Rachel Dobbs Chris Malone

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To what extent does realism differ from liberalism in the assumptions it makes about international politics? Which theoretical approach makes the most reasonable assumptions about the post-Cold War world? The period of the Cold War, from 1 4! to 1 1, "as characteri#ed b$ s%stained political and militar$ conflict bet"een po"ers in the Western &loc 'primaril$ the (nited )tates "ith *+T, amon-st its allies. and )o/iet po"ers in the 0astern &loc 'primaril$ the )o/iet (nion, as "ell as the Warsa" 1act.2 These tensions ha/e had a h%-e impact on the c%lt%ral identit$ and ideolo-$ of a -eneration2 ,ne of the most ob/io%s c%lt%ral conse3%ences of the Cold War "as the belief that the conse3%ences of %sin- militar$ po"er ma$ o%t"ei-h the benefits 'the period "as intensel$ colo%red b$ the threat of 4m%t%all$ ass%red destr%ction5. and, in doin- so, sa" realism be replaced b$ liberalism as the primar$ theor$ of international relations2 This in t%rn led to an increased prominence of international or-ani#ations s%ch as the (nited *ations and the brea6do"n of bipolarit$ leadin- to the c%rrent %nipolar international s$stem in "hich *+T, and the co%ntries "ith "hich it is s%pposed to be at peace acco%nt for o/er !07 of -lobal militar$ e8pendit%re2 9o"e/er, I "ill ar-%e that the mo/ement to"ards liberalism can almost be seen as a 6nee:;er6 reaction to the terror -enerated b$ realist politics d%rin- the Cold War era and, as s%ch, the ass%mptions that it ma6es -o too far2 Therefore, either a "holl$ liberal or realist theor$ ma6es completel$ reasonable ass%mptions and predictions abo%t international relations beca%se neither ma6es completel$ reasonable ass%mptions abo%t h%man nat%re2 I shall ar-%e this b$ disc%ssin- the ass%mptions made b$ both theories and the benefits and disad/anta-es of these ass%mptions in e8plainin- modern international politics2 In doin- so, I "ill disc%ss the "a$s in "hich the Cold War has infl%enced the c%rrent international politic landscape and ho" these chan-es contradict the ass%mptions made b$ both realism and liberalism2 I "ill %ltimatel$ ar-%e that "hile there is still merit in each theoretical approach, it is the ;%8taposition the$ offer that ma6es them the most %sef%l for st%d$in- international relations2 I shall disc%ss t"o branches of realism< the classical realism that "as primaril$ o%tlined b$ Carr in The Twenty Years Crisis and the neorealism or 4str%ct%ral realism5 espo%sed b$ Walt# in his Theory of International Politics. &oth branches rel$ on the ass%mption that the international s$stem is inherentl$ anarchic, and that forei-n polic$ decisions of political actors are dri/en b$ the balance of po"er bet"een states2 Despite this, the t"o branches differ on "hether this is s$stemic or d%e to inherentl$ selfish biases in h%man nat%re '"hich the actors themsel/es ma$ be %na"are of.2 9o"e/er, both branches predict that =amon- states, the state of nat%re is a state of "ar2>1 This ass%mption is based on t"o some"hat different ass%mptions for each branch2 Carr "as compelled to de/elop his theor$ of realism follo"in- the &olshe/i6 Re/ol%tion and t"o World Wars, d%rin- "hich problems "ith the %topian /ie" that %nderpinned comm%nism "ere hi-hli-hted : as a res%lt, Carr5s form%lation of realism is diametricall$ opposed to the %topianism, "hich he described as immat%re, statinthat =the characteristic /ice of the %topian is nai/et$2>2 The period also offered concrete e8amples of forei-n polic$ decisions that "ere moti/ated b$ morall$ 4-ood5 actions that none the less led to ne-ati/e o%tcomes2 Mor-entha% -i/es the e8ample of
1Walt#, ?enneth *2, Theory of International Politics 2 Carr, 0292, The Twenty Years Crisis, p-213

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*e/ille Chamberlain, statin- that his =politics of appeasement "ere, as far as "e can ;%d-e, inspired b$ -ood moti/es< he "as probabl$ less moti/ated b$ considerations of personal po"er than "ere man$ other &ritish prime ministers, and he so%-ht to preser/e peace and to ass%re the happiness of all concerned2 @et his policies helped to ma6e the )econd World War ine/itable, and to brin- %ntold miseries to millions of men2>3 9e -oes on to -i/e an opposin- e8ample of Winston Ch%rchill "hose =moti/es, on the other hand, "ere m%ch less %ni/ersal in scope and m%ch more narro"l$ directed to"ard personal and national po"er, $et the forei-n policies that spran- from these inferior moti/es "ere certainl$ s%perior in moral and political 3%alit$ to those p%rs%ed b$ his predecessor2>4 Whilst Carr did not ad/ocate the remo/al of moralit$ from politics, it is li6el$ that the e/ents of the pre/io%s 40 $ears colo%red his /ie" that moralit$ "as not a necessar$ re3%irement of -ood forei-n polic$ and helped shaped the realist /ie" that it is often secondar$ to e8ternal e/ents in terms of political o%tcomes2 Walt#, con/ersel$, sa" the anarch$ of international politics as ha/in- a str%ct%ral, s$stematic basis2 9e felt that the international s$stem "as f%ndamentall$ different to national s$stem and that states sho%ld be re-arded as stand alone %nits2 9e belie/ed that this difference contrib%ted to the need for /iolence and militar$ stren-th in forei-n polic$2 9e li6ened the limitin- effect that the international positional str%ct%re has on cooperation bet"een states to the one oli-opolistic mar6ets ha/e on cooperation bet"een firms, "ith both str%ct%res forcin- indi/id%al %nits to primaril$ loo6 o%t for themsel/es and creatin- s$stems dictated b$ the principle of 4self help52 9e h$pothesi#ed that =a national s$stem is not one of self:help2 The international s$stem is>A and stated that =in an$ self:help s$stem, %nits "orr$ abo%t their s%r/i/al and the "orr$ conditions their beha/ior222str%ct%res enco%ra-e certain beha/iors and penali#e those "ho do not respond to the enco%ra-ement2>B This s%--ests that the beha/ior of states is primaril$ dri/en b$ the desire for self:protection "hich leads to the -eneral realist ass%mption that states "ill act in order to address discrepancies in the international balance of po"er2 )%ch a theor$ led to later neo:realists predictin- that the end of the Cold War, and the dominance of one of the t"o bipolar po"ers that this "o%ld necessitate, "o%ld lead to an increase in international /iolence2 The$ en/isioned that the other stron- states of the "orld "o%ld ali-n to pro/ide a co%nter"ei-ht to the apparent dominance of the of the (2)2 in "orld affairs, statin- that =the prospects for ma;or crises and "ar in 0%rope are li6el$ to increase mar6edl$ if the Cold War ends2>! This predicted increase in /iolence and the n%mber of states en-a-ed in international politics "as e8pected to lead to a transition from the bipolar po"er str%ct%re of the Cold War to a m%ltipolar one2 This "o%ld e/ent%all$ lead to a rebalancin- and spreadin- of po"er "hich "as %ltimatel$ predicated to =res%lt in the disinte-ration of *+T, beca%se alliances onl$ e8ist in response to a specific threat2>C These predictions completel$ fail to describe the sit%ation that act%all$ did emer-e after the end of the Cold War, s%--estin- an inabilit$ in the ass%mptions of both
3 Mor-entha%, 9ans2 D2, Politics Among Nations: The Str ggle for Power an! Peace, p-2 C 4 Ibid2 A Walt#, p-2 104 B Walt#, p-2 10A E 10B ! Mearsheimer, Dohn D2 "ac# to $ t re: Insta%ility in & ro'e after the Col! (ar '1 0. CFa$ne, Christopher, The )ni'olar Ill sion: (hy New *reat Powers (ill +ise '1 3.

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classical and neoliberalism to ade3%atel$ anal$se the modern "orld2 Instead, *+T, has e8panded, "elcomin- ne" members and %nderta6in- ne" pro;ects to"ards the sec%rit$ of its members2 The desire to balance po"er b$ "hate/er militar$ means a/ailable also seems to s%--est that realism predicted an increase in states holdinn%clear arms "ith Mearsheimer s%--estin- that %ncontrolled n%clear proliferation "as li6el$2 This has not occ%rred and seems %nli6el$ to occ%r2 In fact, there ha/e been man$ international attempts to red%ce n%clear "eapons2 Rather than bein- a strate-ic de/elopment, I belie/e that the increasin-l$ international a/ersion to n%clear "eapons "as -enerated b$ -ro"in- -lobal moral a"areness10 that the horror threatened b$ n%clear "arfare "as a more important consideration than the sec%rit$ it offered 'catal$#ed b$ the 4on the brin65 nat%re of the C%ban Missile Crisis, in "hich the threat of a n%clear disaster far -reater than 9iroshima11 "as bro%-ht into sharp relief, and often seemed to ha/e been a/oided b$ chance.2 The fail%re of realists to predict decreased international interest in n%clear "eapons reflects another ass%mption of realism : that non:state actors ha/e /er$ little infl%ence in international affairs2 +n e8ample of a non:state actor infl%encin- international politics can be fo%nd in 2012, "hen on the th of ,ctober the bloc6ade on Iran "as made more strin-ent, not b$ a state, b%t b$ the "orld5s bi--est shippin- compan$, Maers62 Maers6 decided to cease all commercial acti/it$ "ith Iran to protect its rep%tation "ith Western co%ntries2 =+s a res%lt of the sanctions, the Iranian rial has pl%mmeted in /al%e a-ainst other international c%rrencies>12 "hich -i/es clear e/idence of a non:state actor infl%encin- the relationship and po"er d$namic bet"een states2 +n e/en more prominent e8ample of this is the War on Terror, notabl$ the onl$ "ar that the (2) has been in/ol/ed "ith in the last decade, in "hich the (2)2 declared "ar on a non:state actor, +l:Gaeda2 Clearl$ the ass%mptions that %nderpin realism ha/e failed in man$ respects to lead to acc%rate ass%mptions abo%t the post:Cold War "orld2 Whilst realism is based on the ass%mption that the balance of po"er is the 6e$ determinate of international political action, liberalism is based %pon the less easil$ defined ass%mption that their e8ist certain inalienable /al%es that are applicable "orld"ide, s%ch as e3%alit$ and ;%stice2 This is a more nat%ral h%man ass%mption than the reliance on onl$ ca%sal e/ents that strict realism demands, and in his disc%ssion on realism Carr notes that realism at its most e8treme demands a belief in determinism "hilst liberalism, "ith its belief in a certain set of /al%es that man6ind m%st "or6 to-ether to achie/e, offers a -reater endorsement of the h%man capacit$ for free "ill213 The Ho/ernment of the (nited )tates is fo%nded on liberal ideas, "ith its reliance on a constit%tion that enshrines -eneral principles abo%t the correct state and moral character of a democratic -o/ernment 'i2e2 The Declaration of Independence states that =all men are created e3%al>. is fo%nded on liberal ass%mptions2 Whilst
Mearsheimer '1 0. 10 Whilst ?hr%shche/ is attrib%ted "ith ha/in- said that, in the e/ent of a n%clear "ar, =the li/in- "ill en/$ the dead>, the threat posed b$ n%clear "eapons and the destr%ction the$ "ere capable of also had a -reater c%lt%ral resonance o%tside of the political sphere2 Ior e8ample &ob D$lan5s famo%s son- 4+ 9ard Rain5s a:Honna Iall5 "as "ritten d%rin- the C%ban Missile Crisis and so -reat "as the -eneral feelin- that n%clear annihilation "as ine/itable that D$lan later said that the son- =consisted entirel$ of the first lines of son-s JheK tho%-ht JheK "o%ld ne/er ha/e time to "rite2> 11 httpL//"""2forei-npolic$2com/articles/2012/0!/1!/"hatM"asMatMsta6eMinM1 B2 12 &&C, ,ct 2012 13 Carr, p-2 13

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realism concerns itself "ith the realit$ of a states circ%mstances 's%ch as militar$ capacit$., liberalism is more concerned "ith the ideolo-ical preferences of that state2 This ass%mption means that liberalism can incl%de a conception of international affairs "here state interaction is not merel$ limited to political or militar$ conflict or cohesion, b%t can also incl%de economic and c%lt%ral interactions2 Whilst realism remained the dominant theor$ of international relations at the end of World War II, liberalism be-an to emer-e as a /iable alternati/e d%rin- 'and beca%se. of the Cold War, in the form of neoliberalism2 *eoliberalism, "hich de/eloped as a response to neorealism, has as a central ass%mption the idea that states sho%ld be primaril$ interested in helpin- to -enerate absol%te -ains for the international comm%nit$ as a "hole rather than simpl$ p%rs%in- their o"n a-endas2 This ass%mption allo"s neoliberalism to more acc%ratel$ reflect the modern "orld than classical liberalism, as it allo"s the en-a-ement of states in beneficial political and economic str%ct%res s%ch as international free trade a-reements2 It also s%--ests that peace and ;%stice can be achie/ed on an international scale thro%-h states "or6in- to-ether on inter:state or-ani#ations s%ch as the (nited *ations2 9o"e/er, ;%st as "ith realism, the ass%mptions on "hich liberalism and neoliberalism are based are too e8treme to ade3%atel$ reflect h%man nat%re and h%man beha/ior, e/en on s%ch a -rand a scale as international politics2 The ass%mption that states are interested in the "orld at lar-e rather than merel$ their o"n affairs can onl$ -o so far2 Whilst the (nited *ations has been re-%larl$ s%ccessf%l in its -oal to foster international sec%rit$ and peace since its fo%ndation after the )econd World War, there are times "hen it has been se/erel$ compromised b$ states actin- in their o"n interest or its rel%ctance to act in sit%ations "hich are clearl$ instances of states ab%sin- the h%man ri-hts of their citi#ens2 +n e8ample of this is the )ri Fan6an Ci/il War, in "hich the (2*2 "as -i/en se/eral reports from /ario%s independent so%rces that "ar crimes "ere occ%rrin- in the co%ntr$ b%t too6 no action2 This "as despite the (2*2 )ecretar$:Heneral &a ?i:Moon admittin- to bein- =appalled> b$ the sit%ation in the co%ntr$, and more than B,A00 ci/ilians bein- 6illed "hilst in one of the co%ntr$5s official 4safe:#ones2514 Therefore both realism and liberalism are based on ass%mptions that are %nable to completel$ describe the international s$stem that emer-ed follo"in- the Cold War2 This is beca%se, on both side, the ass%mptions that %nderpin both theoretical approaches are too e8treme to be applied e8actl$ to realit$2 9o"e/er "hen st%died to-ether, the$ pro/ide a %sef%l frame"or6 in "hich to anal$se the international interaction of states "ith the limitations of both theories allo"in- %s a better %nderstandin- of the ad/anta-es of the other2

14 httpL//list/erse2com/2013/01/2C/top:10:fail%res:of:the:%nited:nations:2/

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&iblio-raph$L &ro"n, Chris E +inle$, ?irsten, )n!erstan!ing International +elations, Macmillan '3rd 0ditionL 200A. Carr, 0292, The Twenty Years Crisis, Macmillan '1 4B. Mor-entha%, 9ans2 D2, Politics Among Nations: The Str ggle for Power an! Peace, McHra":9ill '200A. Walt#, ?enneth *2, Theory of International Politics, +ddison:Wesle$ '1 !C. De%dne$ E I6enberr$, NThe *at%re and )o%rces of Fiberal International ,rderN, +e,iew of International St !ies 2A '1 . )la%-ther, +nne:Marie, -i%eral International +elations Theory . International &conomic -aw '1 A. p-2 !2! 'httpL//"""2a%ilr2or-/pdf/10/10:2:A2pdf : accessed on 11/10/13. Dac6son, Robert E )Orensen, Heor-, Intro! ction to International +elations: Theories an! A''roaches '4th 0ditionL 2010. Mearsheimer, Dohn D2 "ac# to $ t re: Insta%ility in & ro'e after the Col! (ar, International )ec%rit$ 1A '1 0. Fa$ne, Christopher, The )ni'olar Ill sion: (hy New *reat Powers (ill +ise, International )ec%rit$ 1! '1 3.