Casey Hill Env 536 Wastewater Treatment Every time a person flushes the toilet, takes a shower, washes

their clothes or the dishes they are using water, but once that water is involved in any of those activities it is no longer fit for human consumption at least not in that dirtied state. This wastewater is a part of everyday life for everyone around the world, but in developed countries this water, for the most part, isnt just dumped directly back into the hydrologic cycle. Wastewater, once it goes down the drain, heads to wastewater treatment facilities to be cleaned so that it can be reintroduced to the hydrologic cycle safely and responsibly. This care of water supplies has not always been a part of how wastewater reentered the hydrologic cycle. In the past, countries like the United States dumped their wastewater directly back into the cycle with little or no treatment of the wastewater. The United States started taking water safety more serious in the post war years. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 setup programs that were to focus on decreasing the amount of pollution entering the nations water. This act continued to be amended to create and strengthen programs and establish new and better standards with the changing nation (http://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/fwatrpo.html). One of the main amendments that help improve the nations water was in 1972. The 1972 amendment led the Federal Water Pollution Control Act to be known as the Clean Water Act. The 1972 amendment established things such as, standards and restrictions for people and industry dumping pollutants into waterways, gave the EPA the right to set wastewater standards, and it kept standards of contaminants for water quality (http://www2.epa.gov/laws-regulations/historyclean-water-act). The 1972 amendment made changes as the goal of cleaning the nations waterways progressed. In 1977 the Clean Water Act was passed by Congress giving more
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guidelines on standards for US water quality and increased power to the EPA to reach those standards and to react to future problems with the water supply (Muskie, 1978). The Clean Water Act doesnt allow a person or organization to put pollutants into any waterway at a level that will degrade the usefulness of the waterway. According to the Environmental Law Handbook, the courts have defined pollutant to mean any material possessing the qualities of toxicity or acidity (Gallagher & Friedman, 2001). This interpretation makes it possible to stop all unwanted discharges into US waters. However, even with such a strong policy against the polluting of waterways, there continues to be problems with water quality. The United States federal government and state governments continued to pass amendments to help improve water quality and other acts to help ensure safe drinking water. The unfortunate fact, however, remains that even with these acts the nations water is not up to the quality it should be. Early in 2013 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced their results from a survey that studied thousands of miles of the nations rivers and streams. The results were not encouraging for US water quality. The EPA found that of the rivers and streams studied, 55 percent - are in poor condition for aquatic life (http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0c0affede4f840bc8525781f00436213/c967210c37cff b6885257b3a004cfaf6!OpenDocument). The EPA found that 27 percent of the rivers and streams had high levels of nitrogen, 40% had high levels of phosphorus, 24 percent had significant loss of vegetation, which contributes to erosion and other pollutants entering the rivers and streams, 9 percent of the waters studied had unsafe bacteria levels, and 13,000 miles studied had fish with unsafe levels of mercury (http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0c0affede4f840bc8525781f00436213/c967210c37cff b6885257b3a004cfaf6!OpenDocument). While these findings cant be directly connected with

poor wastewater treatment, the findings do illustrate the fragile nature of US waters. In order to protect and improve the quality of water in US streams, the water being reintroduced to the rivers and streams from wastewater treatment plants needs to be of a high quality that wont contribute to the degradation of the rivers and streams. Wastewater has five main types of pollutants they are biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), phosphorus, nitrates, and pathogenic organisms. These pollutants, if allowed to enter waterways without going through the treatment process, would have a profound negative impact on water quality and risk the safety of the environment and human population that relies on the water for economic, recreation, and consumption. Many developing nations that do not have treatment facilities for wastewater suffer the negative effects of polluted water resources as wastewater and other sources of pollutants enter their water resources. Life needs water and, as a result, populations are centered around water sources. Keeping good quality of water is difficult with large urban populations and agricultural practices existing near water resources. Through the use of the water it becomes contaminated with various pollutants. Wastewater treatment facilities focus on the removal of those pollutants generated through the use of the water by the population. The focus on Biochemical Oxygen Demand or BOD in wastewater treatment is a concern for proper oxygen levels in water. In general the focus is the microorganisms in water and the amount of oxygen they consume from the water. It also concerned with the chemical oxidation of inorganic material or a reaction that removes oxygen from the water. A high level of BOD in a water source results in the death of aquatic life that need the oxygen in the water to survive. There are many sources that introduce BOD pollution into waterways. Some are natural and

others come from human sources, including wastewater treatment facilities (http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms52.cfm). Total suspended solids or TSS are present naturally in rivers and streams as debris is washed in or churned up by the water. However, the local human populations contribute to the degradation of river banks and polluted runoff that add particles that cloud up the river. This has the negative effect of decreasing the amount of light reaching aquatic plant life that contribute oxygen and support a healthy water ecosystem. It has also been shown that high levels of TSS in a river or stream settle to the bottom damaging eggs and insect larvae. The solids also harm fish physically and have the possibility of changing migration patterns. (http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/wb-npdes-TotalSuspendedSolids_247238_7.pdf). TSS as a part of wastewater comes from the many particles washed down the drains by the population. If a person evaluates what they put down the drain each day through flushing, showers, food preparation, dishes, and washing clothes, the potential for large amounts of particles in wastewater becomes apparent. The EPA has set standards for TSS at 30mg/l for a monthly average and as high as 45 mg/l for a 7 day average (http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/wb-npdes-TotalSuspendedSolids_247238_7.pdf). These standards prevent water sources from becoming excessively cloudy from the discharge of treated wastewater. Proper levels of nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to a healthy aquatic ecosystem. However, high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are a danger to natural bodies of water as it causes a nutrient rich environment that increases unwanted plant life, especially algae (http://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/problem). This increased growth of algae eventually can decrease the oxygen levels in the water. This is due to the decomposition of the increased algae

and plant population when they die and are then broken down by organisms that use the oxygen in the water. The decrease in oxygen results in the death of the animal life in the water and destroys the ecosystem of that water resource. It can also lead to a water source that is hazardous for humans to come in contact with or for them to consume the animals from the water (http://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/problem). The largest contribution of phosphorus and nitrates from the average individual comes from excrement flushed down the toilet, but there can also be phosphorus and nitrogen in household cleaners. The EPA determined that each person contributes 2.7 grams of phosphorus into their local wastewater (Lusk, Toor, & Obreza, 2011). The removal of phosphorus and nitrates are an important part of wastewater treatment since other human activities already contribute large amounts of phosphorus and nitrates that dont go through the treatment process. Pathogenic organisms have probably been a problem in water sources from the beginning of time. This has been a growing problem for humans since they began gathering in larger and larger groups. Many deadly diseases come from contaminated water that is consumed by the local population. Many of the disease causing organisms that are found in the wastewater come from human excrement (Cai & Zhang, 2013). Prior to the 20th century it was not uncommon for human excrement and wastewater to be dumped into local waterways, even today it is not uncommon for sewage to be dumped into the waterways. This practice contributes to the spread of disease especially in developing countries that practice little or no wastewater treatment. It has only been in the last 100 years that developed countries have started to get a handle on diseases spread by contaminated water. It is now the standard to kill and remove these disease causing organisms from the wastewater.

The treatment of wastewater is broken up into five basic steps: preliminary; primary, focused on removing TSS; secondary, using biological processes to remove pollutants; secondary nutrient removal; and tertiary treatment, which completes the removal of unwanted nutrients and chemicals (Gomez, 2013). These steps are used separately, combined, or depending on the facility not utilized at all. The process is aimed at returning wastewater back into the hydrological cycle in a state that wont cause harm to local populations and the environment. Preliminary treatment of waste water is the first process of wastewater treatment at many facilities. The EPA identifies preliminary treatment as, screening, grit removal, septage handling, odor control, and flow equalization. The EPA also explains that the initial screening for large material prevents damage to the rest of the process. Screening is done by both coarse and fine screens to thoroughly remove large debris from the water. The coarse screens have openings of 6 mm or larger for the big debris and fine screens have openings 1.5 mm up to the coarse screen. Some very fine screens can be used that remove debris as well as primary treatment normally would (http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/2004_07_07_septics_final_sgrit_removal.pdf). There are also other methods used to remove debris before it reaches the primary stage of treatment. It is possible for facilities to install grinders or comminutors to remove debris from water head to the primary stage. The grinders do as the name suggests, grind material to a smaller more manageable size for the next step in the process. The grinders reduce debris to about 6 mm. A comminutor is a cylinder with slots that rotates as water moves through it. The slots prevent larger material from continuing down the line of the treatment process. The larger material is then cut by blades inside the cylinder the debris is reduced to smaller pieces that can be handled by the next treatment section

(http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/2004_07_07_septics_final_sgrit_removal.pdf). The removal of debris is an important part in the process of preparing wastewater. The removal of this debris not only protects the equipment, but prevents debris from entering waterways where the wastewater is reintroduced. The next stage in wastewater treatment is the primary stage or, depending on the treatment facility, it is the first stage where wastewater enters the actual treatment process. The primary stage focuses on the removal of organic and inorganic solids. This is done through settling and the skimming of floating particles (http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/centralized_brochure.pdf). This stage is very similar to the preliminary stage, which is why the preliminary stage is not a part of many wastewater treatment facilities. The amount of TSS or sediment that can be released from a wastewater treatment plant is dependent upon the nature of the water source that will be receiving the final treated wastewater. In the article Sediment contamination assessment in urban areas based on total suspended solids the authors identify that if there is a high level of TSS or sediment upstream from where a wastewater plant is discharging their wastewater the amount of TSS or sediment that can be discharged from the plant without significant impact is decreased (Rossi & et al., 2013). There isnt a one size fits all method for the removal of TSS and sediments, but in general the primary clarification seeks to remove as many potential TSS as possible to avoid polluting the local water sources. The removal of grit is a crucial part of wastewater for the quality of water being treated and for the continued efficiency of the facility. Grit, if not removed early, damages the moving parts of machines and pumps increasing the cost and decreasing the efficiency of treating wastewater. A lot of grit settles to the bottom of canals transporting the wastewater to the

treatment plant, but this only occurs when the velocity of the water is low. High velocity brings in larger amounts of grit to a facility (Osei & Andoh, 2008). The settling of grit in the channels can be optimized by the use of straight or only slightly bent channels. Higher turn angles in delivering water to the facilitate cause the grit to remain floating in the water and a larger amount of grit arrives at the facility (Patel, Gill, & Faram, 2011). Efficient plants make use of grit tanks to allow grit to settle before it enters the rest of the facility. Some facilities add organics to the grit removal process. The organics attach to the grit, increasing the size of the grit and allowing the grit to settle that would have remained floating (Osei & Andoh, 2008). After the grit tank, the wastewater moves to primary clarification; this stage of primary treatment allows for further settling of TSS in the water. The rate of settling in this stage is determined by particle settling dynamics. The four main forces that determine the velocity that a particle settles are gravity, overflow up velocity, drag force by fluid, and buoyancy. Gravity is the force that is causing the particle to settle. In order for the particle to settle, gravity must overcome the other three forces that are preventing the particle from settling. The particles size, shape, and density determine how these forces affect the settling rate of the particle. In general, if the particle has a large diameter, then the particle will have a correspondingly higher settling velocity and vice versa for a smaller diameter particle (Pagilla, 2010). Optimizing the particle settling velocity helps create an efficient system to manage the amount of water coming into a facility. There are particles that during settling dont settle to the bottom due to their composition. There are now methods to facilitate removal of these types of floating particles. Some wastewater treatment facilities now treat their primary clarification tanks with a small amount of chemical coagulant that then attaches to floating particles, decreasing their buoyancy and the

particle sinks to the bottom. This has been shown to improve the removal of TSS in primary clarification by 10 to 25 percent (Pagilla, 2010). Using new technology and methods in wastewater treatment is important in improving water quality and the efficiency of the wastewater facilities. Skimming during the primary treatment process is similar to the process in the preliminary stage. In the primary stage as some particles are settling, those particles less dense than the water rise to the surface and are removed through skimming. Just as a pool owner skims debris from the top of their pool, the wastewater treatment facilities remove debris from the water to avoid damage to machinery and to remove pollutants from the wastewater before entering the next stage. The next stage in wastewater treatment is the secondary treatment that is focused on removing organic contaminants (http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/centralized_brochure.pdf). The secondary system can vary from site to site. Some secondary systems use the activated sludge process. This involves the wastewater going through an aeration tank and then a secondary clarifier. Within both of these tanks is activated sludge which contains bacteria that consumes the biological contaminants found in the wastewater (Explaining the Activated Sludge Process, 2003). This is an important part of improving the wastewater quality since this part removes hazardous biological material that would otherwise contaminate the discharge location. The aeration tank, where the activated sludge removes the biological contaminants from the wastewater, adds oxygen to the wastewater which causes the activated sludge to intermix with the wastewater. The organic material in the wastewater acts as food to the bacteria in the activated sludge. As the bacteria interact with the increased oxygen levels from aeration and the organic material, the bacteria multiply and consume more of the organic material in the water.

The cleaner water moves from the aeration tank to the secondary clarifier where the sludge and other particles still in the water settle to the bottom of the tank (Explaining the Activated Sludge Process, 2003). In the article Influence of secondary settling tank performance on suspended solids mass balance in activated sludge systems the authors explain that the secondary settling tank combines three functions. The first is to allow the sludge and wastewater to separate, second to be a thickener to have continuous underflow, and last to provide a storage tank for sludge when wastewater flows are at their peak (Patziger, Kainz, Hunze, & Jozsa, 2012). After the sludge settles in the secondary settling tank, some of the activated sludge is then sent back to the aeration tank to start the process all over again and the cleaner water moves on to the next treatment process. Any excess sludge not being used in the aeration tank is also pumped out of the clarifier (Explaining the Activated Sludge Process, 2003). The active sludge method has been an effective method of treating wastewater in the secondary stage for almost a century. This method allows for natural processes to be involved in the cleaning of wastewater. The issue with activated sludge is the disposal of excess sludge after it has been used in treating the wastewater. The sludge contains the contaminants removed from the water and thus poses a hazard to the environment if not dealt with properly. The sludge is removed from the treatment process and the water is removed from the sludge so that only the solid mass remains. The removal of water decreases the size of the sludge and allows for easier and cheaper handling. Sludge has the potential to be used for agriculture fertilizer if some of the more hazardous material is removed from the sludge. Sludge not used in agriculture is either incinerated or sent to landfills. The landfill method is the least desirable as it takes up valuable landfill space and has the potential of contaminating the surrounding environment if not handled properly (Bennamoun, Arlabossse, & Leonard, 2013).

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An important part of secondary treatment is the removal of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds and the removal of heavy metals. The nutrients, as previously mentioned, can destroy the biology of a water source if high levels are introduced. Many wastewater treatment facilities are thus required to reduce the amount of nitrate and phosphorus contained in the discharged wastewater. The removal of heavy metals is an important part in avoiding health problems in humans and other animals. The removal of these contaminants is often achieved through the use of biofilms. A biofilm is bacteria that are connected to a surface such as rocks, sand or any other solid material. The bacteria feed off the organic materials found in the water surrounding the surface where the bacteria are growing. This is using a natural process that is found in rivers and streams. There are three main types of biofilm filters used: trickling filters, rotating contactors, and sand filters. The process of forming a biofilm on a surface starts with initial attachment of bacteria to an exposed surface of a rock or plastic or whatever hydrophobic material is being used. As more and more microorganisms attach to each other, the biofilm grows. The next step is irreversible attachment. Irreversible attachment is when the bacteria produce a substance that results in them being bonded to the surface of the material being used. As the biofilm matures, it reproduces and attaches to other surrounding surfaces and collects more bacteria. This increases the surface area of the biofilm available to treat the wastewater (Klock & Gonzalez, 2012). Nitrogen compounds are removed by biofilms through two methods. The first is some of the organisms that are a part of the biofilm use the nitrogen in the water thus decreasing the concentration. Secondly, as the biofilm creates oxidation of ammonium into nitrates, the nitrates slowly move to a gaseous form of nitrogen and that gas moves out of the water and into the atmosphere. Phosphorus can be removed by biofilms, but it is also removed through chemical

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processes. Through either method the goal is to change phosphorus into a solid that can be removed. The article Immobilized microalgae for removing pollutants: Review of practical aspects identifies two main problems with using microalgae biofilms. The first is the limited knowledge of biological methods of wastewater treatment versus chemical treatments that have been used for many decades as part of wastewater treatment. The second problem is some contaminants are only removed at low levels, such as phosphorus, and biofilms take longer to remove these contaminants compared to other methods. The article also points out that there are strong advantages to using the microalgae biofilms such as the process is more environmentally friendly from more traditional methods. It can also be used to focus on removing multiple types of contaminants, which is especially helpful if the wastewater maintains similar types of contaminants from day to day (Bashan & Bashan, 2010). In some plants tertiary treatment is not utilized the water is discharged into the receiving area immediately following secondary treatment. However, many plants are required to perform tertiary treatment following the secondary treatment to further remove contaminants and pathogens from the wastewater prior to discharge. The removal of pathogens from the water is especially important at the tertiary treatment stage. Pathogens can multiply in wastewater if the water has not been properly treated to remove the pathogens. The aim is to remove 90 to 99 percent of pathogens found in the water so that discharged water doesnt further the spread of the pathogens found in untreated wastewater (Koivunen, Siitonen, & Tanski, 2003). To remove the pathogens and remaining contaminants, the tertiary treatment often uses the same methods found in secondary treatment, but works to attain a high quality level in the water. Processes used to remove contaminants during tertiary treatment include reverse osmosis, granulated activated carbon, and ultraviolet light treatment

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(http://wrc.umn.edu/prod/groups/cfans/@pub/@cfans/@wrc/documents/asset/cfans_asset_292046.p
df). Tertiary treatment can also make use of chemicals to remove any pathogens or other

contaminants still found in the wastewater after moving through primary and secondary treatment. Reverse osmosis uses a membrane to remove contaminants from wastewater. It has been found to be effective in removing hormones found in wastewater and some contaminants from agricultural waste such as pesticides (http://wrc.umn.edu/prod/groups/cfans/@pub/@cfans/@wrc/documents/asset/cfans_asset_292046.p
df). Reverse osmosis is very successful in removing contaminants and, when compared with

other technologies for the same task reverse osmosis is more effective and easy to use. It is an expensive treatment form, but when compared with other treatment inefficiencies, it can still be economical (Perez, Fernandez-Alba, Urtiaga, & Ortiz, 2010). Granulated activated carbon is an effective way of cleaning contaminants out of wastewater and has been shown to be very effective against pharmaceuticals and organic chemicals. The carbon granules absorb the pollutants as the wastewater moves past them (http://wrc.umn.edu/prod/groups/cfans/@pub/@cfans/@wrc/documents/asset/cfans_asset_292046.p
df). The modern granulated activated carbon has its roots in the use of charcoal for filtration, but

the modern equivalent is modified carbon that has been designed for absorption to remove large amounts and types of contaminants. The main environmental concern with using these granules is disposing of the contaminated granules after they have been used in the wastewater treatment process (Bhatnagar, Hogland, Marques, & Sillanpaa, 2013). However, it is possible to burn off the contaminants and regenerate the carbon for reuse.

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Ultraviolet light uses high levels of radiation to remove pathogens from the wastewater. Using ultraviolet light also allows a plant to decrease the amount of chemicals used to remove pathogens from the wastewater before discharging the water. Problems with ultraviolet light treatment arise from the lamps becoming cloudy from particles not filtered out in previous treatment steps. There have been recent tests that show that the combination of ultraviolet light and ultrasound increases the overall effectiveness of the system in removing pathogens from the water. The ultrasound reduces large particles and prevents the ultraviolet light lamps from becoming clouded which decreases the effectiveness of the lamps. The ultraviolet light is then less obstructed and is able to kill the pathogens in the water (Naddeo, Landi, Belgiorno, & Napoli, 2009). Chemical treatment is used in tertiary treatment usually through the use of chlorine. Chlorine is often used because it is a simple and cheap method compared to some other systems for removing pathogens (Hassen, Heyouni, Shayeb, Cherif, & Boudabous, 2000). Chlorine is effective in removing pathogens, but the amount of chlorine and time spent mixing in the wastewater varies depending on the contamination levels of the water, pH, and temperature. These factors change how the chlorine reacts in the water and are taken into consideration to avoid over or under chlorination of the water (http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV149/chlorinationb.htm). The final quality of wastewater that is discharged into the receiving water bodies from the treatment facility is governed by the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) which is overseen by the EPA. The NPDES is the permitting program that enforces the regulations set by the Clean Water Act of 1972. Each individual state and territory can maintain control of their wastewater discharge quality through the NPDES permitting and their overall

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water quality provided they can demonstrate that all federal regulations and quality standards established by the Clean Water Act are being met. If a states water quality drops below the proscribed standard, the state can lose primacy and the federal government will retake control of water quality standards in that state and the NPDES permitting. NPDES applies to all people or companies that discharge into a water source not just wastewater treatment discharge. The permit provides the individual or company with the specifications of allowable pollutants in the discharge water that will maintain state quality standards and the federal framework standards. To ensure that the quality is maintained, the permits are set for five years and constant water testing of the discharged water and the receiving waters makes sure that the quality is being maintained throughout the life of the permit (http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/faqs.cfm?program_id=45#107). The permits focus on limiting chemicals, controlling toxicity and reducing biological contaminants from being discharged. Violations can result in fines or jail time for individuals found knowingly endangering water quality and violating a NPDES permit or the permitting process (Gallagher & Friedman, 2001). The NPDES permits allow the government to adjust standards in each area in a way that will improve water quality or at the very least maintain the standard achieved to avoid environmental disasters such as those experienced in the years prior to the Clean Water Act. This protection of the existing quality of the receiving waters is referred to as the anti-degradation policy. The NPDES program is a vital part of wastewater treatment as it establishes the goals that a facility needs to meet once the water is run through all stages of the treatment process. Every day people use water and often dont give a second thought to what happens to the water after it goes down the toilet or down the drain. The wastewater will eventually return to the hydrologic cycle and will eventually be used again by someone or something downstream.

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However, before todays wastewater is someone elses household water, it is treated. A part of safely and responsibly using water is making sure the wastewater is not polluting the worlds water supply and that everyone has access to a safe water supply. Furthering the understanding of wastewater treatment and improving the technologies involved with each stage in the process of treatment is part of creating safe useable water. This is the concern of policy makers and the public that will use the treated water. The catch phrase that should be remembered when the topic of wastewater arises is, we all live downstream.

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References Bashan, L. E., Bashan, Y. (2010). Immobilized microalgae for removing pollutants: Review of practical aspects. Bioresource Technology, 101, 1611-1627. [Electronic version] Bennamoun, L., Arlabosse, P., Leonard, A. (2013). Review on fundamental aspect of application of drying process to wastewater sludge. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 28, 29-43. [Electronic version] Bhatnagar, A., Hogland, W., Marques, M., Shillanpaa, M. (2013). An overview of the modification methods of activated carbon for its water treatment applications. Chemical Engineering Journal, 219, 499-511. [Electronic version] Cai, L., Zhang, T. (2013). Detecting Human Bacterial Pathogens in Wastewater Treatment Plants by a High-Throughput Shotgun Sequencing Technique. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 5433-5441. [Electronic version] EPA. (n.d.). Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms52.cfm EPA. (2013). EPA Survey Finds More Than Half of the Nations River and Stream Miles in Poor Condition. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from
http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0c0affede4f840bc8525781f00436213/c967210c37 cffb6885257b3a004cfaf6!OpenDocument

EPA. (n.d.). History of the Clean Water Act. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://www2.epa.gov/laws-regulations/history-clean-water-act EPA. (n.d.). NPDES Permit Program Basics Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved November 28, 2013, from http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/faqs.cfm?program_id=45#107 EPA. (n.d.). Nutrient Pollution. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from
http://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/problem 17

EPA. (n.d.). Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Screening and Grit Removal. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from
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EPA. (n.d.). What Can You Do to Protect Local Waterways?. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/centralized_brochure.pdf Explaining the Activated Sludge Process. (2003). Pipeline, 14, 1-8. [Electronic version] Gallagher, L. M., Friedman, S. B. S. (2001). Clean Water Act. In Environmental Law Handbook (16th edition pp. 252-256). Rockville, MD: Government Institutes. [Electronic version] Gomez, J. A., (2013). Water Infrastructure Approaches and Issues for Financing Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office. [Electronic version] Hassen, A., Heyouni, A., Shayeb, H., Cherif, M., Boudabou, A. (2000). Inactivation of indicator bacteria in wastewater by chlorinea kinetics study. Bioresource Technology, 72, 8593. [Electronic version] Klock, J., Gonzalez, I. M. (2012). The Study of Biological Wastewater Treatment through Biofilm Development on Synthetic Material vs. Membranes. Unpublished dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. [Electronic version] Koivunen, J., Siitonen, A., Tanski, H. H., (2003). Elimination of enteric bacteria in biologicalchemical wastewater treatment and tertiary filtration units. Water Research, 37, 690698. [Electronic version] Lusk, M., Toor, G. S., Obreza, T. (2011). Onsite Sewage Treatment and Disposal Systems: Phosphorus. University of Flordia. Retrieved November 16, 2013, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu

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Mountain Empire Community College. (n.d.). Chlorination. Retrieved November 28, 2013, from
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Muskie, E. S. (1978). The Meaning of the 1977 Clean Water Act. EPA Journal. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://www2.epa.gov/aboutepa/meaning-1977-clean-water-act Naddeo, V., Landi, M., Belgiorno, V., Napoli, R. M. A. (2009). Wastewater disinfection by combination of ultrasound and ultraviolet irradiation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 168, 925-929. Osei, K., Andoh, R. (2008). Optimal Grit Removal and Control in Collection Systems and at Treatment Plants. Honolulu, HI: World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008. [Electronic version] Pagilla, K. (2010). Clarification (Settling): Theory and Applications. Plant Operations Seminar. DeKalb, IL: Illinois Institute of Technology. Retrieved November 23, 2013, from
http://www.iweasite.org/Conferences/plt_ops_conf/2010_smr_clarifier.pdf

Patel, T., Gill, L., Faram, M. G. (2011). Grit Removal from Wastewater Using Secondary Currents in Open-Channel Flow around Bends. American Society of Civil Engineers. [Electronic version] Patziger, M., Kainz, H., Hunze, M., Jozsa, J. (2012). Influence of secondary settling tank performance on suspended solids mass balance in activated sludge systems. Water Research. 46, 2415-2424. [Electronic version] Perez, G., Fernandez-Alba, A. R., Urtiaga, A. M., Ortiz, I. (2010). Electro-oxidation of reverse osmosis concentrates generated in tertiary water treatment. Water Research, 44, 27632772. [Electronic version]

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Rossi, L., Cheure, N., Fankhauser, R., Margot, J., Curdy, R., Babut, M., & Barry, D. A. (2013). Sediment contamination assessment in urban areas based on total suspended solids. Water Research, 47, 339-350. [Electronic version] State of Michigan. (n.d.). Total Suspended Solids. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from
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University of Minnesota. (2011). Wastewater Treatment Best Practices. Minnesota Water Sustainability Framework. Retrieved November 23, 2013, from
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U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. (n.d.). Digest of Federal Resource Laws of Interest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from http://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/fwatrpo.html

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