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Emission & Scattering spectroscopy Intensities of spectral lines
EMISSION: Emission of any SCATTERING: Look at how Three Essential concepts govern intensity:
frequency of radiation. light scatters from
molecules/materials:
Transition probability: the likelihood of a system (e.g.
Concerned with the properties
of the emitted photons from a – Not absorbed, photons don’t molecule) changing from one state to another.
sample. have to pass thru Population of Energy levels: the number of molecules (or
– Can use everything from
In the UV-VIS-NIR neutrons to x-rays etc.
atoms in the initial state).
(electronic transitions ): Concentration (& path length): The amount of material
Most Important is Raman
– Fluorescence, Phosphorescence,
Chemiluminescence,
spectroscopy: present giving rise to the spectrum.
photoluminescence, – Molecular technique. – This done last year: Beer-Lambert
– Great for forensics etc.
In the Microwave:
– Rotational transitions,
astrophysics.
Based on quantum principles.
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Transition probability (III): Gross Selection Rules
1s electron → a 2s electron: Specifies the general features a molecule must have if it is
– Spherical migration of charge. to have a spectrum of a given kind:
– No dipole moment assoc. with this – e.g. a molecule gives a rotational spectrum only if it has a
charge migration. permanent electric dipole moment.
– Transition is electric-dipole forbidden. – e.g. a vibration is Raman active only if there is a change in
1s electron → a 2p electron: polarizability.
– Dipole associated with the charge A detailed study of the transition moment leads to the
migration. specific selection rules that express the allowed
– This transition is allowed. transitions in terms of the changes in quantum numbers.
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Typical energies & populations Spectroscopic Consequences
Region Frequency NA hυ nf / ni For RF (NMR) & Microwave (Rotational):
(Hz) – Energies are very low (∆E’s small).
– Population differences are small ⇒
– Easy to saturate the energy levels.
RF 10 7 4 mJ/mol 0.999998
When molecules are heated up:
Microwave 1011 40 J/mol 0.984 – Higher E levels are populated ⇒
IR 13 4 kJ/mol
10 0.202 – More allowed transitions, more complex spectra.
15 – Tends to a continuum fairly easily.
UV-VIS 10 400 kJ/mol 3x10-70
For large ∆E’s, ground state is the most populated.
X-RAY 1018 400 MJ/mol <10-99
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Linewidths: Doppler Broadening Linewidths: Doppler Broadening (I)
One important broadening process in gaseous samples is When a source emitting electromagnetic radiation of frequency ν
the Doppler effect: moves with a speed s relative to an observer, the observer detects
radiation of frequency:
– Radiation is shifted in frequency when the source is moving
towards or away from the observer.
Very important for the study of gaseous samples: 1/ 2 1/ 2
1− s / c 1+ s / c
– Atmospheric & interstellar chemistry. ν receeding = ν ν approaching = ν where
– In some cases, meaningful spectroscopic data can be obtained 1+ s / c 1− s / c
only from gaseous samples. c = speed of light, s = speed of source. For s << c, then:
ν ν
ν receeding ≈ , and ν approaching ≈ ,
1+ s / c 1− s / c
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Linewidths: Doppler Broadening (IV) Linewidths: Doppler Broadening (V)
- Ei /kT
Ne
We know from the Boltzmann distribution: N i =
q
, q = partition function −mc 2 (ν − ν ) 2 / 2ν 2kT
)
Iν ∝ e obs ...Gaussian Function.
The probability that a gas molecule of mass m & speed s in a sample with temp. T obs
1 2 e- ms Linewidth at half-height can be calculated and gives:
has Kinetic Energy, E K = ms is proportional to .
2 2kT 1/ 2 1/ 2
2v 2kT ln 2 2λ 2kT ln 2
We can relate this to the observed frequencies: ν obs ≈ ν
1
,
δν obs = or δλobs =
1± s / c c m c m
When s c, the Doppler shift in the frequency is ν obs - ν ≈ ±ν s/c Better to write......
⇒ a symmetrical distribution of observed frequencies w.r.t. molecular speeds. 1/ 2 1/ 2
Intensity I of a transition at ν obs : δν obs 2 2kT ln 2 δλobs 2 2kT ln 2
= or =
∝ probability of finding molecule that emits/absorbs at ν obs , v c m λ c m
− mc 2 (ν − ν ) 2 / 2ν 2 kT T
⇒ I ν obs ∝ e Always remember: line width ∝
(
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λOBS = 659.9999505 nm
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Doppler Broadening: example (II) Linewidths: Lifetime Broadening (I)
At what speed of approach would it appear green (520 nm)? Spectroscopic lines from gas-phase samples are not infinitely sharp
s even when Doppler broadening has been largely eliminated by
Step 3: Rearrange: λOBS = 1 − λ working at low temps:
c – Same is true of the spectra of samples in condensed phases and solution.
λ This residual broadening is due to quantum mechanical effects.
⇒ s = 1- OBS c
λ Specifically, when the Schrödinger equation is solved for a system
Step 4: Input values: that is changing with time, it is found that it is impossible to specify
the energy levels exactly:
520 × 10−9 m −1 −1 – Heisenberg again….
s = 1- −9 2.998 × 10 ms = 6.366 × 10 ms
8 7
660 × 10 m
These kinds of speed found in interstellar space......
Allows astronomers to calculate velocities of systems.
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3rd year spectroscopy: 2nd Topic Background
Pure Rotational Spectroscopy: Widely used in astronomy to study the molecular
– Microwave spectroscopy. composition of interstellar clouds.
– Moments of inertia and angular momentum. – Rotational motions ⇒ low energies ⇒ long wavelengths
– Rotational Energy levels & populations of E levels. – Microwaves………long pathlengths
– Degeneracy & selection rules.
– NASA website: http://dsnra.jpl.nasa.gov/IMS/
– Selection rules.
– Centrifugal distortion. Interstellar molecules:
Understand and be able to explain rotational H2O, CO, CS2, NH3, H2CO, CH3OH…..etc.
spectroscopy, calculate energy levels and energies of Biggest molecular spectrometers……
spectroscopic transitions.
– Section 8.3-8.7, Physical Chemistry, Atkins 8th ed., p.254.
– Section 19.5-19.7, Elements of Physical Chemistry, 4th ed.
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100 kHz
OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY
DISPLAY
SWEEP
Microwave 3 to 60 GHz:
– X-band at 8 to 12 GHz; wavelength = 25-35 mm
Very Sharp absorption/emission lines in GHz range. Path-length 2 m; pressure 10-5 bar; Temp to 800 K;
– vapour-phase.
Each molecule has different bands.
Mica windows: transparent to MCWE
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Microwave spectroscopy Moment of Inertia (I)
Low pressure to avoid molecular collisions. KEY PARAMETER.
Compounds must be in the vapour-phase Rotational inertia
– But it is easy to work at temperatures up to 800 K since cell is Rotational analogue of mass for
made of brass with mica windows. Even solid NaCl has linear motion
sufficient vapour pressure to give a good spectrum. I must be specified with respect
Very high-resolution e.g. 12C16O absorption at to a chosen axis of rotation
115,271.204 MHz For a point mass:
– Can be used to identify compounds – I = mr2.
Rotation ⇒ Moments of inertia
– Will give information about bond lengths and bond angles.
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Moments of Inertia (I) Moments of Inertia (II): Spherical
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What type of spectra? Energy Levels for rotating systems
Based on moments of Classical case: energy of a body rotating about an axis a is:
inertia, I = mr2: 1
Ea = I aωa2 , ωa = angular velocity (rad s-1 ) about that axis,
IA = IB = IC 2
– no MCWE spectrum e.g. Ia = moment of inertia and
CH4 1 1 1
IA = 0, IB = IC In 3D: E = I aωa2 + I bωb2 + I cωc2 ,
2 2 2
– linear molecules e.g. NaCl angular momentum about axis a is J a = Iaωa , ⇒
IA ≠ IB = IC
J a2 J b2 J c2
– complicated e.g. NH3 E= + + , This is the key equation.
2I a 2Ib 2Ic
IA≠ IB ≠ IC
– very complex e.g. H2O Use this and quantum mechanics to obtain rotational energy levels.
Start with 2D case:
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Rotational Energy: Rotational Energy:
J z2 J z2
Ek = , mr 2
= I (moment of inertia ) so ⇒ Ek = ....... 2π r hr
2mr 2 2I λ= , and Angular Momentum: J z = ±
What values allowed?...NOT ALL. ml λ
h hr ml h
de Broglie: λ = , and J z = ± pr , ⇒ J z = ± ⇒ Jz = = ml ml = 0, ±1, ±2 [Quantisation]
p λ 2π
ψ (0)=ψ (2π ) otherwise: ( ml ) , m = 0, ±1, ±2
2
J z2
destructive interferance. Remember: Ek = 2
, ⇒ Ek = l
2mr 2mr 2
λ can only have certain values:
2π r
ml2 2
⇒λ = , ml = 0,1, 2, 3 ∴E = , ml = 0, ±1, ±2.....Remember: I = mr 2
ml k 2I
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Energy levels: Energy levels: symmetric Rotor
Spherical rotors (e.g. CH 4 ): In symmetric rotors, two moments of inertia are equal but different
E J =BJ(J+1), J=0,1,2,3............. from the third (as in CH3Cl, NH 3 , and C6 H 6 );
the unique axis of the molecule is its principal axis.
Seperation between adjacent levels: E J − E J-1 = ∆E = 2BJ
Now energy term is more complex (see Atkins for details) :
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Rotational energy levels: Linear Rotor Selection Rules (1):
For ∆ J=1: Selection rules for absorption are:
∆E = 2 (J) h2/8π2I J=4, M4=9 The molecule must have a non-zero
– 0→1: ∆E = 2 h2/8π2I dipole moment, µ ≠ 0.
– 1→2: ∆E = 4 h2/8π2I – A rotating polar molecule looks like an
– 2→3: ∆E = 6 h2/8π2I oscillating dipole that can stir the EM field
J=3, M3=7
etc., E into oscillation (and vice versa for
absorption).
Rem. J= upper E level. ∆J = +1
Constant increasing
J=2, M2=5
difference of:
J=1, M1=3
– ∆E = 2 h2/8π2I = 2B
0 J=0, M0=1
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Rotational energy levels: linear rotor. Example 1:(I)
Top: transitions allowed by The splitting between the spectral lines in the 12C16O
the selection rule ∆J = ±1, spectrum is 3.8626 cm-1. Find the value of re, the
Bottom: typical pure equilibrium internuclear distance.
rotational absorption spectrum 2h 2
(displayed in terms of Step 1: Equations: ∆E = , for a linear diatomic: I = µr 2 .
8π 2I
transmitted radiation).
Intensities reflect: 2h2 2h2 2h2
Rearrange to : ∆E = ⇒ r 2
= ⇒ r =
– populations of the initial level. 8π 2 µr 2 8π 2 µ∆E 8π 2 µ∆E
– strengths of the transition dipole
moments.
Step 2: Calculate reduced mass for 12 C16 O:
Constant frequency separation.
µ=
mC mO
,µ =
( 0.012)( 0.016) × 1 kg, N = avogadros number
Increasing energy separation. mC + mO ( 0.012) + ( 0.016) Na a
µ = 1.139 x 10-26 kg
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Populations of rotational levels Relative populations
nJ ∝ gJ e(
−ε J / kT ) Thermal equilibrium
Use this to calculate relative populations of rot.
J 2J+1 exp ( -εε / kT ) nJ / n0 the relative E levels for linear rotor.
0
1
1
3
1.000
0.981
1.00
2.94
populations of the REMEMBER:
2 5 0.945 4.73 energy levels… You have to have
3 7 0.893 6.25
4 9 0.828 7.45
molecules in the ground
5 11 0.754 8.29
Show how state… AND…
6 13 0.673 8.75
7 15 0.590 8.85 spectra/populations a vacancy in the excited
8 17 0.507 8.62 state for absorption…
9 19 0.428 8.13 change with
temperature & Like airlines….
energy.
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Data from NIST website, Original paper: Manson, De Lucia, Gordy. J. Chem. Phys. 63, 2724 (1975). 63 64
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Centrifugal distortion (I) Centrifugal distortion (II)
Atoms of rotating molecules are Increased bond lengths ⇒ bigger moments of inertia
subject to centrifugal forces – reduces the rotational constant
– tend to distort the molecular geometry consequently the energy levels are slightly closer than the rigid-
rotor expressions predict.
– changes the moments of inertia
Effect is usually taken into account empirically by subtracting a
The effect of centrifugal distortion on a term from the energy and writing:
diatomic molecule is:
⇒ stretch the bond E ( J ) = BJ ( J + 1) − DJ J 2 ( J + 1)2
⇒ increases the moment of inertia. D J is the centrifugal distortion constant.
D J is large when the bond is easily stretched.
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Molecular vibrations 1 Molecular vibrations 2
All molecules capable of vibrating. Observing the frequencies of vibration can be used to ID molecules:
Many different types of vibration (modes)|: Molecular Fingerprints
– Stretching, Bending, Wagging, Twisting. FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy used in this way for:
– Forensics (drugs, explosives, hazmat)
The bigger the molecule, the more vib. modes:
– Monitoring progress of reactions
– 3N − 5 for linear molecules (e.g. CO2)
– 3N − 6 for nonlinear molecules (e.g. H2O) .
– Where N = number of atoms in molecule 7 5 0 0
MDMA
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Changing dipole moment Typical IR spectrum
Plot of
– Original molecule AB: %Transmittance
r
A B Versus
2 atoms + “bond” Wavenumber
⇒ electron cloud
Vibration type V/cm−1
C–H 2850−2960
– Draw bond dipole r
+q -q C–H 1340−1465
3Y-Spectroscopy-NUIG-2008/9 73 74
3Y-Spectroscopy-NUIG-2008/9 75 76
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Band areas Analysis of vibrational spectra (II)
Functional group region Fingerprint region Some functional groups are combinations of different
bond types:
C-H
– Esters (CO2R) contain both C=O and C-O bonds.
– Both are typically seen in an IR spectrum of an ester.
O-H
In the fingerprint region, spectra tend to be more complex
and much harder to assign.
– But very important in Physics, Materials Science,
etc………….properties of materials
Single bonds to
H Phenol…
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Diatomic Model Modelling vibrations
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Calculating the wavenumber of a vibration Wavenumber calculations:
The wavenumber of a vibration can be calculated from the equation:
An 1H35Cl molecule has a force constant of 516 Nm−1. Calculate the
vibrational stretching frequency: 1 k
ν = , where ν is the vibrational wavenumber in m-1 .
The wavenumber of a vibration can be calculated from the equation: 2π c µ
Step 2: input the values:
1 k
ν = , where ν is the vibrational wavenumber in m-1 .
2π c µ 1 (516 Nm -1 )
ν = , [N = kgms -2 ]
mH mCl 2π 2.997x10 ms 1.63 x 10 kg
8 -1 -27
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1 k
ν =
2π c µ87 88
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Convergence of energy levels Morse Potential Energy Curve (II)
Use a function that resembles the Morse Potential Energy
general shape of a molecular µω 2
{ } k
2
potential energy curve. V = hcDe 1 − e− a( R− Re ) , a = , ω =
2hcDe µ
Morse Potential Energy Curve
1
Corresponding Schrödinger equation Rem: V= kx 2 where, x = ( R − Re ) for simple HO.
can be solved: 2
– Values of the energies obtained.
– Number of bound levels is finite.
De = depth of the potential minimum.
– Tends to a limit at the dissociation
energy. Near the well minimum the variation of
V with displacement ≈ a parabola.
But allows for dissociation at large
displacements.
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permitted energy levels (in vibrational wavenumber terms): spaced, converging at high 5 5
energy.
4 4
Amount of distortion
2
ν E
1 1 2
a increases with increasing 3 3
G (v) = v + ν − v + xeν , xe = =
2 2 2 µω 4 De energy. 2 2
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Overtones & Hot Bands Example:
Anharmonicity results in allowed transitions for: HCl has a fundamental band at 2,885.9 cm −1 ,
Enables calculation of Anharmonicity constant xe. For the overtone band, v=2 ⇒ E 2 = (2 + 1/2)νe − (2 + 1/2) 2νe xe
– Basis of NIR spectroscopy (overtones of OH, CH, NH). For the fundamental band, v=1 ⇒ E1 = (1.5)νe − (1.5) 2νe xe
For anharmonic oscillator, all values of ∆v are allowed: For zero point energy, v=0 ⇒ E 0 = (0.5)νe − (0.5) 2νe xe
– ∆v > 1 transitions, only weakly allowed if anharmonicity is Step 2: Input values & solve:
slight. 2885.9 cm −1 = E1 − E 0 = νe − 2νe xe
νe = 2989.6 cm −1
– Hot bands (1 → 2) 5668.1 cm −1 = E 2 − E 0 = 2νe − 6νe xe
⇒ xe = 0.0174
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High resolution spectrum of HCl High resolution infrared (Energies)
Combining Vibrational + rotational energy changes:
1 h k
Eν = (ν + )
2 2π µ
In terms of joules (J) ⇒
h2
E J = J(J+1) 2
8π I
Energy of a rotational-vibrational transition is:
1 h k h2
Eν , J = (ν + ) + J(J+1) 2 , or
2 2π µ 8π I
The lines appear in pairs because H35Cl and H37Cl both
contribute (their abundance ratio is 3:1). 1 h k h2
– Mode is H-Cl stretch Eν , J = (ν + )ωe + Bv J ( J + 1) Where ωe = Bv =
2 2π µ 8π 2 I
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Vib-Rot transitions Combination Differences (I)
Separation between lines on P J'=3 Anharmonicity of the vibration results in a slightly
& R branches is 2B VIBRATIONAL extended bond in the upper state.⇒
J'=2 EXCITED STATE
Can determine bond lengths – Rotational constant of the vibrationally excited state, B1 is
– Without needing pure MCWE J'=1
v=1, J'=0 usually smaller than that of the ground vibrational state, B0,
spectrum.
– Easier experimentally As a result, the Q branch (if it exists) consists of a series
– But MCWE is more precise of closely spaced lines.
R branch lines converge slightly as J increases.
J=3
P branch lines diverge slightly as J increases.
VIBRATIONAL
J=2
GROUND STATE
J=1
v=0, J=0
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h -1
1
νR ( J − 1) − νP ( J + 1) = 4 B0 ( J + )
Remember B = 8π 2 cI for cm 2
To measure B1 and B0 , use method of combination differences. νR ( J ) &νP ( J ) have a common lower state (B0 , J):
Set up expressions for the difference in the wavenumbers Differences in upper state energies,
of transitions to a common state ⇒ resulting expression: and so from previous:
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Combination Differences (IV) Example: HBr….part 1:
Plot of the combination difference against J + ½ should The Vibrational-Rotational spectrum of HBr has many absorption
be a straight line of slope 4B0 or 4B1,⇒ lines, four of which are at: 2590.95, 2575.19, 2542.25, and 2525.09 cm -1.
– Rotational constant of the molecule in the state v = 0 or V=1 can What is the fundamantal vibration and the rotational constants for the
be determined [see practical no. 3.5] ground and first vibrationally excited state?
– B1 should be less than B0 Step 1: Analysis of data & assignment of transitions:
– If slope not linear ⇒ Centrifugal distortion at play
Seperation is ~ 15 cm -1 except between 2nd & 3rd where it is double this.
– Remember to check units (cm-1 or J)
⇒ Missing transition lies around 2560 cm-1.
⇒ 2575 is (v=0, J=0) → (v=1, J=1) transition (R branch)
⇒ 2590 is (v=0,J=1) → (v=1,J=2) transition (R branch)
⇒ 2542 is (v=0,J=1) → (v=1,J=0) transition (P branch)
⇒ 2525 is (v=0,J=2) → (v=1,J=1) transition (P branch)
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Scattering process 2 Types of scattering
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Raman Scattering (III) Raman spectrometer: schematic
R a y le ig h s c a tte rin g , 0 c m -1 (re la tiv e ),
e x. = 5 3 2 n m = 1 8 7 9 6 c m -1 a b s o lu te
0 -4 0 0 0 c m -1 E n e rg y , c m -1
IR a b s o rp tio n
Scattered light relative to the excitation line Can replace the focussing lens/microscope with a fibre optic pro
Can use any wavelength excitation
113 http://www.andor.com/chemistry/?app=64
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3500
Pure Cocaine taken using
3000
a Battery operated
2500
portable system
2000
1500
1000
A11AUG13:11/8/97.
30000
500 Cocaine hydrochloride,
Portable 0
pure.
Microscopy:
INTENSITY (arb.)
20000
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Light sources: Detectors & Filters:
Light sources: nearly always Lasers Filter out excess Rayleigh scattered excitation light using:
– Monochromatic, Highly directional, Intense. – Holographic or edge filters.
– Narrow, stable linewidths needed.
– In days used a monochromator
– In olden days…sunlight, lamps used.
Light is detected using a CCD detector:
Most Common sources:
– 785 & 830 nm laser diodes (near-IR). – Usually cooled for max. sensitivity / lowest noise.
– 633 nm He-Ne. – 1024 or 2048 pixels in detector.
– 532 nm Diode pumped lasers. – Whole spectrum in one shot (fast < 1 second. scan).
– 514 & 488 nm lines from Argon Ion. – In olden days they used PMT’s & photographic film.
– 244 nm frequency doubled Argon Ion.
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Gross selection rule: Raman spectroscopy Specific Selection Rules: Raman
Has to be a change in the polarizability for a vibration to be Anti-Stokes lines: lines to high frequency of the incident
Raman active: radiation: ∆v = −1.
CO2 symmetric Stretch Stokes lines: lines to low frequency: ∆v = +1.
The intensities of the anti-Stokes and Stokes lines are
O C O O C O O C O
governed largely by the Boltzmann populations of the
vibrational states involved in the transition.
– anti-Stokes lines are usually weak because very few molecules
are in an excited vibrational state initially.
Distortion of the electron cloud of a molecular entity
by a vibration.
Good for Homonuclear diatomics (N2, O2 etc.)
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Selection Rule: CO2 example Rotational Raman spectroscopy (I)
Molecules must be
Anisotropically polarizable:
– Non-isotropic polarisability (i.e.
molecule must not be spherically
symmetric like CH4, SF6, etc.)
– Polarizability may be different when
Asymmetric stretching vibration of CO2 the field is applied (a) parallel or (b)
Polarisability does not change during vibration: perpendicular to the molecular axis:
– No Raman band near 2,350 cm-1
Dipole moment does change:
– CO2 absorbs at 2,349 cm-1 in the IR (very strong)
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Rotational Raman (I) Example: CO2 Pure Rotational Raman
The rotational energy levels of CO2 rotation is Raman active:
a linear rotor and the – ~ 20 absorption lines are visible on
transitions allowed by the ∆J = either side of the Rayleigh scattering
± 2 Raman selection rules. peak
– Max.intensity for J=7 → J=9.
– The ∆J = +2 and ∆J = -2 are nearly
Relative intensities determined equal in intensity
by Boltzmann distribution: Very near high intensity peak of
exciting radiation.
nJ ∝ gJ e spectrometers:
– Filter out Rayleigh light.
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0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
-1
Ram an shift, cm
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Advantages of Raman spectroscopy Drawbacks of Raman spectroscopy
Light does not have to pass through sample: Inherently very weak:
– Allows facile analysis of wide variety of materials. – Billion of photons in…..maybe one back with information.
– NO SAMPLE PREPARATION.
Coloured samples can absorb laser light & burn:
Spectra are unique so can be used to ID materials – Particularly bad for FT-Raman, λex = 1064 nm.
conclusively (high specificity).
Fluorescence of sample can obscure Raman data:
Non-destructive analysis on the nm to nm scale.
– Many materials are naturally fluorescent.
Can analyse aqueous solutions easily.
– Fluorescence more efficient than Raman.
Operates in UV-VIS-NIR region of EM spectrum:
– Simple optics, fibre probes, microscopy, etc.
Instrumentation more expensive than FT-IR.
Fast….analyses in ~1 second or less are possible.
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O O
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 2,4-Pentanedione
C C
H3C C CH3
H2
O-H O-H Scales not exact match IR-Absorption Raman
stretch bend
Polar groups give Strong
strong C-H
IR bands….weaker in
Raman Weak Weak
C-H C=O
Different selection
rules
Weak O-H bands
mean can use OH Strong
containing solvents C=O
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IR versus Raman: comparison Applications in Microscopy
IR-absorption Raman Can use IR and Raman in microscopy:
IR radiation = long wavelength = large spot size:
Selection rule Change in Dipole moment Change in polarizability
– In practice spot ~10 µm
Good for Polar molecules (e.g. HCl) Non-polar molecules (e.g. N2)
UV-Vis = shorter wavelength = smaller spot size:
Water Very strong absorption Very weak scattering
– For 488 nm excitation, spot < 1 µm
Wavelength IR region of spectrum Any region
Water is a weak Raman scatterer:
Normal Spectral Typically (600-4000 cm-1) Better (200-4000 cm-1) – Can use Raman for analysis of cells & tissue.
range – Can do aqueous vibrational spectroscopy.
Sensitivity Good Very weak
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