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Rutherford Scattering

Ernest Rutherford

Thompson and Rutherford models of the atom

Little Boy

The first experiments designed to probe the inner structure of the atom were carried out by Ernest Rutherford in 1910-1911. Hitherto, the Thomson model of the atom had been widely accepted. This model consists of electrons distributed in a sea of positive charge and consequently is also known as the plum pudding model. Rutherfords work involved projecting alpha particles at thin metal foils and observing their deflection. Unexpectedly, Rutherford observed that some alpha particles were scattered through large angles, up to nearly 180. Rutherford later wrote:
It was quite the most incredible event that ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as if you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you

The only way to explain these observations was to postulate that all the positive charge in the atom was contained in a volume much smaller (10-12 times) than the volume of the atom itself. Thus, Rutherford had discovered the nucleus and the age of nuclear physics had begun.

Objectives 1. To record the direct counting rate Nd of -particles scattered by a gold foil as function of the scattering angle . 2. To correct the counting rates measured in one plane for the fact that the foil scatters in a 3D cone. 3. To validate Rutherfords scattering formula. 4. To determine the atomic number of aluminium experimentally. Version 1.0, 06/08/08

2 Key safety 1. Never touch the delicate gold foil 2. When venting the chamber after the experiment has been completed, turn the source/foil assembly to 0 and allow air into the vacuum chamber very slowly, otherwise you may destroy the delicate gold foil 3. Always vent the vacuum system before switching off the vacuum pump 4. Do not touch the radioactive source. The source will be handled by lab staff only.

Apparatus Scattering chamber Vacuum pump Discriminator preamplifier Cassy with timer box Gold foil (2 m) Aluminium foil (7 m) 5 mm slit Useful constants e = 1.6021 x 10 C -12 0 = 8.8524 x 10 C/Vm ZAu= 79
-19

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3 Background Rutherford scattering If -particles are allowed to strike a thin gold foil, they are each deflected from their path by a scattering angle . The majority of -particles are scattered by angles less than 1 as illustrated by Fig. 1.

A few particles, however, are scattered by substantially larger scattering angles ; in the extreme case up to 180 (back scattering). These initially qualitative observations can only be explained by assuming that the gold atoms have a very small positively charged nucleus containing practically the whole atomic mass. On the basis of this idea, Rutherford calculated the angular distribution of the scattering rate N(). The scattering rate is defined as the number of particles scattered per unit time over a small angular range d around an average angle . The result of this calculation is Rutherfords scattering formula: N ( ) = N 0 c F d F Z 2 e4 (8 0 E ) 2 sin 4 ( 2) (1)

N0= number of incident -particles cF = atomic concentration of the foil dF = foil thickness Z = atomic number of the foil E= energy of the -particles e = elementary charge 0= dielectric constant Recording the scattering rate as function of angle In this experiment, the coefficients in equation 1 are constant so the scattering as a function of angle can be described by:
f ( ) = 1 sin ( 2)
4

(2)

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4 The function f() decreases rapidly with increasing scattering angle as illustrated by Fig. 2. Note that f() is plotted on a logarithmic scale. Since a singularity occurs at = 0, we will only compare experimental results with the theoretical curve outside this region, i.e. for values || 5. Since the counting rates become very small at higher scattering angles, the counting times have to be increased as a function of . This ensures that enough counts are recorded at each angle to avoid large statistical errors. In order to keep the total measuring time reasonable, the angular range is restricted to || 30 in this experiment.

Because of the very short range of -particles in air this experiment must be carried out under vacuum. The -particles emitted from the Am-241 source pass through a 5 mm wide slit onto the gold foil and are scattered through various angles. The scattered -particles are recorded with a semiconductor detector. By changing the angle of the detector relative to the foil in steps of 5, for example, the scattering rate can be determined for all scattering angles from 5 to 30. With the setup here, this is accomplished by rotating the source, slit and gold foil, assembly whilst the detector remains stationary, attached to the side wall of the vacuum chamber. Determining the atomic number of aluminium If we compare the scattering rates between two different metal foils (e.g. Au and Al) at the same angle , we can derive from the scattering formula:
2 N Au c Au d Au Z Au = 2 N Al c Al d Al Z Al

(3)

Hence, if the atomic concentrations and the atomic number of gold are known, the atomic number of aluminium can be determined.

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5 Experimental Setup The experimental setup is shown schematically in Fig. 4 below. Connect the scattering chamber to the vacuum pump using the vacuum tubing provided. Connect the detector to the discriminator preamplifier and in turn connect the square-wave output of that to the timer box of the CASSY. Set the CASSY to measure events in counts per second (cps) and the total number of events.

The components of the scattering chamber are shown in detail in Figs. 4 and 5 below. Before attempting to prepare the chamber, make sure it has been vented to atmospheric pressure. Remove the lid and insert the Am-241 source into the 4-mm socket of the main pivot arm. Place the 5-mm slit aperture and the plastic sheet containing the gold foil on top of one another (with the gold foil between them) and insert them both into the holder so that the slit faces the source (see Fig. 5). Make sure the small notches in the slit and foil assembly locate with ridges in the holder. Move the small swivel arm (not used here) close to the chambers side wall so that it does not block the path between the metal foil and the detector.

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6 Close the chamber by placing the lid on the housing, ensuring that the pin on the rim of the housing locates in the hole in the lid. Evacuate the chamber by starting the vacuum pump and firmly pressing on the lid to ensure a seal.

To set the discriminator voltage to a suitable level, first set to +150 and the voltage to 0 V. In this position, no -particles should reach the detector and any counts measured by the CASSY can be considered as noise. Slowly turn the discriminator voltage dial clockwise until the detector count rate just fall to zero. The voltage will be now set (typically around -0.3 V). Recording scattering rate as function of the angle 1. Use the CASSY to measure detector count rates as a function of angle . Take measurements from = -30 to +30 at intervals of 5. 2. Since the count rate falls off very rapidly with , increase the measuring time (or gate time, t()) at higher angles. To reduce statistical error, ensure that at least 100 particles are measured at each angle. Carry out test measurements, if necessary, to estimate the count rate so that the measuring time can be adjusted accordingly. At lower angles, where the count rate is high, carry out repeat measurements to test the reproducibility of the method. Important: During measurements protect the sensitive detector from light (e.g. especially from fluorescent light of ceiling lamps)! If necessary, cover the scattering chamber during measurements with a black cloth. Measuring the atomic number of aluminium For this part of the experiment, use the 1 mm slit in front of the foils. Choose an angle where there is a reasonable count rate with the gold foil (say -15) and measure the count rate with both the gold and aluminium foils. Be careful not to change the detector/source angle between the two measurements. If you have time, repeat this measurement at two other angles.

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7 Evaluation and results Recording the scattering rate as function of angle In order to compare your results with Rutherfords scattering formula, you must first make a correction for the fact that we have only sampled the scattering in the horizontal plane, whereas the -particles are actually scattered in a 3D cone. With the aid of Fig. 6, determine the necessary correction factor. Apply this correction and compare your results (by graphical representation) with the theoretical curve of the form: f ( ) = A sin [( B ) / 2]
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(4)

The factor A represents a vertical shift (on the logarithmic scale) and the coefficient B represents a small displacement along the horizontal angular scale. Vary the coefficients A and B to optimise the agreement between your experimental data and the theoretical curves. Discuss any discrepancies between your experimental data and Rutherfords scattering formula. Consider what factors make a correction to the angular scale necessary. Show that you have considered the errors in your measurements by adding error bars to your graph.

Determining the nuclear charge number of aluminium Use equation 3 to calculate the atomic number of aluminium: take ZAu = 79 and the atomic concentrations in the two metals to be equal. The thickness of the Al and Au foils are 7 and 2 m, respectively. Compare your result with the literature value and discuss the likely source of any discrepancy. If you repeated this measurement at different angles, discuss the consistency of your results. Questions In equation (1) the ratio
N ( ) should be dimensionless. Show it. N0

References University physics: with modern physics, H. D. Young and R. A. Freedman, Addison-Wesley (Reading), 2000 (QC 21) Version 1.0, 06/08/08