INTRODUCTION

Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Nelson Mandela... What is common to all of them ? What is the first impression that strikes our minds on hearing those names ? The answer is the ob ious one Leadership. !es, the" ha e been great leaders in their own times, in their own parts of this world.

#rom organi$ation beha iour point of

iew leadership means

abilit" of indi iduals to influence others and attain the goal%s& of the organi$ation or be"ond them. There ha e been man" giant

organi$ations, like #ord, '(M ) General Motors, to name a few who came back from behind and became *uite successful once again. The success and achie ements would not ha e been possible but for the great leadership and the indi iduals who matter to these organi$ations. This report del es into arious theories on leadership, Trait and Contingency theories. 't then looks at the contemporar" models on leadership. Leadership st"les and determinants of such st"les, and lastl" the graphical s"nthesis on arious aspects such as Moti ation,

+rgani$ational Growth and ,hange is-a- is the .ituational Leadership.

2.

LEADERSHIP DEFINED /There are almost as man" definitions of leadership as there are

persons who ha e attempted to define the concept0.

Abraham 1ale$nik of 2(. argues that leaders and managers are different kinds of people. The" differ in motivation personal history low they think and act

,olleague of 1ale$nik also argues that leadership and management are two different things. Leaders establish direction a ision for the future3 then the" align people b" communicating this ision and inspiring them to o ercome hurdles. Managers bring about order and consistenc" b" drawing up plans and monitoring results against plans.

According to 4obins, leadership is ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

The source of this influence ma" be formal, such as that pro ided b" possession of managerial position in an organi$ation. 't could also be a non-sanctioned - that is, the abilit" to influence others that arises outside the formal structure of the organi$ation.

Leadership is a process and status. 5irectors, e6ecuti es, administrators, managers and bosses would generall" fall into the categor" called /leader0. According to George 4. Terr", Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives 7eith 5a is has defined leadership as follows

/Leadership is a part of management but not all of it. A manager is re*uired to plan and organise, for e6ample, but all we ask of leaders is that the" influence others to follow...... Leadership is the abilit" to persuade others to seek defined ob8ecti es enthusiasticall". 't is the human factor which binds a group together and moti ates it towards goals. Management acti ities such as planning, organising, and decision making are dormant cocoons until the leader triggers the power of moti ation and guides them towards goals.0

This connotation stresses the roles of leadership in eliciting beha ioral responses which are more than routine. 't suggests the /tapping0 of latent human abilities in achie ing group ob8ecti es. 3. STUDIES ON LEADERSHIP 'n the preceding section, leadership has been defined as the process of influencing the beha iour of others in a particular situation.

 n essence, leadership involves accomplishing goals with and through people. 'n the following section the arious schools of thought regarding leadership will be dealt with.

3.1

Frederick W. Taylor : 9. The basis for this se erit" in approach to management was

technological b" nature.

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,onsidered men as instruments or machines to be

manipulated b" the leader.

;.

The leader had to, therefore, set up performance criteria in

order to meet organisational ob8ecti es. The leader focussed all his attention to the needs of the organisational rather than on the needs of the indi idual.

3.2

Elton Mayo : 9. :. The emphasis in this mo ement was on human relations. The real power centres in the organisation were the

interpersonal relationships. ;. The organisation was assumed to de elop around the

worker and his feelings.

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The leader was, therefore, to facilitate the attainment of

organisational goals while at the same time ensuring the atmosphere for personal growth and de elopment. The emphasis was no longer onl" on organisational needs but on indi idual needs as well.

3.3

Ro ert Tannen a!m and Warren ". #chmidt 9. 5ifferentiated between the democratic and authoritarian

approach. While the authoritarian approach dealt with telling people how to do things, the democratic approach dealt with sharing responsibilit" b" in ol ing workers in both planning and e6ecution of tasks.

:.

'n the authoritarian st"le, all policies are decided b" the

leader. 'n the democratic set up all policies are decided upon in consultation with the workers.

3.$

Michi%an &eadership #t!dies 9. These studies identified two concepts emplo"ee

orientation and production orientation.

:.

=mplo"ee-oriented leaders stress the relationship aspect of

8obs3 the production oriented leaders stress the technical aspects of the 8ob.

3.'.

(ro!p-)ynamics #t!dies 9. 5orwin ,artwright and Al in 1ander summari$ing the

findings of numerous studies claim that leadership in organisations falls into two categories %a& the achie ement of specific group goals, and %b& the maintenance or strengthening of the group itself.

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'n %a&, the leader /initiates action - keeps members attention

on the goals... clarifies the issue and de elops a procedural plan.0 'n %b& the leader /keeps interpersonal relations pleasant... arbitrates dispute.. pro ides encouragement.. gi es the minorit" a chance to be heard..... stimulates self direction.... and increase the interdependence among member.

3.*

+hio #tate &eadership #t!dies 9. These studies were initiated b" the (ureau of (usiness

4esearch at +hio .tate >ni ersit" in 9?<@.

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The stud" of leadership was di ided into the following

categories. %a& 'nitiating structure %b& ,onsideration.

;.

%a& refers to /the leaderAs beha iour in delineating the

relationship between himself and members of the work group and in endea ouring to establish well-defined patterns of organisation channels of communication, and methods of procedure.

<.

%b& refers to behaviour indicative of friendship, mutual trust,

respect, and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff.

3.,

Ro ert R. -lake and .ane #. Mo!ton 9. The findings of the +hio .tate .tudies as well as of

,artwright and 1ander were further de eloped and pupularised b" (lake and Mouton in the new approach called the !anagerial "rid. According to this approach, there are fi e leadership st"les. 4. INTEGRATI E !ODEL OF LEADERSHIP More contingenc" recentl", aspects researchers that ha e focused specificall" on

influence

effecti e

leadership.

These

approaches ha e particularl" important implications for comparati e management, which b" definition concerns leadership in different

situations. A general integrati e model of leadership appears in #igure 9.

This model shows show leadersA beha iour is affected b" situational, leader, and subordinate characteristics and how such beha ior affects performance outcomes. The model also easil" captures the role of culture. Leader characteristics, subordinate characteristics, and the nature of the situation are all culturall" determined. 5ifferences in these dimensions across cultures will "ield different baha iors and different performance outcomes. Although this model is a general one, there are more specific contingenc" models as well. Three well-known situational theories are #ielderAs ,ontingenc" Theor" %9?BC&, Droom and !ettonAs Normati e Model %9?C;& and the Eath-Goals theor" of leadership %2ouse ) Mitchell, 9?C<&.

#iedlerAs model of leadership, one of the best-known models, has generated a considerable amount of research. This is a contingenc" model because the situation is considered along with the leaderAs personalit" as a determinant of the leaderAs effecti eness. According to #iedler, this model can help predict which leaders would be most effecti e in which situations. The model, thus, has man" implications for recruiting selecting, and placing leaders. A central aspect of this theor"

is that leader differ in a personalit" ariable %called LPC& that indicates the e6tent of their social responsi eness. The LE, score measures and leaderAs feelings about an indi idual with whom the" work least effecti el".

Leaders with low LE, scores are their least-preferred co-worker in negati e terms, whereas the high LE, leaders do not impute negati e attributes to those with whom the" ha e difficult" working. The correlation between a leaderAs LE, score and group effecti eness is highl" related to the fa ourableness of the situation. # very favorable situation is one in which the tas$ is structured, the leader has high position power, and leader-member relations are good%.

The basic thesis is that low LE, leaders do well in e6tremel" fa ourable and unfa ourable situations whereas high LE, leaders do well in moderatel" fa orable situations. 't is unclear e6actl" what the LE, scale measures and whether such differences would also be apparent in non-Western societies. 2owe er, this line of research has clearl" demonstrated the importance of the situation in determining leader effecti eness.

#rom a cross-cultural perspecti e, a contingenc" theor" seems appealing. ,onditions ar" across cultures3 a theor" that has some

applicabilit" in one culture ma" be irrele ant in another. #or e6ample, (ennett %9?CC& found that high-performing bank managers in the Ehilippines are low in #iedlerAs LE, scale, whereas comparable manages in 2ong 7ong score was high on it. Fust as contingencies ar" across culture, so does the relationship between LE, scores and performances.

".

PATH#GOAL THEOR$ The path-goal theor" is another contingenc" theor" that seeks to

e6plain the leadership st"le most conduci e to group satisfaction and effecti eness. #igure : summari$es the arious path-goal relationships.

'n recent "ears, = an %9?CG& and 2ouse %9?C9& ha e populari$ed this theor". 't postulates that leaders most tr" to influence their subordinatesA perception of the paths for achie ing goals and of the goalsA desirabilit". The leadership st"le most appropriate for increasing moti ation depends as well on the subordinates personal characteristics and on the nati e of the task demands.

The leadership model %see #igure :& shows the nature of the arious leadership st"les - instrumental, supportive, participative and achievement oriented. 't also shows how subordinatesA characteristics and the nature of the work en ironment influence these st"les. A cultural dimension e6ists within this theor" H after all, cultures are likel" to differ in terms of subordinatesA and leadersA personal characteristics, thus impl"ing that different managerial st"les will be appropriate in dealing with them.

The path-goal theor" is not e6plicitl" normati e, but because the optimal st"le depends on the nature of the contingenc". it does ha e normati e implications. Droom and !ettonAs model %9?C;&, on the other hand, is prescripti e and is based on the assumption that no single leadership st"le is applicable to all situations.

This modelAs focus is the degree of subordinate participation that is appropriate in a gi en situation. Droom and !etton ha e de eloped a series of problem attributes that together determine the appropriate managerial st"le, ranging from no subordinate participation to group decision making. Again, it is *uestionable whether these problem attributes are transferable to non-Western cultures3 howe er, the significant conclusion %from a comparati e management point of iew& is

that st"les ranging from highl" autocratic to highl" democratic can be effecti e in particular situations. The" clearl" implies that managers must fit the decision-making process to a particular situation and that a leadership st"le that is effecti e is one culture ma" be ineffecti e in another.

Although all these theories are useful in emphasi$ing the arious important facets to leadership, we must remember that much of the underl"ing research took place within a particular countr". Moreo er, reporting of cultural differences in leadership in the business literature before 9?BB was almost entirel" anecdotal. The formal stud" of such differences had been the domain of cultural anthropologists 3 it was hardl" considered an area of legitimate concern for international business research. The s"stematic stud" of cross-cultural ariations in leadership began with the publications of ma8or research findings b" 2aire, Ghiselli, and Eorter in 9?BB. .ince the publication of their book, !anagerial Thin$ing - #n nternational &tudy, the olume of research in cross-cultural leadership has increased dramaticall" 3 as a result, more is now understood regarding both similarities and differences in leadership st"les across cultures %in particular, see (ass, 9?I9 H 2eller ) Wilpert, 9?I9 H Tannenbaum, 9?IG H (ass ) (urger, 9?C?3 and (arrett ) (ass, 9?CB&.

%.

SITUATIONAL

ERSUS TRAIT APPROACH TO THE STUD$

OF LEADERSHIP 'n the past there were arious approaches to the stud" of

leadership. .ome of these grapholog", the anal"sis of handwriting3 phrenolog", the stud" of the shapes of the skulls3 and sometimes biograph", the stud" of the li es of the leaders3 demograph", the stud" of the famil" background of leaders. 2owe er, all these approaches failed to gi e much insight into the causes of leadership. More recentl" the stud" of leadership has been concentrated on leadership per se. This suggests that there are certain characteristics essential for leadership. This is known as the trait approach. The trait approach to leadership was er" popular during the period of 9?;G to 9?@G. A re iew of the literature dealing with the trait approach to leadership scarcel" re eals an" consistent findings. =ugene. =. Fennings concludes. 'ifty years of study have failed to produce one personally trait or set of (ualities that can be used to discriminate leaders and non-leaders. Trait stud" has not produced the clear results because it doe snot consider the whole leadership en ironment. Eersonal characteristics or traits are onl" one part of the whole en ironment. Although a certain trait ma" e6ist in an indi idual it will continue to remain dormant unless acti ated b" the en ironment.

=mpirical studies ha e shown that leadership is a d"namic process, which aries from one situation to another, depending on the change in leaders, the followers and the situations. Toda", therefore, the tendenc" is towards situational rather than the trait approach to leadership. +n the other hand, in the situational approach, the focus is on the obser ed beha ior - not on an" h"pothetical abilit" or inborn trait of the leader. The emphasised is on the beha iour and his group in an" gi en situation. 't is therefore encouraging to note that with the emphasis on the beha ior rather than or traits, itAs possible to train indi iduals to become leaders. (" obser ing the beha ior of indi idual in certain situations, models or patterns of beha ior in particular situation can be e ol ed which in their turn can help leaders.

&. ,.1

LEADERSHIP ST$LES #pectr!m o/ ways to in/l!ence /The leadership st"le of an indi idual is the beha ior pattern that

person e6hibits when attempting to influence the acti ities of others as percei ed b" those others.. A personAs leadership st"le in ol es some combination of either task beha ior or relationship beha iour. 'n the following figure, a spectrum of wa"s to influence beha ior is indicated. .e eral distinct means are identified-emulation, suggestion, persuasion

and coercion - ranging from indirect or subtle approaches to forceful method.

er"

)mulation *

.tri ing to e*ual or e6cel3 'mitating with effort to e*ual or surpass3 Approaching or attaining e*ualit".

&uggestion *

Elacing or bringing an idea, proposition or plan before

a personAs mind for consideration or possible action.

+ersuasion * ca8oling, urging.

To pre ail on a person b" ad ice, inducements,

Coercion * ph"sical pressure.

,onstrain, force, compel - to the e6tent of using

'n

discussion

leadership

st"les,

it

becomes

essential

to

differentiate between power and authorit". Eower andJor authorit" underlie and entire spectrum of wa"s of influence beha iour.

+ower *

Eower is the abilit" to induce ps"chological or

beha ioral change. Eower is latent force which e en when remaining latent can influence beha iour.

#uthority H

Authorit" is generall" defined as /institutional power.0

't is special subclass of power. 't is the institutionalised right of an indi idual to induce ps"chological or beha ioural change in another.

Authorit" is generall" described in terms of three basic categories H 9. Charismatic - Leaders who are charismatic usuall" possess

KmagicalA *ualities. ,harismatic authorit" e ol es into institutionalised authorit" o er a period of time through a process of stabilisation.

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Traditional authority e ol es into rational authorit" through formal

legitimisation.

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,ational authority is formal, institutional authorit" that has the

sanction of the go erned.

The power of authorit", depends on the consent of the go erned. Authorit" gi es a person power to act officiall". 2owe er, this power

becomes meaningless unless those go erned accept it and respond to it.

Although there are se eral power classifications, the most widel" used is the schedule of power de eloped b" #rench and 4a en. According to them there are fi e different basis of power H 9. Coercive +ower - this is based on fear and therefore the change

in the beha iour of the go erned is onl" temporar" of short li ed. As long as the fear of punishment is there - the change is there.

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Legitimate +ower - is legalised power. The go erned compl" b"

irtue of the position of the leader in the organisation.

;.

)-pert +ower - is dependent on the leaderAs skill or e6pertise. The

respect those go erned ha e for the leaderAs e6pertise entitles him to their compliance.

<.

,eward +ower

- is based on the leaderAs abilit" to pro ide

rewards to those he go erns.

@.

,eferrent +ower - personal traits of the leader. 2e is generall"

liked b" his subordinates and hence able to influence them.

Later 4a en in collaboration with 7ruglanksi identified a si6th power - information power.

B.

nformation +ower - is dependent on the leaderAs access to

information that is considered aluable b" subordinates.

C.

Connection +ower - is based on the leaderAs /connections0 with

influential or important persons. More powerful the connection, more powerful the power.

,.2

)eterminants o/ style. The style of leaders is the behaviour patterns they consistently

use when wor$ing with other people. These patterns are /percei ed0 b" others and the patterns emerge o er a period of time. Tannenbaum and .chmidt suggest that those internal forces influence are indi idualAs leadership st"le H The individual.s value system. The degree of confidence in his subordinates. /is personal inclinations /is feelings of security in situations of uncertainty.

't is important to note that leadership st"le has nothing to do with what leaders think or do in a situation - but rather how their followers percei e their beha iour. 't is therefore important for a leader to know whether he is /reaching out0 to others. Eeople are often not honest about this in their relationship with one another.

A common method is T-Group Training. This method was de eloped b" Leland E. (randfod and 7enneth 5. (erge at (athel, Maine, in 9?<C. 't is based on the assumption that indi iduals who meet in an informal open group will de elop working conditions that will help them learn about themsel es as percei ed b" others.

The training process relates primaril" and almost e6clusi el" to the beha iour e6perienced b" the participant... 'n short, the participants learn to anal"se and become more sensiti e to the process of human interaction and ac*uire concepts to order and control these phenomena.

What are the basic leadership st"les ? 2ow does each st"le differ from the other ? These *uestions are answered in the following table.

L'a('r)h*+ St,-'). -----------------------------------Author*tar*an -----------------------------------9. Eolic" All policies are b" the leader

D'mocrat*c
Eolicies are a matter of discussion of the group, encouraged and assisted b" the

La*))'.#fa*r'
,omplete freedom for polic" making with a minimum of leader participation Leader supplies information onl" when asked. 5oes not take an acti e part in the discussion

:.

Techni*ues

Techni*ues dictated b" leader, graduall" or one at a time so that future remains uncertain

Techni*ue result of group discussion and group perception taken into consideration, the leader ma" onl" suggest alternati e procedures.

;.

'n ol ement

The leader dictates the *uantum of work and the manner of carr"ing it out.

The di ision of tasks and the manner of e6ecution left to the group.

Total non-participation of leader

<.

+bseration

The leader tends to be /aloof0 from the group There is scarcel" and and personal contact

The leader is both ob8ecti e, "et in oled with the group

.pontaneous though infre*uent comments and makes no attempt to regulate the course of e ents

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S$NTHESI0ING !ANAGE!ENT THEOR$ 1 A HOLISTIC

APPROACH /.2 SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND !OTI ATION +ne wa" classif"ing high strength moti es is MaslowAs hierarch" of needs, goals that tend to satisf" these needs can be described b" 2er$bergAs h"giene factors and moti ators. (oth these framework can be integrated in .ituational Leadership in terms of their relation to arious maturit" le els and appropriate leadership st"les that ha e a high probabilit" of satisf"ing these needs or pro iding the corresponding goals, as illustrated in #igure ;.

't should be stressed that the relationship of theories %Maslow and 2er$berg& to maturit" le els in .ituational Leadership are not necessaril" absolute, direct correlations3 the" are integrati e bench marks for practitioners to use in attempting to make better decisions for managing human resources. As a result, st"les suggested as appropriate for one concept might not be e6clusi el" for that concept3 other st"les ma" also satisf" these needs or goals to some degree. This caution will hold true throughout our discussion in this chapter.

>pon e6amining #igure ;, one can begin to plot the st"les that tend to be appropriate for working with people moti ated b" the arious

high strength needs described b" Maslow. At the same time, leadership st"les .9, .:, .; tend to pro ide goals consistent with satisf"ing h"giene factors, where st"les .; and .< seem to facilitate the occurrence of the moti ators.

/.2

SITUATIONAL

LEADERSHIP

AND

ORGANISATIONAL

GRO3TH +rgani$ations might be able to grow and de elop o er time without the crisis of re olutionar" phases. This could occur if after the phase of creati it" managers mo ed their organi$ation through the growth phases in an order consistent with .ituational Leadership.

An illustrated in #igure < the crisps of leadership might be a erted b" mo ing from the phase of creati it" right into the phase of direction3 the crisis of autonom", control, and red tape might be a erted b" mo ing from the direction phase right into the coordination, phase, then into the collaboration phase, and finall" into delegation.

/.3

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE Whene er we talk about initiating change a first step is

determining the maturit" le el of the people with whom we are working. 'f the" are low in maturit" - dependent and unwilling to take

responsibilit" for the change - the" will tend to re*uire more unfree$ing than if "ou are working with people who are moderate or high on maturit". As illustrated in #igure @, leadership st"les .9 and .: tend to pla" a ma8or role in terms of unfree0ing1 the emphasis in .: and .;

st"les is on the change process3 and .; and .< stress the refree0ing process.

+ne of the techni*ues used to increase maturit" is beha ior modification as illustrated in #igure B. When working with immature people, at first leader tend to cut back on structure, gi ing indi iduals an opportunit" to take some responsibilit". When leaders get the smallest appro6imation of mature beha iour, the" must immediatel" increase the socioemotional support as positi e reinforcement. This starlike process %cut back on structure and then increase socioemotional support& continues until the change or changes start to become a habit as the people mature. At that point, leaders tend also to cut back on reinforcement as the" mo e toward .< and a low relationshipJlow task st"le. 'f done earlier, this cutback on socioemotional support would ha e appeared as punishment to low or moderatel" mature people. (ut to people of high maturit", the fact that their leader tends to lea e them alone is positi e reinforcement not onl" in terms of the task but also in terms of socioemotional support. ,oncept of contingenc" contracting

illustrates the gradual de elopment mo ement %associated with beha iour modification& from leader control %.9& to partial control by follower %.:& to e(ual control %.: and .;& to partial control by leader %.;& and finall" to follower control %.<&.

An illustrated in #igure C, .9 and .: st"les seem to be consistent with the beha iours associated with a directi e change c"cle, while .; and .< are more representati e of a participative change cycle. 'n a participati e change c"cle, the change beings at the knowledge le el and e entuall" mo es to the organi$ation le el, while the directive change cycle starts with changes in the organi$ation and graduall" mo es toward changes in knowledge and attitudes.

An also shown in #igure C .9 and .: st"les tend to be appropriate for building on strong dri ing forces3 .; and .< st"les seem appropriate for attempting to o ercome restraining forces. 'n increasing the dri ing forces, the emphasis seems to be on short-term output3 when attempting to eliminate restraining forces, the concern is more with building inter ening ariables and concentrating on long-term goals. 't should be emphasi$ed that these are onl" tendencies and bench-marks, and it should be recogni$ed that under certain conditions other st"les might be appropriate.

REFERENCE

9.

Merc" Anselm, +rgani$ational (eha iour H Towards an integrated

+rgani$ation 3 2imala"a Eublishing 2ouse, (omba" EE. 9;<-9;C.

:.

4onen .imcha, ,omparati e ) Multinational Management, Wile"

.eries 'nternational (usiness,9?IB, New !ork pp. 9?<-9?C.

;.

2eele" Eaul (lanchard 7en, Management of +rgani$ation

(eha iour H >tili$ing 2uman 4esources. <th edition, Erentice 2all of 'ndia E t. Ltd. New 5elhi. 9?I@.

LEADERSHIP

CONTENTS 9. 'NT4+5>,T'+N9

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L=A5=4.2'E 5=#'N=5:

;.

.T>5'=. +N L=A5=4.2'E; ;.9 ;.: ;.; ;.< ;.@ ;.B ;.C #rederich W.Ta"lor< #ulton Ma"o< 4obert Tannenbaum and Wa en 2. .chmidt@ Machigan Leadership .tudies@ Group - 5"namics .tudiesB +hio .tate Ledearship .tudiesB 4obert 4. (lake and Fane .. MoutonC

<.

'NT=G4AT'D= M+5=L +# L=A5=4.2'EI

@.

EAT2-G+AL T2=+4!9G

B.

.'T>AT'+NAL D. T4A'T AEE4+A,29;

C.

L=A5=4.2'E .T!L=..9@ C.9 C.: .pectrum of wa"s to 'nfluence9@ 5eterminants of Leadership .t"le9I

I.

.!NT2=.'1'NG MANAG=M=NT T2=+4! H A 2+L'.T', AEE4+A,2:9 I.9 I.: I.; .ituational Leadership and Moti ation:9 .ituational Leadership and +rgani$ational Growth:: .ituational Leadership and ,hange.::

,)'),)2C)