Kheirallah, S. M.

1
INSTRUMENTATION
AND MEASUREMENTS
Course Lectures
For Mech. Eng. Students
Kheirallah, S. M.
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Kheirallah, S. M. 2
INSTRUMENTATION AND
MEASUREMENTS
REFERENCES
Doebelin, Measurement System:
Design and application;
Patranabis, D., Principles of
I ndustrial I nstrumentation,
Beckwith, T. & Buck, N. L.,
Mechanical measurements,

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Kheirallah, S. M. 3
Course Contents
I ntroduction to I nstrumentation;
Static Performance Characteristics;
Dynamic Performance Characteristics;
Calibration and Evaluation of I nstruments;
Transducers and I ntermediate Elements of
I nstruments;
Motion Measurements;
Force, Torque and Power Measurements;
Pressure measurements;
Temperature Measurements;
Flow Measurements;
Miscellaneous Measurements;
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Kheirallah, S. M. 4
I NTRODUCTION TO I NSTRUMENTATION
GENERAL CONCEPTS
- MEASUREMENT is the comparison or determination or controlling of
physical variable quantity or values;
- MEASUREMENT METHODS
1. Direct Method Direct comparison with standards (primary, etc.);
2. Indirect Method Indirect comparison with standards through
calibration curve of instrument;
- INSTRUMENTATION is the technological use of instruments;
- CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS By applications instruments are
classified as,
1. Monitoring Instrument: Device serves monitoring function of
operations and/or processes. It, generally, indicates the quantity or condition
of its input and have no controlling function; Examples: Balances, Barometers,
Thermometers, Electric- or Gas-meters.
2. Controlling Instrument: Instrument serve controlling functions
and forms element of automatic control system. Examples: Thermostat, etc.
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Input (energy or material)
Role and Location of Measuring Instrument in Control System
PROCESS
Measuring
Instrument
Controller
Final Control
Element
Disturbances
Output controlled variable
Desired value of
controlled variable
3. Instruments for Experimental Analyses Instruments are
designed to serve a special purpose required for experimental engineering
analysis. Examples: Dynamometers, Vibration analyzer, Noise-meter, etc.
Consider the closed-loop control system:
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Obse-
rver
Primary
Sensing
Element
PSE
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASURING SYSTEM
Medium
Data
Storage
Element
DSE
Variable
Conversion
Element
VCE
Variable
Manipulating
Element
VME
Data
Transmitting
Element
DTE
Data
Presenting
Element
DPE
Functional element consists of one or more physical elements serving a certain function;
1
2
1 Quantity to be measured (sensed)
2 Output presented Quantity;
PSE produces a physical variable (output) proportional
to sensed quantity (its input); Bulb of thermometer, etc.
VCE Converts the sensed quantity (its input) to another
physical variable (output) preserving the information about its input; Hg in thermometer
VME modifies (amplifies, filters, etc.) the physical variable (its input) to another way
preserving the physical nature of its input; Gimbal suspension, etc.
DTE Transmits the physical variable to another location (when the functional elements
are physically separated or far away from each others); Connecting rod, Telemetry, etc.
DPE Presents information about the measured quantity in a form recognizable and
convenient to human senses; Pointer and scale, etc.
DSE Stores some information in order to be used or played-back later on during the
process of measurement;
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Kheirallah, S. M. 7
x F F p p
Divisions

VME
Pointer
Piston rod
Pressure-gauge
housing
Fluid
Pressure
Pipe
Piston
Scale
Supporting plate
Spring
Pressure-Gauge Functional Elements to measure fluid pressure inside a pipe
Pivot
pin
Block diagram showing functional elements
PSE VCE
P i s t o n
p
DTE
VCE
Piston
rod
Spring
Lever-type
pointer
DPE
Pointer
& scale
Medium
Observer
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TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
- Two types of instruments can be:
1. Null-Type instrument maintains balance at one point between effect
generated by quantity to be measured and opposing effect applied on suitable
application; Examples: Pressure Gauge on the basis of standard weights; Simple,
French and Roman Lever-type Balances; etc.
2. Deflection-Type Instrument is recognized by physical effect produced by
quantity to be measured on one part, which causes an effect similar in magnitude
but opposite in direction on another part of the instrument system; Examples:
Pressure Gauge on basis of springs; DArsonval Galvanometer; Spring Balances; etc.
- Comparison of the two types reveals the followings:
i. The accuracy of null-type instrument is higher than that of corresponding
deflection-type instrument;
ii. For large quantity to be measured, deflection-type instrument should be larger,
more rugged and hence less sensitive than null-type instrument;
iii. Null-type instruments are very difficult to be used in measurement of dynamic
quantities i.e., when quantities to be measured are varied by time;
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p
1

Output due to
inputs q
i
& q
m

+
- Possible Inputs on pressure gauge
Desired
Input
Total
Output
Interfering
Input
q
d

INPUT-OUTPUT OPERATIONAL DISCRIPTION OF
INSTRUMENT
F
D

F
MD

F
MI

F
I

Modifying
Input
+
q
m

q
i

q
o

q
d
Desired Input is the
input for which instrument had
been designed to measure;
q
i
Interfering input is the
input to which the instrument
is unintentionally sensitive;
q
m
Modifying input is the
input, which modifies the
interfering and/or modifying
functions;
Output due to
inputs q
d
& q
m

h
1

h
2

p
2

p
1

p
1

p
1

p
1

h
3

(a) (b)
(c)

Acceleration
and tilt-angle
are Interfering
inputs
Temperature
is a modifying
input
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Kheirallah, S. M. 10
+

e
i

F
D
Coil
N S
Spring
+

METHODS OF MINIMIZATION OF THE INTERFERING
AND/ OR MODIFYING INFLUENCES

F
MD1

T
F
MD

1. Inherent Insensitivity Method Use elements that are insensitive to the
undesired inputs, e.g., change of strain-gauge material on which temperature
affects its resistance, by invar alloy insensitive to temperature;
2. Compensation Method Introducing additional input that may cancel the
undesired ones; e.g., galvanometer coil (for voltage measurement) is effected by
temperature (modifying input);
e
i

R
comp


Scale
R
comp

R
c
o
i
l

R
c
o
i
l

R
c
o
m
p

T, C T, C T, C
R
t
o
t

e
i

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Kheirallah, S. M. 11
F
MD1

q
im3

e
i

+

K
Fb

e
b
= K
Fb

o

3. High-Gain Feedback Method Introducing a feedback link that may reduce
the undesired inputs or changing the open-loop system to a closed-loop system;
Consider the block diagram of the galvanometer given above;
F
MD1

q
im1

K
Mo

e
i

Volts
T
F
MD2

q
im2

K
Sp

o

Motion
T
F
MD1

q
im1

K
Mo

F
MD2

q
im2

K
Sp

o

K
Am

K
Am

q
im4

(a) Open-loop system
(b) Closed-loop system
- For system (a),
o
= K
Mo
K
Sp
e
i
;
- For system (b),
o
= K
Am
K
Mo
K
Sp
(e
i
e
b
);
or,
o
= K
Am
K
Mo
K
Sp
(e
i
K
Fb

o
), hence,
e
e

;
1
i
Fb Sp Mo Am
Sp Mo Am
o
e
K K K K
K K K
+
=
Or, for very large K
Am
;
;
1
i
Fb
o
e
K
=
4. Output Correction Method If a simple subtraction (or addition) of the
preliminary known outputs due to interfering and modifying inputs from (or to) total
(overall) output, then the output due to the desired input should remain and observe,
i.e., corrected output is determined.
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q
o,d

q
odm

Zero
Filter
q
oim

Output
q
o,dm

+
+
q
im

q
ii

q
id

F
D

F
MD

F
MI

F
I

Output
q
o,im

0
5. Signal (input or output) filtering Method Providing measuring system
with filters that should block the undesirable signals combined with inputs and/or
outputs;
Output q
o,im

Output q
o,d

q
o
q
im

q
ii

+
q
id
F
D

F
MD

F
MI

F
I

+
Zero
Filter
0
Zero
Filter
q
o

0
0
Zero
Filter
i. Filtering of undesired inputs ii. Filtering of undesired outputs
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2 60 f,
e
i

y

- Examples on Signal filtering (blocking) of interfering input
(a) Gimbal Suspension,
mechanical filter for
filtering inclination
i
-
angle of U-tube
pressure- gauge
R R
R R
E
e
e
o

R R
R R
E
e
e
o

R
f

C
f

(b) Magnetic
Shielding of
strain-gauge
bridge from
the effect of
50/ 60Hz field
t
(a) R-C Filter to block undesired frequencies
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VME
Mass & arm
T
m

T
m

Core, Coil & Magnet
I
a
I T
e
T
+
a
a
DPE
e
o

Operational
Amplifier
Power Source
Inductive Pick-up
Mass
Filter
Damper
Support
Spring
N S
Core
and
coil
Support
Spring
Magnet
r
Problems Give all functional elements in the form of block diagram
a

e
o

R
l

R
R
L
L
PSE
Mass
VCE VCE VCE VME
Medium
Mass
Spring &
damper
Inductive
Pickup
Amplifier
& Filter
VME
VCE
Resistance

I
a

Volt-
meter
1. Accelerometer Scheme
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div.

1

Pointer
and scale
x
Gear sec.
and pinion
p T T
Temp., T, C

2

1

2. Pressure Thermometer
Hg
Container
Fluid
Bulb with mercury (Hg)
Gear sector
Pinion
(Gear)
Scale
Pointer
Bourdon tube
x
25 75
50
Process of
measurement
Capillary
T
input
Reading
output
T,
C
PSE VCE VCE VME
Link
VME DPE Observer
Bulb
and
Hg
Bulb, Hg
and
capillary
Bourdon
tube
Link and
arm of
gear sec.
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Kheirallah, S. M. 16
e
i
+
e
a

3. Servomechanism
Amplifier
(K
A
)

Motor
(dc)
Rake
Potentiometer

e
fb

E
A

E
m

Pinion
Shaft
Scale
Pointer
Controlling-
Measuring
Process
Input Output
E
p

R
10 15 20 25 30
x
- Scheme of the device
- Block-Diagram of
Functional Elements
PSE DME DME VCE DTE VME DPE
VCE
M-um
Ob-er
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Static Performance Characteristics
(SPC)
- Performance characteristics (PC) specify the functional characteristics indicating the
capabilities and limitations of instruments in applications;
- Static performance characteristics (SPC) are the characteristics determined when
the input is insignificantly varied or not varied by time;
- SPC include: static calibration, error, uncertainty, Linearity, sensitivity, accuracy,
threshold, resolution and hysteresis of measuring instruments;
Static Calibration; Calibration Curve
- Performance Parameters of instrument are checked by means of calibration
process performed by imposing instrument to known input (desiring, modifying or
interfering) and observing and registering the resulted output;
- Input Output Relation may be presented by one of the following forms:
Tabular form
q
i
q
o

0 2
5 16




q
i

q
o

Graphical form
For example,
q
o
= f(q
i
) = a q
i
2
+ b q
i
+ c
Mathematical form
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- Steps for Static Calibration Process
1. Study the construction of instrument and pick out and define all possible inputs;
2. Decide, which input is significant to be varied during calibration;
3. Depending on instrument application select the device for applying and varying
the decided input within a definite and assigned range; Standard inputs applied
by selected device should be of 10 times as accurate as calibrated instruments;
4. Varying the decided input and keeping the others constant, determine the static
input / output relation and represent it by any suitable form given before.
ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTY OF INSTRUMENTS
Errors, E, in measurement may be one or more of the following types,
1. Systematic Errors (SE) have same magnitude & sign for given set of condition.
SE may be termed as Instrument Bias (if they alter instrument reading with
fixed magnitude and sign), or as Cumulative Errors (if they accumulate). SE
appear due to:
Errors in instrument parts; e.g., Irregular cross section of springs, Divisions of
scales, etc.
Loading errors; e.g., Restrictions (orifices) in flow-rate meter may partially
change or disturb flow conditions, etc.
Environmental errors;
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2. Random Errors (RE) are variable in magnitude, may have opposite signs and
appeared on the basis of chances alone.
3. Miscellaneous Errors (ME) cant belong to both mentioned types, i.e.,
measurement may include
- errors due to human beings or operators;
- errors due to wrong adjustments / parts;
- errors due due to improper applications
Uncertainty, U, of instruments, characterizes the dispersion, variance or scatter in
measuring data from normal one. Two uncertainty types may be,
1. External Estimate of Uncertainty, U
e
, generally characterized by resolution, is
determined from limitations of measuring apparatus, manufacturer literature, etc.
2. Internal Estimate of Uncertainty, U
i
, is the difference in output value (scatter
in values) every time the given input is imposed on instrument. U
i
is estimated as,
- Data population including all possible values of particular measurement, is
obtained;
- Random sampling of equitable distribution of the population is selected;
- The means and standard deviation (estimated true value and uncertainty
respectively) of each sample is evaluated. The best estimate of the mean value is
the mean of the sample means (the population mean).
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Note: If the two external and internal estimates of uncertainties are of the same
magnitude order (i.e., minimum overall uncertainty in the experiment) then the
experiment is considered consistent, otherwise if the two estimates are considerably
different, then the higher among them is the experiment uncertainty and the
experiment itself is inconsistent.
LINEARITY: INDEPENDENT, PROPORTIONAL AND
COMBINED
- Output input relation is linear if it is represented graphically by straight line or
mathematically by straight-line equation q
o
= a + b q
i
; (a and b are constants).
- As absolute linearity of commercial instruments could not be achieved, still the
relation can be considered linear if it follows one of the following forms:
a. Independent Linearity if the output
deviations from a best fitting (idealized)
straight line (blue-dotted line) will remain
within two parallel straight lines spaced by
a value x% of full scale output on both
+ve and ve sides of the idealized straight
line;
q
o

q
i

Max.dev. in
+ve side
Max. dev. in
-ve side
Ideal straight line
x%
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Kheirallah, S. M. 21
b. Proportional Linearity if the output
deviations from a best fitting (idealized)
straight line (blue-dotted line) will remain
within two straight lines drawn from the
origin and joining the maximum deviations
of the true calibration curve on both +ve
and ve sides of the idealized straight line;
Max. dev.
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Dynamic Performance Characteristics
(DPC)
I nput Types
Periodic input (harmonic or non-harmonic)




Non-periodic input
I
n
p
u
t

I
n
p
u
t

I
n
p
u
t

Time
T
T
Time Time
T
(a) (b) (c)
T T
T
Time Time Time
I
n
p
u
t

I
n
p
u
t

I
n
p
u
t

(d) (e) (f)
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Kheirallah, S. M. 23
I nput, Cont.,
Random input

Measurement System Equations
Dynamic response: Input output relation as linear (or
linearized) differential equation:
I
n
p
u
t

Time, t
i i
m
i
m
m o
o
n
o
n
n
n
o
n
n
bq q b
dt
q d
b q a
dt
dq
a
dt
q d
a
dt
q d
a = + + = + + + +

0 0 1
1
1
1
.... .......
;
opi ocf o
q q q + =
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Kheirallah, S. M. 24
MOTION MEASUREMENT;
Introduction
- Motion measurement includes: displacement of
elements (velocity and acceleration as well) and
vibration of machines, etc
Types of measured motion
(instruments)
o Absolute motion {seismic motion
(instrument)} X
o
, & Relative
motion, with respect to a fixed
reference y
o
;
o Form translational & rotational;
o By time static & dynamic;
o Linkage contact & contactless

Dash- pot
Scale
Mass
Frame
Spring
X
o
Moving body
M
B
k
y
o

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Kheirallah, S. M. 25
MOTION, Cont.,
Displacement Measurement
Mechanical methods Caliper, micrometers,
dial gauges, etc. (most of them are manual)
Pneumatic methods flapper (moving object) /
nozzle assembly. Displacement (thickness) of
value 0.2 microns and magnification of order 10
5
;
Accuracy depends on supply pressure constancy;
Electrical (electromechanical) methods - the
conversion of displacement to electrical quantity
like resistance, voltage, etc.; strain gauges, linear
variable differential transformers, capacitances, or
piezoelectric crystals, etc.
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Displacement, Cont.,
Resistance strain gauge transducers
o Types and fixation of strain gauges
Paper - 0.08mm in thickness
Force
Force
Motion
Moving
frame
d
h

1 3
2 4
Wire
type
Foil
type
Fixed
frame
(b) Bonded Strain Gauges
3. Un-Bonded
Strain Gauges
(a) Tensioned
Elastic Element
Wire diameter (foil
thickness) = 0.01
up to 0.03 mm
Conductor, G=2.0 up to 3.5
Semiconductor, G=100 up to 200
Wire dimensions:
Length = 25mm &
Diameter = 0.025mm;
Wires are preloaded by
more than expected
compressive load
Resistance strain gauges (of both types) are
arrangement in Wheatstone bridge
Strain
gauges
x
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Resistance Strain, Cont., .
o Analyisis of strain gauges
G
l dl
d
l dl
R dR
= + + =

2 1
; E
l dl
d

=
Moreover:
Where,
E Modulus of elasticity;
Bridgman coefficient
Where, G Gauge factor
2
27 . 1
D
l
A
l
R

= =
A
dA
D
dD
l
dl
t a
2
; = = =
Axial and transverse
strains; Poisons ratio
l dl
D dD
a
t

= =

A
dA d
l
dl
R
dR
+ =

Differentiate and divide by R

Wire resistance
R

R
s
R
s
R
s
R
g
G
a

b

c
d
R
b
V
b

V
g

Connection of strain gauge
R, in Wheatstone bridge
2
s
s
s
e
R
R R
RR
R +
+
=
Effective bridge
resistance
Current i
g
through G,
if R
b
0:
g e
g
g
R R
V
i
+
=
Continue,
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Kheirallah, S. M. 28
Resistance Strain, Cont., .
( )
s
s s
o
b o
o
b
R R
R R R
R and
R R
R
V V
3
2
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
.
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
s
g
R R
R
V V
Then for balanced conditions, i.e.,
i
g
= 0, voltage between b & c is,
Introduction of the values,
As the strain gauge resistance R, changes to R+R, then ,
2
1
1
1
2
1

+
=
+ +
+
=
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R R
R R
V
V
s
s
g
1
2
1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

V
V
V
V
R
R
R
R
g
g
s
Then knowing the unbalance voltage V
b
(in case of large
value of R
g
), the strains can be easily found.
( )
s
s
g e s g e
g
R R
R R
R R
V
R R
R
R R
V
i
+

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +
=
2 2
1
In case of bridge balance
R = R
s
, the current is,
( ) ( )
g g e
g
R R R
R V
R R
R
R R
V
i
+

=
+

+
=
4 2 2
Due to change in R, using R
e
Continue,
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Kheirallah, S. M. 29
Using gauge factor
relation,
a
G
R
dR
=
Resistance Strain, Cont., .
( )
g
g s
a
i k
G V
i R R
=
+
=
4

R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
g
G
a

b

c
d
V
V
o

Similarly, if R
1
& R
2
are strain gauges and the
other two R
3
& R
4
are standard ones, then,
( )
(

+
=
2
2
1
1
1
4 R
R
R
R
R R
V
i
g
g
( )
(

+
=
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
4 R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
V
i
g
g
By same manner if all arms of the bridge are
strain gauges.
Unbalance current across galvanometer is,
Arrangement of
strain gauges in
full bridge
Continue ..
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Kheirallah, S. M. 30
R
1

R
3

Resistance Strain, Cont., .
1) Larger output current i
g
, (i.e., higher sensitivity) will be
developed if the strain gauges of the bridge opposite arms (R
1

and R
3
) or (R
2
and R
4
) are subjected to the same nature of
straining (tensile or compressive);
2) Exciting voltage V, of the bridge may be dc or ac voltage.
Both cases require the use of amplifier (dc or ac amplifier) as
the bridge output is very small (i.e., small strain).
o Compensation of temperature effect
- By introducing in the circuit a thermally sensitive
compensating resistances R
c
/ 2 (deterministic value);
- By special mounting & arrangement of strain gauges on the
elastic element to be strained.
R
c
/ 2
R
c
/ 2
V
V
o

P P
R
1

R
2

R
2

R
4

Continue,.
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Kheirallah, S. M. 31
Resistance Strain, Cont., .
Suppose strain gauges R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= R, are correctly
arranged. If the bridge factor n, is considered
R
R
n
c
+
=
1
1
Then,
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
R
R
R
R m
n
R
R m
V
V
c
o
1
1
4 4
Where, m is the signal enhancement factor that depends on number of active strain
gauges and their arrangement in the bridge circuit. Value of m & arrangements may be:
(a) m = 1 ;
No temp. comp-n; (b) m = 1+ ;
(comp-n for temp.)
(c) m = 2;
(No temp. comp-n)
(d) m = 2 (1 + )
(comp-n for temp.)
R
1

(e) m = 4 ;
(ensure temp. comp-n)
R
1

R
2

R
1

R
3

R
1,3

R
1
R
2

R
3
R
4

R
1,3
R
2,4

R
1,3

R
2,4

R
3,4

R
1,2

P P
P P
P P
P P
P P
P P
P
Continue,
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Kheirallah, S. M. 32
Resistance Strain, Cont., .
For arrangement in Fig. (d);
| |
E A
G P
G
E
A
P
G
R
R
a
= = =

( ) A
R G
R R E
mV
P
V
c
o

+
=
1
4
Substitute in the voltage
relation and simplify,
Temperature affects the value E(R+R
c
), hence,
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | | ( )
2
1 1
T EcbR R R c R b T E R R E
T b R R T c E R R E
c c c c
c c
+ + + + + =
= + + + = +
where, c temperature coefficient (usually negative) of Youngs modulus; b
temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity and T temperature change.
Accordingly,
( )
b c
c
R
R
e i R R c R b
c
c c
+
= = + + ., . , 0
b c
c A R A R
l
c c c
c
+
= =

Hence, the length of compensating
resistance R
c
, can be found
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Kheirallah, S. M. 33
Capacitance-Type Transducer
Dielectric
medium
Fixed
plate
Movable plate
Reference linkage
l

y
1
2
l

y

1
2
3
3'
Dielectric medium
V
1

V
2

V

C
1

C
2

Types: plate and cylidrical
capacitances
;
. l
A
K
l
A
C

= =
6 3
1
2
l
A
K
l
C
S =

=
Where, dielectric constant, A cross
area, and l thickness of dielectric medium
Sensitivity:
, ,
y l
A K
C and
y l
A K
C

=
+
=

2 1
- Differential capacitance
transducer
V
l
y l
V
C C
C
V and V
l
y l
V
C C
C
V
2 2
2 1
1
2
2 1
2
1

=
+
=
+
=
+
= ,
Hence,

= = = =
l
V
dy
dV
S ity sensisitiv and y
l
V
V V V difference Voltage
o
o
;
2 1
Fixed plates
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Kheirallah, S. M. 34
Secondary
coil 1
Primary
coil
Secondary
coil 2
Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
o Construction & electrical circuit
Secondary coil 1
Secondary coil 2
Primary coil
Rod
Core
Insulating
former
Core
V
1

V
o

V
2

V
i

Housing
y
- Core is usually made of nickel iron alloy, which moves in a slot to reduce eddy
currents. Core is positioned with a rod of nonmagnetic material.
- The primary coil is supplied with alternating (ac) voltage Vi, of amplitude between
5V to 25V and frequency from 50 cycle/s to 20 kilo-cycle/s.
- Range of LVDT between 0.025mm to several millimeters.
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