developments are3 i)Economy %&e ne, material performs t&e same function as t&e old material but at a lo,er cost. ii)Performance %&e ne, material performs better t&an t&e old product in some desirable ,ay- suc& as ease of processing- improved &andlinig c&aracteristics- or increased fracture resistance. iii) Aest&etics %&e ne, material Provides a more aest&etic result- suc& as increased translucency. 19 ! " T#e Lost " $a% P&o'ess i) %aggart4s presentation to t&e 'e, 5or+ 6dontological group in 7819 on t&e fabrication of cast inlay restorations developed in 781: often &as been ac+no,ledged as t&e first reported application of t&e lost ( ,a* tec&ni/ue in dentistry;. It ,as an instant success. ii) iii) It soon led to t&e casting of inlays- onlays- cro,ns- <PDs- and frame ,or+s for RPD. =e,elry alloys ,ere /uic+ly adopted. %&ese gold alloys ,ere furt&er strengt&ened ,it& additions of copper- silver- or platinum. !old alloys ,ere used because of t&eir biocompatibility and ease of use.

19() " Classi*i'ation o* Gol+ " ,ase+ Casting Alloysi) In 78>0- t&e dental materials group at t&e 'ational #ureau of standards surveyed t&e alloys being used and classified t&em as %ype I ?"oft - H' bet,een :1 and 81) %ype II ?Medium H' bet,een 81 and 701) %ype III ?Hard H' bet,een 701 and 7:1) %ype I ?E*tra &ard- H' 7:1) A'"I@ADA "pecification no.: I"6 standard 7::80. ii) During t&is period- t&e results of some tarnis& tests suggest t&at alloys ,it& a gold content lo,er t&an A:B to 9:B tarnis&ed too readily for dental use. iii) It is no, +no,n t&at- in gold alloys- palladium counteracts t&e tarnis& potential of silver- allo,ing alloys ,it& a lo,er gold content to be used successfully. 19(( " Co.alt " '#&o/i0/ Pa&tial Dent0&e Alloys i) #ase metal removable partial denture alloys ,ere introduced in t&e 78>1:. "ince t&at time- bot& nic+el ( c&romium and cobalt ( c&romium formulations &ave become increasingly popular compared ,it& conventional %ype I gold alloys. ii) %&e advantages of t&e base metal alloys are t&eir lig&ter ,eig&tgreater stiffness- ot&er beneficial mec&anical properties- and reduced costs.

iii)

<or t&ese reasons- nic+el ( and cobalt ( based alloys &ave largely replaced noble metal alloys for removable partial denture.

iv)

Ci+e,ise- by 789D t&e price of gold ,as increasing so rapidly t&at attention ,as focused on t&e noble metal alloys.

19!9 " Po&'elain " F0se+ " to " Metal P&o'ess i) In t&e late 78:1s- t&ere ,as t&e successful eneering of a metal

substructure ,it& dental porcelain. Entil t&at time- dental porcelain &ad a mar+edly lo,er coefficient of t&ermal e*pansion t&an did gold alloys. %&is t&ermal mismatc& often led to impossible to attain a bond bet,een t&e t,o structural components. ii) It ,as found t&at adding bot& platinum and palladium to gold lo,ered t&e coefficient of t&ermal e*pansion@contraction of t&e alloy sufficiently to ensure p&ysical compatibility bet,een t&e porcelain eneer and t&e metal substructure. iii) %&e first commercially successful alloy contained goldplatinum- and palladium. 1911 " T#e Gol+ Stan+a&+ i) ii) %&e Enited "tates abandoned t&e gold standard in 7897. Prices of gold increased- in response to t&at- ne, dental alloys ,ere introduced t&roug& t&e follo,ing c&arges. a. In some alloys- gold ,as replaced ,it& palladium. b. In ot&er alloys- palladium eliminated gold entirely.

c. #ase metal alloys ,it& nic+el as t&e ma2or element eliminated t&e e*clusive need for noble metals.

1912 " T#e Me+i'al an+ Dental De3i'es A't i) ii) Dental alloys for prost&etics ,ere classifies as passive implants. All materials on t&e mar+et before 789A ,ere automatically grandfat&ered as acceptable for mar+et distribution. Manufacturers ,ere re/uired to &ave a /uality system in place- but no product standards ,ere establis&ed. 1992 " T#e E0&o4ean Me+i'al De3i'es Di&e'ti3e i) ii) %&e European Enion establis&ed t&at any imports of dental devices re/uired a CE mar+. Information and data on t&e development process ,ere also re/uired. Again- no specific product standards ,ere establis&ed. 1995 " T#e Clean Ai& A'ts i) %o meet t&e re/uirements of reduced nitrogen and carbon mono*ide emissions- automa+ers use palladium ( containing catalytic converters. ii) iii) %&e demand for palladium soared sevenfold from 788> to 7888. "upply could not meet t&e demand- and t&e price of palladium increased to ne, record &ig&s.

iv)

At t&e same time t&e price of gold ,as trading during t&e decade.

%&e result ,as an increased demand for gold ( based dental alloys.

Desi&a.le P&o4e&ties o* Dental Casting alloys

All casting alloys must first be biocompatible and t&en e*&ibit sufficient p&ysical and mec&anical properties to ensure ade/uate function and structural durability over long periods of time. %&e only nearly pure metal cast for dental applications is commercially pure titanium ?often ,ritten as CP%i). <rom a stand point of patient safety and to minimi$e t&e ris+ for medico)legal situations- it is &ig&ly important to understand t&e follo,ing clinically important re/uirements and properties of dental casting alloys. ,io'o/4ati.ility %&e material must tolerate oral fluids and not release any &armful products into t&e oral environment. Co&&osion Resistan'e Corrosion is t&e p&ysical dissolution of a material in an environment. Corrosion resistance is derived from t&e material components being eit&er too noble to react in t&e oral environment ?e.g.- gold and palladium) or by t&e ability of one or more of t&e metallic elements to form an ad&erent passivating surface film- ,&ic& in&ibits any subsurface reaction ?e.g.- c&romium in 'i ( Cr and Co ( Cr alloys and titanium in commercially pure titanium FCP%iG and in %i ( AAl ( H alloy).

Ta&nis# Resistan'e %arnis& is a t&in film of a surface deposit or an interaction layer t&at is ad&erent to t&e metal surface. %&ese films are generally found on gold alloys ,it& relatively &ig& silver content or on silver alloys.

Alle&gi' Co/4onents in 'asting Alloys A restorative material s&ould not cause adverse &ealt&

conse/uences to a patient. %&e patient4s Irig&t ( to ( +no,J e*tends to &aving some +no,ledge of ,&at is being placed into t&eir bodies. Ca,s in some states are e*plicit in t&is respect. It is ,ise for t&e dentist to maintain a record of t&e material used for eac& restoration or prost&eses- as ,ell as an understanding of any +no,n allergies stated by t&e patient. Aest#eti's Considerable controversy e*ists over t&e optimal balance among t&e properties of aest&etics- fit- abrasive potential- clinical survivability- and cost of cast metal prost&eses compared ,it& direct) filling restorations- ceramic) based prost&eses ?all)ceramic and metal ( ceramic)- and resin)veneered prost&eses. T#e&/al P&o4e&ties<or metal ( ceramic restorations- t&e alloys or metals must &ave closely matc&ing t&ermal e*pansion to be compatible ,it& a porcelain- and t&ey must tolerate &ig& processing temperatures.

Melting Range%&e melting range of t&e alloys and metals for cast appliances must be lo, enoug& to form smoot& surfaces ,it& t&e mold ,all of t&e casting investment. Co/4ensation *o& Soli+i*i'ation- %o ac&ieve accurately fitting cast inlays- on lays - cro,ns and more comple* frame,or+s or prost&esescompensation for casting s&rin+age from t&e solid us temperature to room temp must be ac&ieved eit&er t&roug& Computer ( generated oversi$ed dies or t&roug& controlled mold e*pansion. In addition- t&e fit of a cemented prost&esis must be tailored to accommodate t&e layers of bonding ad&esive ?if used) and t&e luting cement. St&engt# Re60i&e/entsi) ii) iii) <or t&e full cast alloys t&e strengt& re/uirements increase as t&e number of toot& surfaces being replaced increases. Ci+e,ise- alloys for bridge ,or+ re/uire &ig&er strengt& t&an alloys for single cro,ns. Copings for metal ( ceramic pros t&ese are finis&ed in t&in sections and re/uire a sufficient elastic modulus ?stiffness) to prevent e*cessive elastic deflection from functional forces -especially ,&en used for long ( span frame,or+s. iv) %&e elastic moduli of many base metal alloys are considerably greater t&an gold ( based alloys. Val0es *o& t#e elasti' /o+0l0s o* +ental alloys a&e as *ollo7sCo ) Cr70: to 001!pa 'i ) Cr7H: to 781!pa CP%i779 !pa

Pd)based alloys 771)7>: !pa Au)based alloys9: to 778 !pa Fa.&i'ation o* 'ast P&ost#ese an+ F&a/e 7o&8s i) %&e use of cobalt ( c&romium alloys rat&er t&an gold alloys for partial denture applications may re/uire different casting investment products and casting e/uipment in order to produce &ig& ( /uality restorations consistently. ii) "election of a suitable casting investment is a ma2or problem ,&en a dentist decides to use titanium for all metal prost&ese or as a metal) ceramic restorative material. Casta.ility %o ac&ieve accurate details in a cast frame ,or+ or prost&esis- t&e molten metal must be able to ,et t&e investment mold material very ,ell and flo, into t&e most intricate regions of t&e mold ,it&out any appreciable interaction ,it& t&e investment and ,it&out forming porosity ,it& in t&e surface or subsurface regions. i) %&e castability of some base metals is e*tremely c&allenging in t&is regard- because t&ese alloys tend to readily form o*ides or interact c&emically ,it& t&e mold ,all during t&e casting process. Finis#ing o* Cast Metal Cutting- grinding- of some metals is /uite demanding- and e*tra time is re/uired to produce a satisfactory surface finis&. i) Hardness- ductility ?percent elongation)- and ultimate strengt& are important properties in t&is regard.

ii)

%&e &ardness of t&e alloy is a good primary indicator of cutting and grinding difficulty- and t&is property varies ,idely among t&e current casting metals. <or e*ample- Co ( Cr and 'i ( Cr alloys are /uite &ard compared ,it& ot&er metals.

List o* Vi'8e&s #a&+ness n0/.e&sCo ) CrH:1 to A:1 'i ) Cr>>1 to H11 %i ( A Al (H >01

%oot& enamel >11 to H11 %ype I Au alloy 0:1 Pd ( based alloys0>: to H11 CP%i071 ?bul+) Ag ) Pd7H> to 7:H Dentin A1 %ype I Au alloy :: Po&'elain ,on+ing%o ac&ieve a sound c&emical bond to ceramic veneering materials- a substrate metal must be able to form a t&inad&erent o*ide- preferably one t&at is lig&t in color so t&at it does not interfere ,it& t&e aest&etic potential of t&e ceramic. i) %&e metal must &ave a t&ermal e*pansion@contraction coefficient t&at is closely matc&ed to t&at of t&e porcelain. "tresses t&at develop in t&e ceramic ad2acent to t&e metal@ceramic interface can en&ance t&e fracture resistance of a metal ( ceramic prost&esis or t&ey can increase t&e susceptibility to crac+ fo;rmation. ?if tensile in nature)

E'ono/i' Consi+e&ations %&e cost of metals used for single ( unit prost&eses or as frame ,or+s for fi*ed or removable partial dentures is a function of t&e metal density and t&e cost per unit mass. <or e*amplecompared ,it& a palladium alloy &aving a density of 77g@cm> - a gold alloy ,it& a density of 7Dg@cm> ,ill cost 7AHB ?7D@77*711) more for t&e same volume and unit cost of metal. La.o&ato&y Costs %&e metal cost is a ma2or concern for t&e dental Caboratory o,ner ,&o must guarantee prices of prost&etic ,or+ for a certain period of time. #ecause of t&e fluctuating prices of noble metals over t&e past t,o decades- t&e cost of fabricating prost&eses made from noble elements must be ad2usted periodically to reflect t&ese c&anges.

F9NCTIONS OF EACH INGREDIENT METAL IN CASTING ALLOY

Gol+ i: ii: iii: Sil3e& i: ii: iii: Hardness and strengt& .&itens t&e alloy t&us over comes t&e reddening effect of copper. #ut tarnis&es t&e alloy. <orms solid solution ,it& gold and partial solubility ,it& copper. 5ello, in colour Ductility Resistance to tarnis& and corrosion.

Co44e& i: ii: iii: i3: 3: Hardness and strengt& Reddis& color but lo,ers tarnis& resistance. Co,ers fusion temperature. <orms solid solution ,it& gold Reduces t&e density of t&e alloy.

Palla+i0/ i) ii) iii) iv) v) ;in' i) Acts as a scavenger and removes t&e o*ides. Ma+es t&e alloy more castable Increases resistance to tarnis& and corrosion. .&itens t&e alloy C&eap Absorbs gases formed during casting- and t&us reduces porosity. Increases &ardness.

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

IMPORTANCE i) %&e dental casting alloy classification is useful for estimating t&e relative cost of alloys- because t&e cost is dependent on t&e noble metal content as ,ell as on t&e alloy density. ii) iii) It is also useful for identification of t&e billing code t&at is used for insurance reimbursement. It simplify t&e communication bet,een dentists and dental laboratory tec&nologists.

Dental 'asting alloys a&e 'lassi*ie+ a''o&+ing to<A''o&+ing to An0sa3i'e:

I: II: According to American Dental Association ?78DH) According to A'"I@ADA specification 'o.: ?7889)

III:

According proposed

to

mec&anical

property

Re/uirements

In I"6 Draft international standard 7:A0 for Casting !old Alloys ?0110) IV: Classification of casting metals for <ull ( metal and Metal ( ceramic Prost&eses and Partial Dentures

Classi*i'ation a''o&+ing to An0sa3i'e

I: Alloy Ty4e Hig& 'oble ?H') A''o&+ing to A/e&i'an Dental Asso'iation <195=: Total No.el Metal 'ontent Must contain H1 ,tB Au And A1 ,tB of noble metal 'oble ?') elements ?Au- Pt- Pd- R&-Ru-Ir- 6s) Must contain 0:,tB of noble metal elements ?Au- Pt- Pd- R&- RuIr- 6s) Predominantly #ase Metal ?P#) II: Contain <0: ,tB of noble metal elements. A''o&+ing to ANSI>ADA S4e'i*i'ation No?! <1991: Me'#ani'al P&o4e&ty Re60i&e/ents Yiel+ st&engt# < ?)@ o**set: Elongation Anneale+ Ha&+ene+ Anneale+ Ha&+ene+

Alloy ty4e %ype I %ype II %ype III %ype I

Ma%? <M4a: D1 7D1 0H1 >11

Mini? <M4a: 7D1 0H1

Mini/0/ Mini/0/ Mini/0/ <M4a: ))))))) H:1 <@: 7D 70 70 71 <@: AAAAA >

<III: A''o&+ing to /e'#ani'al 4&o4e&ty &e60i&e/ents 4&o4ose+ in ISO D&a*t Inte&national stan+a&+ 1!2) *o& 'asting Gol+ alloys <) ):

Alloy Ty4e %ype 7 %ype 0 %ype > %ype H

Mini/0/ yiel+ st&engt# < ?)@: o& 4&oo* st&ess o* non4&o4o&tional elongation <M4a: 5 15 )1 (2

Mini/0/ elongation a*te& *&a't0&e <@: 15 1 ! (

<IV: Classi*i'ation o* Casting Metals *o& *0llA /etal an+ Metal " 'e&a/i' P&ost#eses an+ Pa&tial Dent0&es Metal Ty4e AllA Metal Metal Ce&a/i' " Pa&tial +ent0&e *&a/e7o&8s P&ost#eses Hig& ?H') 'oble Au)Ag)Pd Au)Pd)Cu)Ag H' Ceramic alloys

P&ost#eses Pure Au ?88.9 Au)Ag)Cu)Pd ,tB) Au)Pd)Ag ?:)70 ,tB Ag)

Metal) Au)Pt)Pd

Au)Pd)Ag ?>70,tB Ag) 'oble?') Ag)Pd)Au)Cu Au)Pd Pd)Au

Ag)Pd Pd)Au)Ag 'oble Metal ( Pd)Ag Cesamic alloys Predominantly ?#ase Metal ?P#) %i ( Al ( 'i)Cr)Mo)#e 'i)Cr)Mo Co)Cr)Mo Co)Cr). Cu)Al %i ( Al ( 'i)Cr)Mo)#e 'i)Cr)Mo Co)Cr)Mo Co)Cr). %i ( Al ( 'i)Cr)Mo)#e 'i)Cr)Mo Co)Cr)Mo Co)Cr). CP%i Pd)Cu)!a Pd)!a)Ag CP%i CP%i

METALLIC ELEMENTS 9SED IN DENTAL ALLOYS <or dental restorations- it is necessary to combine various elements to produce alloys ,it& ade/uate properties for dental applications because none of t&e elements t&emselves &ave properties t&at are suitable. %&ese alloys may be used for dental restorations as cast alloys- or may be manipulated into ,ire. %&e metallic elements t&at ma+e up dental alloys can be divided into t,o ma2or groups- t&e noble metals and t&e base metals.

,ASE METAL ALLOYS

INTROD9CTION #ase metal alloys contain no gold- silver- platinum or palladium. %&e t,o most commonly used base metal alloys in dentistry are t&e nic+el ( c&romium ?'i@Cr) alloys ,&ic& are commonly used for cro,n and bridge casting- including porcelain fused to metal ?P<M) restorationsand t&e cobalt) c&romium ?Co@Cr) alloys ,&ic& are commonly used for partial denture frame ,or+ castings. i) ii) %&ese alloys contain less t&an 0:B of nobel metals %&ey are tarnis& and corrosion resistant due to t&e presence of c&romium ?passivation)

iii)

%&ese alloys are presently ,idely used for t&eir superior mec&anical properties and lo, cost. #ase metals are invaluable components of dental casting alloys

because of t&eir lo, cost and t&eir influence on ,eig&t - strengt&stiffness- and o*ide formation ?,&ic& is re/uired for bonding to porcelain) iv) Compared ,it& noble metals are still fre/uently referred to as non precious or no noble- t&e preferred designation is predominantly base metal. 6ne reason for t&is designation is t&at some base metal alloys in t&e past &ave contained a minor amount of palladium- but because t&e properties of t&ese alloys ,ere controlled primarily by t&e base metals present- t&ey s&ould not &ave been classified as noble alloys of t&ese alloys ,ere controlled primarily by t&e base metals present- t&ey s&ould not &ave been classified as noble alloys. 'oble metals are not currently included in most of t&e base metal alloys in use. %&e percentage of base metal use in dentistry decreased bet,een 78D7 and 788:. Alt&oug& t&e increased acceptance of t&ese alloys during t&is period ,as greatly influenced by t&e rapidly fluctuating international cost of gold and ot&er noble metals- t&e subse/uent decline in t&e cost of noble metals &as &ad a small effect on reversing t&is trend. %&e 'i ( Cr ( #e alloys &ave retained t&eir popularity despite t&e potential to*icity of beryllium and t&e allergenic potential of nic+el. T#e&e a&e se3e&al &easons *o& t#e 0se o* ni'8el " '#&o/i0/ alloys in +entist&y-

i) ii)

'ic+el is combined ,it& c&romium to form a &ig&ly corrosion resistant alloy. 'i ( Cr alloys became popular in t&e early 78D1s as lo, cost metals ?K0 to K> per conventional avoirdupois ounce) ,&en t&e price of gold rose to more t&an K :11 per troy ounce. #ecause metal ( ceramic restorations made ,it& 'i ( Cr ( #e alloys &ave e*&ibited &ig& success rates from t&e mid ( 78D1s to t&e present- many dentists &ave continued to use t&ese alloys.

iii)

Alloys suc& as %iconium 711 &ave been used in removable partial denture frame,or+s for many years ,it& fe, reports of allergic reactions. Ho,ever- it is believed t&at palatal epit&elium may be more resistant to allergic reactions ?contact dermatitis ) t&an gingival secular epit&eliums .

iv)

%&e 'i ( Cr and 'i ( Cr ( #e alloys are relatively ine*pensive compared ,it& &ig& noble or noble alloys. %&e price of nic+el ( base alloys is stable- unli+e t&e price of palladium based alloys.

v)

Alt&oug& beryllium is a to*ic metal- dentists and patients s&ould not be affected because t&e main ris+ occurs primarily; in t&e vapor form- ,&ic& is a concern for tec&nicians ,&o melt and cast large /uantities of 'i ( Cr ( #e alloys ,it&out ade/uate ventilation or fume &oods in t&e melting area.

vi)

'ic+el alloys &ave e*cellent mec&anical properties- suc& as &ig& elastic modulus ?stiffness)- &ig& &ardness- and a reasonably &ig& elongation ?ductility). %&e ma2ority of nic+el ( c&romium alloys for cro,ns and <PD prost&eses contain A7 ,tB to D7 ,tB nic+el- 77 ,tB to 09 ,tB c&romium and 0,tB to H,tB molybdenum. i) %&ese alloys may also contain one or more of t&e follo,ing elements3

aluminum- beryllium- boron- carbon- cobalt- copper-; cerium- galliumiron- manganese- niobium- silicon- tin- titanium- and $irconium. %&e cobalt ( c&romium alloys typically contain :> ,tB to A9 ,tB cobalt- 0: ,tB to molybdenum- ,&ic& could affect t&e metal ceramic bond strengt&.

Classi*i'ation o* ,ase Metal Alloys

i) 'ic+el ( cobalt ( C&romium alloys i) Cobalt ( C&romium3 Co ( Cr ( Mo Co ( Cr ) . ii) 'ic+el ( C&romium3 'i (Cr ( Mo ( #e. 'i ( Cr ( Mo. iii) ii) Cobalt ( C&romium ( nic+el %itanium alloys3 Pure %i. %i ( Al ) iii) 6t&ers3 Aluminum bron$e. Ni'8el " Co.alt " C#&o/i0/ Alloys Composition3 Percentage of alloying elements.

i)

'ic+el ( C&romium3 'i up to D1B Cr ( 7> ( 00B #e ( up to 0B

ii)

Cobalt ( c&romium3 Co ( :: ( ADB Cr ( up to 0: ( 09B Cobalt ( c&romium3 ?vitallium) Co ( A1B Cr ( 0: ( >1B 'ic+el ( c&romium3 'i ( A9B Cr (0AB Cobalt ( c&romium ( nic+el3 Co ( :HB Cr ( 0AB 'i ( 7HB

A+3antages An+ Disa+3antages O* ,ase Metal Alloys

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES C&eaper and &arder t&an gold Density is lo, alloys Hig& yield strengt& Hig& melting range and &ig& modulus of elasticity E*ceptional strengt& at &ig& temperature. "uperior sag resistance ( means less deformation t&an gold alloys.

Casting s&rin+age is more. 6*idi$e readily. 'ot resistant to tarnis& and corrosion.

APPLICATION OF ,ASE METAL ALLOYS i) ii) Inlays and onlays. Cast post

iii) iv)

6rt&odontic appliances. <or metal ceramic restorations

#ase metal alloys generally &ave &ig&er &ardness and elastic modulus values are more sag resistant at elevated temp. v) <or ma+ing cast removable partial dentures. It &as t&e follo,ing disadvantages ,&en used metal ceramic alloys. a) %&ey are more difficult to cast and presolder t&an Au ( Pd or Pd ( Ag alloys. More tec&ni/ue sensitive t&an noble metal alloys. b) 'i ( based or Co ( based alloys &ave a potential for porcelain debonding due to separation of a poorly ad&erent o*ide layers from t&e metal substrate. c) "mall differences in composition may produce ,ide variations in metal ceramic bond strengt&.

Co/4osition
CO,ALT " CHROMI9M ALLOYS %&e c&emical composition of t&ese alloys specified in t&e I"6 standard for Dental #ase Metal Casting Alloys is as follo,s3 Cobalt C&romium Molybdenum Cobalt L nic+el Lc&romium Main constituent 'o less t&an 0:B 'o less t&an HB 'o less t&an D:B

A typical material ,ould contain >: ( A:B cobalt- 0: ( >:B c&romium- 1)>1B nic+el- a little molybdenum and trace /uantities of ot&er elements suc& as beryllium- silicon and carbon.

i)

Cobalt and 'ic+el are &ard- strong metals t&e main purpose of t&e c&romium is to furt&er &arden t&e alloy by solution &ardening and also to impart corrosion resistance by t&e passivating effect. C&romium e*posed at surface of t&e alloy rapidly becomes o*idi$ed to form a t&in- passive- surface layer of c&romic o*ide ,&ic& prevents furt&er attac+ on t&e bul+ of t&e alloy.

ii)

%&e minor elements are generally added to improve casting and &andling c&aracteristics and modify mec&anical properties. E.g. silicon imparts good casting properties to a nic+el ( containing alloy and increases its ductility.

Molybdenum and beryllium are added to refine t&e grain structure and improve t&e be&avior of base metal alloys during casting. iii) Carbon affects t&e &ardness- strengt& and ductility of t&e alloys and t&e e*act concentration of carbon is one of t&e ma2or factors controlling alloy properties. iv) %&e presence of too muc& carbon results in a brittle alloy ,it& very lo, ductility and an increased danger of fracture. v) During crystalli$ation t&e carbides become precipitated in t&e interdendritic regions ,&ic& form t&e grain boundaries. %&e grains are generally muc& larger t&an t&ose produced on casting gold alloy. If t&is occurs t&e alloy becomes e*tremely &ard and brittle as t&e carbide p&ase acts as a barrier to slip. A discontinuous carbide p&ase is preferable since it allo,s some slip and reduces brittleness. vi) .&et&er a continuous or discontinuous carbide p&ase is formed depends on t&e amount of carbon present and on t&e casting tec&ni/ue. Hig& melting temp during vii) In general- cobalt ( c&romium alloys are resistant to pitting and crevice corrosion- even ,it& in t&e body. #y contrast- relatively little

is +no,n about t&eir susceptibility to stress corrosion crac+ing or corrosion fatigue. viii) Co ( Cr alloys may undergo fretting corrosion /uite readily. %&e process of fretting is a mec&anical one and involves rubbing in t&e form of a prolonged series of cyclic micro ( movements. %&e result is locali$ed damage to one or bot& surfaces. i*) In fretting corrosion- t&e process continually e*poses ne, surfacesand t&ese undergo o*idation. %&e fretting debris t&at becomes trapped bet,een t&e surface damage and e*posure of ne, metal- and t&e ,&ole process leads to loss of metal from t&e assembly. ,IOCOMPATI,ILITY OF CO,ALT " CHROMI9M ALLOYS 9SE OF CHROME " CO,ALT " ,ASED ALLOY i) ii) iii) iv) v) As a denture base to complete denture- as a denture base to partial denture. As a part of implant denture. <or ma+ing surgical scre,s and plates. In ort&opedic surgery. <or ma+ing dental ,ires. Casting favour discontinuous carbide p&ases but t&ere is a limit to ,&ic& t&is can be used to any advantage since t&e use of very &ig& casting temperatures can cause interactions bet,een t&e alloy and t&e mould. NICBEL " CHROMI9M ALLOYS %&e c&emical composition of t&ese alloys specified in t&e I"6 "tandard for Dental #ase Metal Casting Alloys ?Part 0) is as follo,s.

'ic+el Main constituent C&romium 'o less t&an 01B Molybdenum 'o less t&an HB #eryllium 'o more t&an 0B 'ic+el L Cobalt L C&romium 'o less t&an D:B As for t&e Co@Cr alloys t&e concentrations of minor ingredients can Have a profound effect on properties. %&e concentration of carbon and t&e nature of t&e grain boundaries are ma2or factors in controlling t&e properties of t&ese alloys.

MANIP9LATION OF ,ASE METAL CASTING ALLOYS

i) %&e fusion temperatures of t&e 'i@Cr and Co@Cr alloys vary ,it& composition but are generally in t&e range 7011 ( 7:11 1c. %&is is considerably &ig&er t&an for t&e casting gold alloys ,&ic& rarely &ave fusion %emperatures above 8:11c. ii) iii) Melting of gold alloys can readily be ac&ieved using a gas ( air mi*ture. <or base metal alloys- &o,ever- eit&er acetylene ( o*ygen flue or an electrical induction furnance is re/uired. %&e latter met&od is to be favored since it is carried out under more controlled conditions. iv) .&en using o*yacetylene flames t&e ration of o*ygen to acetylene must be carefully controlled. %oo muc& o*ygen may cause o*idation of t&e alloy ,&ilst an e*cess of acetylene produces an increase in t&e metal carbide content leading to embrittlement. v) Investment moulds for base metal alloys must be capable of maintaining t&eir integrity at t&e &ig& casting temperatures used. "ilica bonded and p&osp&ate bonded materials are favored ,it& t&e latter product being most ,idely used.

vi)

!ypsum ( bonded investments decompose above 70111c to form sulp&ur dio*ide ,&ic& may be absorbed by t&e casting- causing embrittlement. %&is effect can be reduced by t&e incorporation of o*alate in t&e investment; &o,ever t&e problem is generally avoided by c&oosing an investment ,&ic& is more stable at elevated temperatures.

vii)

%&e density values of base metal alloys are appro*imately &alf t&ose of t&e casting gold alloys. <or t&is reason t&e t&rust developed during casting may be some,&at lo,er- ,it& t&e possibility t&at t&e casting may not ade/uately fill t&e mould. Casting mac&ines used for base metal alloys must t&erefore be capable or producing e*tra t&rust ,&ic& overcomes t&is deficiency.

viii)

%&e problem may be aggravated if t&e investment is not sufficiently porous to allo, escape of trapped air and ot&er gases. Careful use of vents and sprues of ade/uate si$e is normally sufficient to overcome suc& problems.

i*) *)

%&e greatest e*pense involved in producing a Co@Cr dental casting is in t&e time re/uired for trimming and polis&ing. In t&e Mas cast4 state- t&e alloy surface is normally /uite roug&partially due to t&e coarse nature of some investment po,ders. <iner investments can be used to give a smoot&er surface re/uiring less finis&ing.

*i)

6ne common tec&ni/ue involves painting t&e ,a* pattern ,it& fine investment (t&is t&en forms t&e inner surface of t&e investment mould. %&e bul+ of t&e mould is t&en formed from t&e coarser grade material.

*ii)

#ase metal alloys- and particularly t&e Co@Cr type are very &ard and conse/uently difficult to polis&. After casting- it is usual to sandblast t&e metal to remove any surface roug&ness or ad&erent

investment material as ,ell as t&e green layer of o*ide ,&ic& coats t&e surface after casting. Electrolytic polis&ing may t&en be carried out. %&is procedure is essentially t&e opposite of electroplating. *iii) If a roug& metal surface is connected as t&e anode in a bat& of strongly acidic electrolyte- a current passing bet,een it and t&e cat&ode ,ill cause t&e anode to ioni$e and lose a surface film of metal. .it& a suitable electrolyte and t&e correct current density- t&e first products of electrolysis ,ill collect in t&e &ollo,s of t&e roug& metal surface and so prevent furt&er attac+ in t&ese areas. %&e prominences of t&e metal surface ,ill continue to be dissolved and in t&is ,ay t&e contours of t&e surface are smoot&ed. <inal polis&ing can be carried out using a &ig& ( speed polis&ing buff. *iv) %&e process of electro polis&ing is not generally used for 'i@Cr alloy castings. %&ese products are normally used for cro,n and bridge ,or+ and it is essential to maintain t&e accuracy of fitparticularly at t&e margins of cro,ns. %&is accuracy may be lost during polis&ing procedures and care is re/uired to avoid suc& problems.

COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF Ni>C& AND TYPE ( CASTING GOLD ALLOYS FOR SMALL CAST RESTORATION
PROPERTY Density ?gcum
> )

Ni>C& D

Ty4e ( Gol+ alloy 7:

Co//ents More difficult to produce defect ( free castings for 'i@Cr alloys. 'i@Cr alloys re/uire electrical e/uipment.

) <usion temperature

As &ig& 'ormally as lo,er

t&an induction furnance or o*yacetylene

Casting

7>:11c 0.1

71111c 7.H :H1 081

Mostly compensated for by correct c&oice of investment. #ot& ade/uate for t&e applications being considered. #ot& &ig& enoug& to prevent

s&rin+age ?7B) %ensile strengt& A11 ?Mpa) Proportional limit ?Mpa)

:11

distortions for applications being considered; note t&at values are lo,er t&an for partial denture alloys %able D)7) Hig&er modulus of 'i@Cr is an advantage for larger restorations- e.g. bridges and for porcelain ( bounded restorations. 'i@Cr more difficult to polis& during service. Relatively large values suggest t&at burnis&ing is possible; &o,everlarge suggest re/uired. proportional ,is& limit values be forces ,ould

Modulus

of 001

D:

elasticity ?!pa)

Hardness ? ic+ers) Ductility ?Belongation)

>11 >)>1

7:1 01

METALS AND ALLOYS FOR IMPLANTS

Implants offer an alternative met&od of treatment for t&e replacement of missing teet& ,&ic& can be used instead of dentures or fi*ed bridges. #iocompatibility and stability are often seen as closely related in t&at some materials are +no,n to encourage bone gro,t& ,&ic& produces a very intimate interface bet,een bone and in plant ,&ic& &elps to stabili$e t&e latter. <unction primarily depends upon t&e rigidity of t&e implant structure. %&is in turn is related to t&e dimensions and t&e modulus of elasticity of t&e material from ,&ic& t&e implant is manufactured.

Dental implants are normally classified according to t&e ,ay in ,&ic& t&ey are stabili$ed. %&e t&ree most common types are3 ) "ubperiosteal ) #lade ( vent end osseous ) 6sseo integrated. "ubperiosteal implants consist of an open frame,or+ of cast alloy ,&ic& rests on top of t&e bony ridge but beneat& t&e mucosa. Cost cobalt ( c&romium alloys are most commonly used for t&ese applications. %&e very &ig& modulus of elasticity of t&ese materials combined ,it& reasonable cast ability is t&e main factors affecting t&is c&oice. Attempts &ave been made to improve t&e biocompatibility of t&e alloys by using &ydro*yapatite coatings. ) #lade ( vent implants are normally constructed from titanium ,&ic& &as e*cellent biocompatibility.

,IOLOGICAL HA;ARDS AND PRECA9TIONS- RISBS FOR DENTAL LA,ORATORY TECHNICIANS

Caboratory tec&nicians may be e*posed occasionally or routinely to e*cessively &ig& concentrations of beryllium and nic+el dust and beryllium vapor. Alt&oug& t&e beryllium concentration in dental alloys rarely e*ceeds 0B by ,eig&t- t&e amount of beryllium vapor released into t&e breat&ing space during t&e melting of 'i)Cr) beryllium alloys may be significant over an e*tended period of time. i) ii) Actually- t&e potential &a$ards of beryllium s&ould be based on its atomic concentration in an alloy. 6ne can demonstrate t&at an alloy ,&ic& contains D1B 'i77.HB Cr- :B Mo- 7.DB <e- and 7.DB #e on a ,eig&t basis contains

9>.>B 'i- 77.DB Cr- 0.AB Mo- 7.AB <e- and 71.9B #e on an atomic basis. %&us to*icity considerations for beryllium s&ould be based on t&e atomic concentration rat&er t&an t&e ,eig&t percentage. iii) %&e apor pressure of pure beryllium is app 1.7 torr ?mmHg) at an assumed casting temp of 7>91 o C. Comparable vapor pressures for c&romium- nic+el- and Molybdenum are :*71 )> torr- D*71)H torrand >*71)77 torr- respectively. iv) %&e ris+ for beryllium apor e*posure is greatest for dental tec&nicians during alloy melting- especially in t&e absence of an ade/uate e*&aust and filtration system. v) %&e 6ccupational Healt& and "afety Administration ?6"HA) specifies t&at e*posure to beryllium dust in an s&ould be limited to particulate beryllium concentration of 0g@m> of air ?bot& respirable and non respirable particles) determined from an D)& time),eig&ted average t&e allo,able ma*imum concentration is :g@m> ?not to be e*ceeded for a 7:)min period). <or a minimum duration of >1 min- a ma*imum ceiling concentration of 0:g@m> is allo,ed. %&e 'ational Institute for 6ccupational "afety and Healt& ?'I6"H) recommends a limit of 1.: g@m> based on a 7>1 ( min sample. vi) Moffa et al ?789>) reported t&at &ig& levels of beryllium ,ere accumulating during finis&ing and polis&ing ,&en a local e*&aust system ,as not used. .&en an e*&aust system ,as used- t&e concentration of beryllium in t&e breat&ing $one ,as reduced to levels considered safe by t&e aut&ors. .or+ers e*posed to moderately &ig& conc. of beryllium dusts over a s&ort period of timeor prolonged e*posure to lo, conc.- may e*perience signs and symptoms representing acute disease states.

vii)

P&ysiological responses vary from contact dermatitis to severe c&emical pneumonitis- ,&ic& can be fatal. %&e c&ronic disease state is c&aracteri$ed by symptoms persisting for more t&an 7 year- ,it& t&e onset of symptoms separated by a period of years from coug&ingc&est pain- and general ,ea+ness to pulmonary dysfunction.

P&e3ention i) ii) .ell (ventilated ,or+ areas. Protection against in&alation of dust particles during trimming ,it& mas+s. Ni'8el 'ic+el is common in t&e general population. %&e source can also be due to ot&er contacts li+e utensils and artificial 2e,elry. %&e most common manifestation is contact dermatitis. A patient ,it& a base metal alloy bridge can s&o, eryt&ematous inflammation in t&e area of contact. 6t&er manifestations due to in&alation include pulmonary irritationpneumoconiosis- lung carcinomas- leading to decrease in lung function and deat&. P&e3ention Patc& test to confirm allergy. Ese of alternative metals li+e palladium or titanium alloy.

Titani0/ alloys %&eir ma2or advantages are biocompatibility to

oral tissues- significant strengt& and ductility. Co/4ositioni) ii) %itanium alloy C&romium ( : ( 7:B

iii) iv) v)

'ic+el ( : ( 7:B Molybdenum ( >B "ilicon- manganese- iron and carbon) small /uantities.

A+3antages i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Hig& modulus of elasticity Easy cast ability. E*cellent bio compatibility Has &ig& tarnis& and corrosion resistance and does not form corrosion products. 6*idi$es upon contact ,it& air or oral fluids. Co, t&ermal conductivity. Capability of bonding t resin and porcelain.

Disa+3antages "pecial e/uipment is re/uired.

Al0/ini0/ " ,&onCe

i) ii) iii) iv) Aluminium #ron$e 1A77 ,tB Copper 17)DD ,tB 'ic+el 0)H ,tB Iron 7)H ,tB %&ese alloys are still in e*perimental stage. 'o particular clinical trial &as been done. Poor resistance to tarnis& is a ma2or dra,bac+.

NO,LE METALS
) Elements ,it& a good metallic surface t&at retain t&eir surface in dry; air. %&ey react easily ,it& sulfur to form sulfides- but t&eir resistance to o*idation- tarnis&- and corrosion during &eatingcasting- soldering- and use in t&e mout& is very good. %&e noble metals are gold- platinum- palladium- iridium- sodiumosmium- and rut&enium. ) %&e noble metals- toget&er ,it& silver- are some times called precious metals. "ome metallurgists consider silver a noble metal in dentistry because it corrodes considerably in t&e oral cavity. %&us t&e terms noble and precious are not synonymous in dentistry. GOLD <A0: Pure gold is a soft- malleable ductile metal t&at &as a ric& yello, color ,it& a strong metallic luster. i) It ran+s muc& lo,er in strengt&.

ii)

"mall amounts of impurities &ave a pronounced effect on t&e mec&anical properties of gold and its alloys. %&e presence of less t&an 1.0B lead causes gold to be e*tremely brittle.

iii) iv)

Air or ,ater at any temp doesn4t affect or tarnis& gold. !old is not soluble in sulfuric- nitric or &ydroc&loric acids. Ho,ever- it readily dissolves in combinations of nitric and HCl ?a/ua rugia- 7D olB nitric acid and D0 volB Hclacids ) to form t&e tric&loride of gold ?Aucl>).It is also dissolved by a fe, ot&er c&emicals- suc& as potassium cyanide and solutious of bromine or c&lorine.

v)

!old must be alloyed ,it& Cu- Ag- Pt and ot&er metals to develop t&e &ardness- durability- and elasticity necessary in dental alloys- coins- and 2e,elry.

PLATIN9M <Pt: Platinum is a bluis& ( ,&ite metal- and is toug&s ductile- malleable- and can be produced as foil or fine ( dra,n ,ire. i) ii) Platinum &as &ardness similar to copper. Pure pt &as numerous applications in dentistry because of its &ig& fusing point and resistance to oral conditions and elevated temp. iii) Pt &as been used for pins and posts in cro,n and bridge restorations and alloys may be cast or soldered to t&e posts ,it&out damage. iv) v) Adds greatly to t&e &ardness and elastic /ualities of gold. %ends to lig&ten t&e color of yello, gold based alloys.

PALLADI9M <P+: i) ii) .&ite metal some ,&at dar+er t&an Pt. Its density is a little more t&an &alf t&at of Pt and gold.

iii)

It &as a /uality of absorbing or occluding large /uantities of &ydrogen gas ,&en &eated. %&is can be an undesirable /uality ,&en alloys combining Pd are &eated ,it& an improperly ad2usted gas ( air torc&

iv)

Palladium can be combined ,it& gold- silver- Cu- Co- "n- In or !a for dental alloys.

I&i+i0/ <I&:D R0t#eni0/ <R0:D an+ R#o+i0/ <R#: i) Iridium and Rut&enium are used in small amounts in dental alloys as grain refiners to +eep t&e grain si$e small. A small grain si$e is desirable because in improves t&e mec&anical properties and uniformity of properties ,it& in an alloy. As little as 1.11:B of Ir is effective in reducing t&e grain effect. ii) Ru &as a similar effect. %&e grain refining properties of t&ese elements occurs largely because of t&eir e*tremely &ig& melting points. iii) Ir melts at 0H711C and Ru at 0>711C? %&us t&ese elements don4t melt during t&e casting of t&e alloy and serve as nucleating centers for t&e melt as it cools- resulting in a fine ( grained alloy. iv) R& also &as a &ig& melting point ?788AA1C) and &as been used in alloys ,it& Pt to form ,ire for t&ermocouples. %&ese t&ermocouples &elp measure t&e temp in porcelain furnaces used to ma+e dental restorations. Os/i0/ <Os: #ecause of its tremendous e*pense and e*tremely &ig& ,elting point 6s is not used in dental casting alloys. i) a deo*idi$ing agent.

ii)

#ecause of its lo, density- t&e resulting Nu6 large be&ind t&e denser molten mass during casting- and is t&erefore e*cluded from t&e casting.

iii)

If too muc& Ninc is present- it ,ill mar+edly increase t&e brittleness of t&e alloy.

In+i0/ <In: i) ii) In is a soft- gray) ,&ite metal ,it& a lo, melting point of 7:A.A1c. It is not tarnis&ed by air or ,ater. It is used in some gold) based alloys as a replacement for Nn- and is a common minor component of some noble ceramic dental alloys. iii) Recently- Indium &as been used in greater amounts ?up to >1B by ,t) to impart a yello, color Pd ( Ag alloys.

,INARY COM,INATIONS OF METALS

Alt&oug& most noble casting alloys &ave t&ree or more elements- t&e properties of certain binary alloys are imp because t&ese binary combinations constitute t&e ma2ority of t&e mass of many ( noble alloys. An understanding of t&e p&ysical and manipulative properties of t&ese binary ( combinations constitute t&e ma2ority of t&e mass of many noble

alloys. Among t&e noble alloys- si* binary combinations of elements are important3 i) Au ( Cu- Pd ( Cu- Au ( Ag- Pd ( Ag- Au ( Pd- and Au ( Pt P&ase diagrams are po,erful tools for understanding t&e p&ysical and manipulative properties of binary alloys.

ALLOY COMPOSITION AND TEMPERAT9RE

i) ii) In eac& p&ase diagram- t&e &ori$ontal a*is represents t&e composition of t&e binary alloy. <or e*ample- in fig A- t&e &ori$ontal a*is represents a series of binary alloys of gold and copper ranging in composition from 1B gold ?or 711B copper) to 711B gold. iii) iv) %&e composition can be given In atomic percent ?at B) or ,eig&t percent ?,tB) .eig&t percent compositions give t&e relative mass of eac& element in t&e alloy- ,&ere as atomic percentages give t&e relative numbers of atomies in t&e alloys. It is a simple calculation to convert ,eig&t percentages to atomic percentages- or vice versa. v) 'ote t&at for t&e binary alloys s&o,n in fig- t&e atomic percent composition is s&o,n along t&e bottom of t&e p&ase diagram ,&ereas t&e ,eig&t percent composition is s&o,n along t&e top. vi) vii) viii) %&e atomic and ,eig&t percent compositions of t&e binary alloys can differ considerably. <or e*ample- for t&e Au ( Cu system- an alloy t&at is :1B gold <or ot&er systems- li+e t&e Au (Pt system M<4- t&ere is little by ,eig&t is only 0:B gold by atoms. difference bet,een atomic and ,eig&t percentages.

%&e difference bet,een atomic and ,eig&t percentages depends on t&e differences in t&e atomic masses of t&e elements involved. i*) %&e bigger t&e difference in atomic mass- t&e bigger t&e difference bet,een t&e atomic and ,eig&t percentages in t&e binary p&ase diagram. *) #ecause it more convenient to use masses in t&e manufacture of alloys- t&e most common met&od to report composition is by ,eig&t percentages. Ho,ever- t&e p&ysical and biological percentages. Ho,ever- t&e p&ysical and biological properties of alloys relate best to atomic percentages. It is t&erefore important to +eep t&e difference bet,een atomic and ,eig&t percent in mind ,&en selecting and using noble dental casting alloys. Alloys t&at appear &ig& in gold by ,eig&t percentage may in reality contain for fe,er gold atoms t&an mig&t be t&oug&t. *i) *ii) 6t&er aspects of t&e p&ase diagrams t&at deserve attention are t&e li/uid us and solid us lines. %&e y a*es s&o, temperature. If t&e temp is above t&e li/uid us line ?mar+ed C)- t&e alloy ,ill solid us line ?mar+ed ")- t&e alloy ,ill be solid. If t&e temp lies bet,een t&e li/uid us and solid us lines- t&e alloy ,ill be partially molten. *iii) 'ote t&at t&e distance bet,een t&e li/uidus and solidus lines varies among systems in <ig. <or e*ample t&e temp difference bet,een t&ese lines is small for t&e Ag ( Au system- muc& larger for t&e Au ( Pt system ?M<4) and varies considerably ,it& composition for t&e Au ( Cu system. ?MA4) *iv) *v) If t&e li/uidus ( solidus line is broad- t&e alloy ,ill remain at least partially molten for a longer period after it is cast. %&e temp. of t&e li/uid us line is also imp- and varies considerably among alloys and ,it& composition. <or e*ample t&e

li/uidus line of t&e Au) Ag system ranges from 8A0 1 to 71AH1C ?MC4)but t&e li/uidus line of t&e Au ( Pd system ranges from 71AH 1 to 7::H1C FME4G. It is often desirable to &ave an alloy ,it& a li/uidus line at lo,er temperatures; t&e met&od of &eating is easier- fe,er side reactions occur- and s&rin+age is generally less of a problem.

PHASE STR9CT9RE OF NO,LE ALLOYSi) ii) %&e area belo, t&e solidus lines in fig is also imp to t&e be&avior of t&e alloy. If t&is area contains no boundaries- t&en t&e binary system is a series of solid solutions. %&is means t&at t&e t,o elements are completely soluble in one anot&er at all temp and compositions. iii) iv) %&e Ag (Pd system ?MD4) and Pd ( Au system ?M<4) are e*amples of solid solution systems. If t&e area belo, t&e solidus line contains das&ed lines- t&en an ordered solution is present ,it& in t&e das&ed lines. An ordered solution occurs ,&en t&e t,o elements in t&e alloy assume specific and regular positions in t&e crystal lattice of t&e alloy. %&is situation differs from a solid solution ,&ere t&e positions of t&e elements in t&e crystal lattice are random. E*amples of systems containing ordered solutions are t&e Au ( Cu system ?MA4).%&e Pd ( Cu system M#4 and Au ( Ag system MC4. v) 'ote t&at t&e ordered solutions occur over a limited range of compositions because t&e ratios bet,een t&e elements must be correct to support t&e regular positions in t&e crystal lattices.

vi)

If t&e area belo, t&e solidus line contains a solid line- it indicates t&e e*istence of a second p&ase. A second) p&ase is an area ,it& a composition distinctly different from t&e first p&ase.

vii)

In t&e Au ( Pt system ?M<4) a second p&ase forms bet,een 01 and 81 atB platinum. If t&e temp. is belo, t&e p&ase boundary live ,it& in t&ese compositions- t,o p&ases e*ist in t&e alloy. %&e presence of a second p&ase is imp because it significantly c&anges t&e corrosion properties of an alloy.

HARDENING OF NO,LE ALLOYS

i) ii) %&e use of pure cast gold is not practical for dental restorations because cast gold lac+s sufficient strengt& and &ardness. "olid ( solution and ordered solution &ardening are t,o common ,ays of strengt&ening noble dental alloys sufficiently for use in t&e mout&. iii) #y mi*ing t,o elements in t&e crystal lattice randomly ?forming a solid solution)- t&e force needed to distort t&e lattice may be significantly increased. <or e*ample- adding 2ust 71B by ,eig&t of copper to gold- t&e tensile strengt& increases from 71: to >8: Mpa and t&e #rinell &ardness increases from 0D to D:. %&e 81371 Au ( Cu mi*ture is t&e composition used in E.". gold coins. iv) If t&e positions of t&e t,o elements become ordered ?forming an ordered solution)- t&e properties of t&e alloy are improved furt&er. <or a typical gold ( based casting alloy- t&e formation of an ordered solution may increase yield strengt& by :1B- tensile strengt& by 0:B and &ardness by at least 71B. It is important to note t&at t&e

elongation of an alloy is reduced by formation of t&e ordered solution. <or t&e typical gold ( based alloy- t&e percentage elongation ,ill decrease from >1B to about 70B. v) %&e formation of ordered solutions &as been commonly used to strengt&en cast dental restorations- particularly in gold ( based alloys. As s&o,n in fig MA4- t&e Au) Cu system supports ordered solutions bet,een about 01 and 91 at Bgold. Ho,ever- t&e manipulation of t&e alloy during casting ,ill determine if t&e ordered solution ,ill form. vi) If Au ( Cu containing about :1 at B gold is &eated to t&e molten state and t&en cooled slo,ly- t&e mass ,ill solidify at about DD11C as solid solutions. As t&e mass cools slo,ly to H0H 1 C- t&e ordered solutions ,ill t&en form and ,ill remain present at room temp. vii) Ho,ever- if t&e mass is cooled rapidly to room temp. after t&e initial solidification- t&e ordered solution ,ill not form because t&ere is insufficient time for t&e mass reorgani$e. %&us t&e alloy ,ill be trapped in a non ( e/uilibrium state of a solid solutions and ,ill be softer- ,ea+er- and &ave greater elongation. viii) i*) #y &eating an alloy in eit&er condition above H0H 1C- t&e state of t&e alloy can be selected by pic+ing t&e cooling rate. Rapid cooling ,ill preserve t&e solid solution and t&e soft condition- ,&ereas slo, cooling ,ill allo, t&e formation of t&e ordered solution and t&e &ardened condition.

FORM9LATION OF NO,LE ALLOYS

%&e desired /ualities of noble dental casting alloys determine t&e selection of elements t&at ,ill be used to formulate t&e alloys. %&e ideal noble casting alloy s&ould &ave i) ii) iii) iv) A lo, melting range and narro, solidus ( li/uidus temperature range. Ade/uate strengt&- &ardness- and elongation A lo, tendency to corrode in t&e oral environment Co, cost among ot&er properties. because for t&e formulation of alloys because t&ey are generally easier to manufacture and manipulate- &ave a lo,er tendency to corrode t&an multiple) p&ase systems- and provide increased strengt& t&roug& solid ( solution or ordered ( solution &ardening.

) "olid ( solution systems are desirable for t&e formulation of alloys

CARAT AND FINENESS OF GOLD " ,ASED ALLOYS

<or many years t&e gold content of gold containing alloys &as been described on t&e basis of t&e carat- or in terms of fineness- rat&er t&an by ,tB. %&e term carat refers only to t&e gold content of t&e alloy; a carat represents a 7@0H part of t&e ,&ole. %&us 0H carat indicates pure gold. %&e carat of an alloy is designated by a small letter R- for e*ample- 7D+ or 00+ gold. %&e use of term carat to designate t&e gold content of dental alloy is less common no,. It is not unusal to find t&e ,eig&t percentage of gold listed or to &ave t&e alloy described in terms of finer ness. <ineness also refers only to t&e gold content- and represents t&e number of parts of gold in eac& 7111 parts of alloy. %&us 0H+ gold is t&e same as 711B gold or

7111 fineness. ?i.e. 7111 fine). %&e fineness represents a precise measure of t&e gold content of t&e alloy and is often t&e preferred measurement. ) An 7D+ gold ,ould be designated as 9:1 fine- or- ,&en t&e decimal system is used- it ,ould be 1.9:1 fine; t&is indicates t&at 9:1@7111 of t&e total is gold. ) %&e fineness system is some,&at less relevant to day because of t&e introduction of alloys t&at are not gold) based. It is imp to emp&asi$e t&at t&e terms carat and fineness refer only to gold content- not noble (metal content.

ALLOYS FOR ALL " METAL AND RESIN " VENEERED RESTORATIONS

In 7809- %&e 'ational #ureau of standards establis&ed gold casting alloy types I t&roug& I according to dental function- ,it& &ardness increasing from type I to type I . a) !old Alloys b) "ilver Palladium alloy c) Aluminium #ron$e alloy.

HEAT TREATMENT OF HIGH NO,LE AND NO,LE METAL ALLOYS

i) !old alloys can be significantly &ardened if t&e alloy contains a sufficient amount of copper. %ypes I and II alloys usually don4t &arden- or t&ey &arden to a lesser degree t&an do t&e types III and I gold alloys. ii) %&e actual mec&anism of &ardening is probably t&e result of several different solid state transformations. iii) In metallurgical engineering terminology t&e softening &eat treatment is ( referred to as a solution &eat treatment. %&e &ardening &eat treatment is termed age &ardening.

SOFTENING HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD CASTING ALLOYS

i)

%&e casting is placed in an electric furnace for 71 min at a temp of 9111c ?70801<) and t&en it is /uenc&ed in & 01. During t&is periodall intermediate p&ases are presumably c&anged to a disordered solid- solution- and t&e rapid /uenc&ing prevents ordering from occurring during cooling.

ii) iii)

%&e tensile strengt&- proportional limit- and &ardness are reduced by suc& a treatment and t&e ductility is in creased. %&e softening &eat treatment is indicated for structures t&at are to be ground- s&aped- or ot&er,ise cold ,or+ed- eit&er in or out of t&e mout&. Alt&oug& 9111c is an ade/uate average softening tempeac& alloy &as its optimum temp- and t&e manufacturer s&ould specify t&e most favorable temp. and time.

HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD CASTING ALLOYS

It can be accomplis&ed in several ,ays. i) 6ne of t&e most practical &ardening treatments is by soa+ing or aging t&e casting at a specific temp- for a definite time- usually 7: to >1 minutes- before it is ,ater ( /uenc&ed. ii) iii) %&e aging temp. depends on t&e alloy composition but is generally bet,een 0111C ?>801<) and H:11C ?DH01<). Ideally- before t&e alloy is given an age ( &ardening treatmentit s&ould be sub2ected to a softening &eat treatment to relieve all strain &ardening and to start t&e &ardening treatment ,it& t&e alloy as a disordered solid solution.

iv)

%&is treatment is indicated for metallic partial dentures- saddles<PDs- and ot&er similar sites. <or small sites- suc& as inlays- a &ardening treatment is not usually employed. Age &ardening substantially increases t&e yield strengt&.

v) vi)

%&e &ardness values for noble metal alloys correlate /uite ,ell ,it& t&eir yield strengt&s. Age &ardening reduces t&e percent elongation in some cases. Alloys ,it& lo, elongation are relatively brittle materials and fracture readily if loaded beyond t&e proportional limit or yield strengt&.

,: SILVER " PALLADI9M ALLOYS i) "ilver ( Pd alloys are ,&ite and predominantly silver in composition but &ave substantial amounts of Pd ?at least 0:B) t&at provide nobility and promote tarnis& resistance. %&ey may or may not contain copper and a small amount of gold. ii) %&e Cu)free Ag ( Pd alloys may contain 91B to 90B silver and 0:B Pd and may &ave p&ysical properties similar to t&ose for a type III gold alloy. iii) 6t&er Ag ( based alloys mig&t contain roug&ly A1B Ag- 0:B Pd- and as muc& as 7:B or more Cu and may &ave properties more li+e a %ype I gold alloy. Despite early reports of poor castability- t&e Ag ( Pd alloys can produce acceptable castings. iv) %&e use of metal ( ceramic restorations in posterior sites &as increased relative to t&e use of all metal cro,ns and onlays. %&e compositions of representative &ig& noble and noble alloys ?including Ag) Pd alloys) for all meal restorations ?%ype 7 to %ype I ).

C: AL9MIN9M ,RON;E ALLOY #ron$e is traditionally defined as a copper ( ric&- copper ( tin ?Cu) "n) alloy ,it& or ,it&out ot&er elements suc& as Nn and p&osp&orus- t&ere e*ist essentially t,o ( component ?binary)- t&ree component?ternary)-and four component ?/uaternary) bron$e alloys t&at contain aluminum bron$e ?Cu ( Al)- silicon bron$e copper ( silicon- and beryllium bron$e ?Cu ( #e). i) %&e Al) bron$e family of alloys may contain bet,een D7 ,tB and DD ,tB Cu- 9 ,tB to; 77 ,tB Al- 0 ,tB to H ,tB 'i- and 7 ,t to H ,tB iron. ii) %&ere is a potential for copper alloys to react ,it& sulfur to form copper sulfide ,&ic& may tarnis& t&e surface of t&is alloy in t&e same manner t&at Ag sulfide dar+ens t&e surface of gold ( base or Ag ( base alloys t&at contain a significant Ag content.

HIGH NO,LE AND NO,LE ALLOYS FOR METAL CERAMIC RESTORATION <PROSTHESES:
a) !old ( Platinum ( Palladium alloy b) !old ( Palladium silver alloy c) !old) Palladium alloy. i) %&e c&ief ob2ection to t&e use of dental porcelain as a restorative material is its lo, strengt& under tensile and s&ears stress conditions. ii) Alt&oug& porcelain can resist compressive stresses ,it& reasonable success- t&e substructure design s&ould not include s&apes in ,&ic& significant tensile stresses are produced during

loading. A met&od by ,&ic& t&e disadvantage can be minimi$ed is to bond t&e porcelain directly to cast alloy substructure made to fit t&e prepared toot&. iii) Adding less t&an 7B of o*ide forming element suc& as ironindium- and tin to t&is &ig& gold content alloy t&e porcelain metal bond strengt& ,as improved. Iron increases proportional limit and strengt& of alloy. iv) %&e 7B addition of base metal to gold- Pd and Pt alloys ,as all t&at ,as necessary to produce a slig&t o*ide film on surface of substructure to ac&ieve porcelain metal bond strengt&. v) Inspite of vastly different c&emical compositions- all t&e alloys described in t&e follo,ing according to t&eir principal c&emical elements s&are at least t&ree common features3 a) %&ey &ave t&e potential to bond to dental porcelain b) %&ey possess coefficients of t&ermal contraction compatible ,it& t&ose of dental porcelains. c) %&eir solidus temp is sufficiently &ig& to permit t&e application of lo, fusing porcelains. vi) %&e coefficients of t&ermal e*pansion ?C%E) tend to &ave a reciprocal relations&ip ,it& t&e melting points of alloys ?because of an inverse dependence on t&e relative strengt& of interatomic bonding)- as ,ell as t&e melting range of alloys; t&at is- t&e &ig&er t&e melting temp of a metal- t&e lo,er its C%E. Metal ceramic alloys of a metal- t&e lo,er its C%E. Metal ceramic alloys are also often referred to as porcelain fused to metal ?P<M) or ceramo metal alloys. GOLD " PALLADI9M " SILVER ALLOYS <Lo7 Sil3e& Content:

i)

Au ( Pd ( Ag alloys- ,&ic& contain :B to 77.88B Ag are economical alternatives to t&e Au ( Pt ( Pd or Au ( Pd ( Pt alloys. %&ese are resistant to tarnis& and corrosion.

ii)

%&e principal disadvantage of t&is alloy group is t&e potential for porcelain discoloration ,&en Ag vapor is released and deposited on t&e porcelain surface.

GOLD " PALLADI9M " SILVER ALLOYS <Hig# sil3e& 'ontent: i) !old alloys t&at contain 70B Ag or more account for appro*imately; 01B of t&e current alloy mar+et. %&ese include Au ( Pd ( Ag- Pd ( Au ( Ag and Pd ( Ag alloys. ii) %&e Au ( Pd alloys ,it& &ig& silver contents ?70B to 00B) &ave been popular alternatives to t&e &ig&er gold content alloys for many years despite t&eir potential for porcelain discoloration. iii) iv) v) vi) %&ese alloys are ,&ite ( colored and are used primarily for t&eir lo,er cost and comparable p&ysical properties. %&e commonly used alloys in t&is gp contain bet,een >8B and:>B Au and 0:B to; >:B Pd. %&e potential for porcelain discoloration is greatest ,it& alloy ,&ic& &as t&e &ig&est silver contents. %&e factors t&at intensify t&e porcelain color c&anges because of t&e release of Ag ,ere identified previously. In general- it is advisable to avoid t&ese types of alloys ,&en using lig&ter s&ades and ceramic products t&at are sensitive to silver discoloration. GOLD " PALLADI9M ALLOYS

%&is alloy ,as designed to overcome t&e porcelain discoloration effect ?because it is Ag ( free) and also to provide an alloy ,it& a lo,er t&ermal contraction coefficient t&an t&at of eit&er t&e Au ( Pd ( Ag or Pd ( Ag alloys. i) ii) %&e contents are gold ranging from HHB ) ::B and a Pd level >: (H:B Alloys of t&is type must be used ,it& porcelains t&at &ave lo, coefficient of t&ermal contraction to avoid t&e development of a*ial and circumferential tensile stresses in porcelain during t&e cooling part of porcelain firing cycle. iii) %&e yield strengt&- modulus of elasticity;- tensile strengt& and &ardness of Au ( Pd ( Ag and Au ( Pd alloys are greater and density lo,er- t&en t&ose are Au ( Pt (Pd alloys- ,&ic& implies t&at combination; ,ill be more resistant to masticatory force and stiffer t&en restoration made of Au ( Pt ( Pd alloys. Co,er densities also mean prost&esis ,ill be lig&ter in ,eig&t. PALLADI9M " GOLD ALLOYS Its popularity &as been diminis&ed by t&e recent price volatility of Pd. %&ese are free of Ag. %&erefore t&ey don4t contribute to porcelain discoloration. P&ysical properties are similar to t&ose of t&e Au ( Pd alloys. %&ermal compatibility ,it& commercial porcelain products &as not yet been reported in t&e dental literature. PALLADI9M " GOLD " SILVER ALLOYS i) %&e Pd ( Au ( Ag alloy group is similar to t&e Au ( Pd ( Ag types of alloys in t&eir potential for porcelain discoloration. %&ese

alloys &ave gold contents ranging from :B to >0B and Ag contents varying bet,een A.:B and 7HB ii) iii) 6ne ,ould e*pect t&e potential for porcelain discoloration to be greater for t&e &ig&er Ag ( content alloys in t&is group. %&ese alloys &ave a range of t&ermal contraction coefficients t&at increase ,it& an increase in Ag content. PALLADI9M " SILVER ALLOYS i) ii) iii) iv) v) It ,as introduced to t&e E.". mar+et in 789H as t&e first gold ( free noble alloy available for metal ( ceramic restorations. %&e compositions of Pd ( Ag alloys fall ,it& in a narro, range of :>B to A7B Pd and 0DB to H1B Ag. %in and @or indium are usually added t increase alloy &ardness and to promote o*ide formation and ade/uate bonding to porcelain. A proper balance is needed to maintain a reasonably lo, casting temp and a compatible coefficient of t&ermal contraction. #ecause of t&eir increase Ag content compared ,it& t&at of gold based alloys- t&e Ag discoloration effect is most severe for t&ese alloys. !old metal conditioners or ceramic coating agents may minimi$e t&is effect. vi) %&e lo, specific gravity of t&ese alloys ?71.9 to 77.7)combined ,it& t&eir lo, intrinsic cost- ma+e t&em attractive as economical alternatives to t&e gold ( based alloys. vii) viii) Ad&erence to porcelain is considered to be acceptable for most of t&e Pd ( Ag alloys. Instead of t&e formation of t&e desired e*ternal o*ide- Pd ( Ag nodules may develop on t&e surface- ,&ic& en&ance retention of porcelain by mec&anical rat&er t&an c&emical bonding.

PALLADI9MACOPPERAGALLI9M ALLOYS 'o clinical reports of adverse events &ave been reported for Pd)Cu)!a alloys. %&e clinician s&ould be a,are of t&e potential effect on aest&etics of t&e dar+ bro,n or blac+ o*ide formed during o*idation and subse/uent porcelain)firing cycles. PALLADI9MAGALLI9MASILVER ALLOYS %&ey tend to &ave a slig&tly lig&ter colored o*ide t&an t&e Pd)Cu alloys and t&ey are t&ermally compatible ,it& lo,er e*pansion porcelains. %&e silver consent is generally relatively lo, ?: ,tB to D ,t B in most cases) and is usually inade/uate to cause significant porcelain greening. Pd)!a)Ag alloys generally &ave relatively lo, t&ermal contraction coefficients are e*pected to be more compatible ,it& lo,er e*pansion porcelains.

METALS FOR PARTIAL DENT9RE ALLOYS %&e ma2ority of removable partial denture frame,or+s are made from alloys based primarily on nic+el- cobalt- or titanium as t&e principal metal component. 'i is a malleable- ductile- silver)colored transition element ,it& atomic numbers and a melting point of about 7H:11C. C6 is a silver)colored transition element ,it& atomic number 09- &aving a melting point of about 7:11 1C and little ductility at room temperature. All C6)based and 'i)based alloys container to prevent corrosion and tarnis&. %&e passivation mec&anism of t&e alloy occurs t&roug& a t&in surface layer of c&romium o*ide ?Cr06>). Most C6)Cr alloys contain M6 ?C6)Cr)M6)- and some may contain 'i ?C6)Cr) 'i). "ome 'i)Cr alloys contain beryllium ?#e)- ,&ic& lo,ers t&e melting point to improve castability. <rame,or+s may also be made from CP%i and %i)AAl)H . %&e most biocompatible metal for frame,or+s is CP%i. Porcelain ,it& 'a contents are believed to e*&ibit a more intense discoloration because of more rapid silver diffusion in 'a)containing glass.

CONCL9SION "o its important to &ave t&e proper +no,ledge of metals and t&e alloys for t&e proper use in dentistry.

REFERENCES1: Dental material properties and manipulation CRAIG ): 'otes on dental materials E?C?COM,E >) %e*t boo+ of dental materials SHARMILLA H9SSAIN (: Essential of dental materials SH SORAT9R =: Applied dental materials EOHN F?MCCA,E !: %&e c&emistry of medical and dental materials E?$?NICHOLSON A) Dental materials AN9SAVICE