Defects why they occur, how to stop them

To design a welded fabrication, properties of the parent metals such as strength, fracture toughness, corrosion and wear resistance must be known. Selected parent metals and welding consumables can be used to manufacture procedure testpieces which represent the fabrication in respect of joint thickness, restraint and welding position, and the results of procedure testing will show whether the design requirements have been fulfilled. The third link in the quality chain is the welder, who has to undergo approval testing to confirm that he has the skill to weld to the level required by the procedure tests. The standard of quality agreed by the contractor and the client is likely to be based on a published specification or code such as BS 4870 Approval testing of welding procedures, or one of the many applications standards such as the ASME Pressure Vessel Codes. By the Autumn of 1992 the new European standards EN287-288 will supersede BS 4870 and BS 4871. These standards specify acceptance levels for mechanical properties as well as for defects such as porosity or slag inclusions. These acceptance levels for defects are arbitrary and are thought in some quarters to be somewhat conservative when considered on a fitness-for-purpose basis. However, these acceptance standards are invaluable for use in quality control of welded fabrications because it is quite reasonable to expect a properly trained welder to attain them. Nevertheless, there are occasions when there is some reduction in weld quality that may be difficult or costly to repair or whose non-acceptance would delay production with severe penalties. In such cases an appraisal known as an engineering critical assessment (ECA) based on fracture mechanics principles may prove that the defects will have no significant effects on the integrity of a structure. At one time acceptance standards for defects tended to be progressively raised as techniques of non-destructive examination were improved, involving extensive and costly rectification.

Today we have a much deeper understanding of the significance of defects and this will be considered in a further article. First it is useful to consider the causes of defects. This will provide some guidance on measures necessary to minimise them. Defects in welds may be classified into three categories as follows:

Planar flaws, i.e. flat with sharp edges; Non-planar flaws, i.e. 3-dimensional or volumetric; Weld profile flaws.

Hydrogen induced heat affected zone cracking

Causes and prevention of defects

A knowledge of the causes of defects enables precautions to be taken to prevent or limit their occurrence.

Planar flaws
Solidification or centreline cracking
Causes Depth to width ratio of weld too small (<1) or too large (>1.4). High carbon or sulphur content. Large root gaps. Prevention Adjust welding parameters to give depth to width ratio of 1-1.4. Reduce carbon or sulphur content by cleaning off all traces of oil or grease. (Although principal source of carbon and sulphur is the weld metal.) Reduce penetration and dilution. Control fit-up to reduce gaps. Plan welding procedure to reduce thermally induced strains.

Hydrogen induced cracks (Ferritic steels)

These may occur in the heat affected zone or in weld metal. Causes High carbon or alloy content in parent metal. High strength weld metal. Small weld beads (low energy). Thick plate and high restraint. Inadequate reheat. Hydrogen dissolved in the weld originating from moisture in the consumables or contaminants such as rust or grease on parent plate. Prevention Preheat. Use adequate arc energy. Control moisture in consumables. Clean joint preparation.

Lamellar tearing
Causes Low ductility in the through-thickness direction in rolled plate due to planes of nonmetallic inclusions. Incorrect joint design which produces maximum contraction stresses perpendicular to plane of inclusions. Prevention Correct joint design to provide edge preparations having bevel angles approximately 45 to surface of susceptible plate. Butter surface of susceptible plate with or without prior grooving of plate surface. Use Z-quality plate.

Lack of sidewall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root fusion

Causes Arc energy too low because of low current or high travel speed. Flooding of weld metal ahead of arc can occur if travel speed too low or current too high or if the weld preparation is too narrow. Prevention Use correct welding parameters. Use adequate included angle in edge preparation. Use correct electrode angle.

Incomplete root penetration

Causes Excessively thick root face or insufficient root gap. Vertical-down welding more susceptible than vertical-up. Arc energy too low. Electrode too large. Misalignment of weld on second side of butt joint. Inadequate back gouging. Prevention Correct weld preparation (root face and gap). Use correct back gouging procedure. Use adequate arc energy, e.g. change from dip transfer to spray transfer in MAG or MIG or both depending on material being welded. Align weld on reverse side with weld on first side.

Lamellar tearing

Undercut
Causes High welding current with arc directed towards vertical member in horizontal-vertical fillet or butt weld. Fillet weld too large, i.e. leg length >9mm. Excessive weaving especially in vertical position. Incorrect electrode angle. Prevention Use correct electrode, current and manipulation. Use multi-run welding for large welds. Weld in flat position if possible.

Overlap
Causes Travel speed too low for deposition rate. Horizontal-vertical fillet weld too large, i.e. leg length >9mm. Incorrect electrode manipulation. Prevention Use correct combination of current and travel speed. Use multi-run welding for large welds. Use correct electrode manipulation with adequate dwell at edge of weld on horizontal plate in horizontal-vertical fillet welds.

Non-planar flaws
Uniform porosity
Causes Trapped gas pores originating from moisture, rust, grease or other contaminants on consumables or parent metal. Water leaks or loss of gas shield, or air entrainment in gas shield. Abnormally long arc in MMA welding. Prevention Eliminate sources of harmful gases, e.g. dry electrodes, protect arc from draughts when MAG/MIG welding, clean edge preparations.

Wormholes
Causes Excessive entrapment of gas forms elongated cavities which grow progressively between the solidifying metal grains. Causes are similar to those of uniform porosity but wormholes are more likely when contamination is excessive, e.g. presence of paint films, certain welding primers or other contaminants. Prevention Remove source of contamination. Use suitable welding primer at recommended coating thickness. Use low travel speed.

Restart porosity
Causes Delay in establishment of fluxing and shielding at start of weld run. Prevention Train welder in start up technique especially for basic electrodes. Use run on plates for mechanised welding processes.

Uniform porosity within a weld

Incomplete root penetration

Surface porosity
Causes Excessive formation of gases from similar sources to those that form uniform or wormhole porosity but where the rate of solidification of the weld surface partially traps escaping gas. Prevention Similar precautions to those for uniform porosity.

Slag inclusions
These may be isolated or linear inclusions. Causes Loss of slag control because of incorrect manipulation of electrode. Slag flooding in front of arc if joint line is tilted downwards. Fluid slag. Narrow, deep edge preparations. Convex profile in multi-run welds. Lack of interpass cleaning. Prevention Train welder in correct technique. Reposition work. Use electrode having viscous slag. Use effective interpass cleaning, grinding if necessary.

Weld profile flaws

Excess weld metal
Causes Shallow or no edge preparation. Electrode size too large. Travel speed too low for deposition rate. Prevention Use suitable edge preparation. Use correct electrode size. Control travel speed.

Isolated slag inclusion

Excessive penetration
Causes Gap width too large. Root face too small. Gap between plate and backing strip. Energy input too high. Low level of welder skill. Prevention Use correct gap and root face. Ensure good fit of backing strip. Restrict energy input. Train welder.

Root concavity
Causes Root face too large. Energy input too low. Excessive backing gas pressure. Slag flooding in backing bar groove. Prevention Use correct root face. Use adequate energy input. Control backing gas pressure. Train welder.

Misalignment
Causes Inaccuracy in assembly procedures. Excessive out-of-flatness of plates or sections. Distortion caused by previous welds. Prevention Accurate fitting. Check flatness of plates. Control welding sequence. Use adequate clamping.

Non-alignment of two abutting edges

General rules for prevention of defects

Today most engineers appreciate that welding quality originates in the design office. A simple check list for use of design staff containing the most important guidelines is given below.

Always check weldability. Provide sufficient access. Avoid overhead welding if possible. Discuss edge preparations with a welding engineer. Avoid joint configurations that are highly stressed during the welding operation. Specify fillet weld sizes (minimum and maximum). Check choice of welding consumables with a welding engineer. Limit the number of welds whenever possible by use of sections, castings or forgings. Consider the practical problems of preheating.

Before fabrication commences, final checks should be made by an inspector or the welder on the main factors that influence weld quality such as:

Included angle; Root face; Gap; Alignment; Fit up, including accuracy of fit of backing strips; Cleanliness of joint faces and surrounding area; Storage ovens for electrodes - check temperature; Preheating equipment- temperature controllers and recorders; Electrode and filler wire types and sizes; Fluxes and shielding gases required; Details on welding procedure sheets.