Chapter 3 - Consolidation

Contents
3.1 3.2 Introduction Consolidation 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.3 Coefficient of compressibility mv Coefficient of Consolidation cv Comments on mv and cv

Oedometer Test 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 Calculating mv from Oedometer test Calculating cv from the Oedometer Test (Taylors t Method) Calculating cv from the Oedometer Test (Casagrandes log time method) Types of Consolidation Limitation of the Oedometer Tests

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3.1

Introduction

BACK

There are several potential sources of settlement:

Compaction This is the expulsion of AIR from within the soil. Vibration from traffic, pile driving and earthquakes can have a similar effect on loose soil.

Moisture Changes Some clays significantly changes in volume with changes in moisture content.

Annual surface

movements of 20-30mm have been recorded with London clay. The black cotton soils occurring in a part of Central Africa and Central America expand and shrink considerably.

Vegetation Some tree roots extend further radically than the height of the tree. Ideally new trees should be planted at least 1.5 times the height it will achieve when mature, away from any buildings.

Water Table The effective weight of soil is reduced when it is submerged due to the principle of effective stress (similar to Archimedes Principle). Lowering the water table increases the effective pressure from the soil which can cause the layers beneath to compress.

Elastic Distortion All Solids distort when loaded. Elastic deformation of soil occurs almost immediately after loading. Settlement due to this factor is therefore termed immediate settlement.

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3.2

Consolidation

BACK

This occurs when water is squeezed out of a soil by an applied load. The two most important aspects of consolidation are:

1. 2.

the magnitude of the settlement and the rate at which it occurs.

These can be calculated from the following two soil parameters:

Coefficient of compressibility Coefficient of consolidation

mv cv

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3.2.1 Coefficient of compressibility mv

BACK

This is defined as the volume change per unit volume per unit increase in effective stress. The units of mv are m /MN. If one-dimensional compression is assumed then the total consolidation settlement s of a clay layer of thickness H under a pressure increment of dP is given by
2

s = mv dP H

Fig. 1

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3.2.2 Coefficient of Consolidation cv

BACK

This is used to predict the rate at which settlement will occur. It is related to the coefficient of permeability k and unit weight of water w as well as mv.

cv =

k mv w

(m /year)

The time for a set amount of consolidation to occur is calculated using:-

Tv =

cvtv d2

where Tv = tv = d =

time factor related to the degree of consolidation Uavg, given in standard tables time for that settlement to occur length of drainage path

e.g.

If the total settlement s = 100mm, then to calculate the time for 90mm settlement (Uavg = 90%), the value of Tv from table is 0.848. Hence substituting this together with values for cv and d in the above equation enables the time for 90% settlement to be calculated.

Fig. 2

Tv =

U% 4 100

for U = 0 to 60 % for U > 60 %

Tv = 1.781 - 0.933 log (100 - U%)

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3.2.3 Comments on mv and cv

1. 2. 3. 4. mv decreases with an increase in stress k decreases as void ratio decreases during consolidation As both k and mv vary with the stress level, so does cv

BACK

the values of mv and cv obtained are affected by the simplifying assumption used in different methods of analyzing the lab. test results However, mv and cv are usually treated as constants in design problems, and values appropriate for the stress level selected.

5.

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3.3

Oedometer Test

BACK

This test enables values of mv and cv to be determined in the lab. The sample is submerged in water so that it remains saturated. A vertical load is applied at time intervals, the sample compression is recorded until it appears steady (usually 24 hrs). The load is increased and the procedure repeated for several times.

Fig. 3

3.3.1 Calculating mv from Oedometer test

mv is defined as volume change per unit volume per unit pressure increase V2 V0 dh = as the X-sectional area is constant V0 h0

BACK

Volume change / unit volume =

Hence

mv =

dh 1 h0 dP

Where

dP dh h0

= an increase in pressure = corresponding decrease in sample thickness = thickness of sample before pressure increase

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The final sample thickness at the end of each pressure increment is plotted against the applied pressure on a logarithmic scale.

Fig. 4 For each 100 kN/m pressure increment

Note : 1. 2. 3. Ensure that you measure Express mv in m /MN. When finding a natural gradient such as dh from a log graph, extending the length of the dP
2 2 2

dh and h0 are measured from the graph dP

dh dh and not . dP d(log P)

tangent over which the gradient is measured does not increase the accuracy. 4. BS 1377 has standardized on a pressure increment of 100kN/m when calculating mv.

Fig. 5

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3.3.2 Calculating cv from the Oedometer Test (Taylors t Method ) BACK

A graphical method of finding t90, the time for 90% primary consolidation is used. The compression dial gauge reading is plotted against the square root of time as a separate graph for each load increment.

From Theory of consolidation, a curve relating the degree of consolidation and time factor Tv can be calculated.

For uniform pore-water pressure (m=1) the value of Tv for 90% consolidation is T90 = 0.848 Theoretically, consolidation settlement is proportional to t up to about 60% consolidation.

Fig. 6

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Step 1 Correct for the initial compression by projecting the straight line portion of the curve back to the axis to give the corrected zero point z. Note that point X where the curve and line diverge should be about 50% to 60% consolidation. This fact can be used if there is doubt over where the straight line part of the curve is.

Step 2 Through z draw a line such that the t values are 1.15 times those of the previous line.

Step 3 The value of t where the green line intersects the consolidation settlement curve is t the time at which 90% of the primary consolidation is complete.
90

where t90 is

Step 4 The values of t90 and T90are substituted in the equation For cv

T90 =

c v t 90 d2

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In the oedometer two-way drainage takes places because there is a porous plate on both top and bottom of the sample.

Drainage Path d = 0.5 H

Where H = thickness of the soil specimen

Substituting

0.848 =

(H / 4)
2

c v t 90

cv =

0.212H2 t 90

Unit for cv is m / year Convert mm 2 m2 to multiply by 0.5256 min year

Fig. 7

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3.3.3 Calculating cv from the Oedometer Test (Casagrandes log time method) BACK
The compression dial gauge reading is plotted against the logarithm of time as a separate graph for each load increment.

Fig. 8

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Step 1 Correct for the initial compression : Any 2 points A and B are chosen on the initial curved portion of the graph such that their t values are in the ratio of 1 : 4, i.e. 2 mins and 8 mins. The corrected zero s0 is the same vertical distance above A that A is above B.

Step 2 Find the point where 100% primary consolidation is complete, s100, at the intersection between the 2 linear portion of the graph.

Step 3 Find the point corresponding to 50% primary consolidation, at halfway between s0 and s100 on the compression axis.

Step 4 Determine the time at 50% primary consolidation, t50. In this case, we need the time value T50 from table.

T50 = 0.197

T50 = cv =

c v t 50 d2

0.049H2 t 50

where H = 2d = the thickness of the specimen

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3.3.4 Types of Consolidation

Initial Compression

BACK

initial rapid settlement and is mainly the result of compressing any air present or slight particle orientation.

Primary consolidation Commence when water is squeezed out of the soil. On the compression graph obtained from Oedometer test (both t and log t methods) this is considered to take place between zero and the 100% consolidation point. However, some secondary consolidation will also have commenced during this period.

Secondary consolidation Final and slowest stage sometimes called soil creep and usually ignored in inorganic soils. It is mainly due to delayed re-orientation of the soil particles due to the high viscosity of the absorbed water layers.

Natural consolidation During natural deposition soils and clays undergo consolidation due to the weight of soil layers deposited above. After a period of time equilibrium is reached and the compression ceases. It is then fully consolidated. If there is no change in stress between that time and the present day the soil is said to be normally consolidated. If the present overburden pressure is less than the final

consolidation pressure sometime past, then the soil is said to be over consolidated. As example is where soil has consolidated under the weight of an ice-sheet which subsequently retreated.

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3.3.5 Limitation of the Oedometer Tests

1.

BACK

Friction between the soil sample and the metal confining ring reduces the actual load acting on the soil sample by up to 6%.

2.

Generally the actual rate of settlement is greater on site than in the test. This may be due to the presence of soil fabric features affecting the drainage conditions.

3.

In the test the sample ring prevents horizontal drainage.

If soil fabric features such as

laminations are present, drainage in the field will be predominantly horizontal and therefore more rapid than in the test.

4.

Size of sample used is small and may not truly representative of the condition on the site. Features such as small root holes, may either be disproportionately numerous or absent in a sample.

5.

If improving reliability of consolidated parameters of design problems merits a higher level of accuracy than provided in the standard test of soil fabric is clearly present, the following procedure may be considered :

(a)

soil permeability k is measured in a field pumping test and mv is measured with an Oedometer then cv can be deduced

(b)

larger and more representative samples can be tested in a Rowe consolidation cell. This apparatus has the facility to permit either vertical or horizontal drainage

(c)

Standard Oedometer is sometimes modified to permit horizontal drainage.

This is

achieved by either taking the sample in a vertical plane or by replacing the horizontal porous plates by a porous ring.

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