TI2008

REVISTA CONSTRUCIA DE MAINI
Anul 60, Nr. 1 - 2/ 2008

Din sumar

TEHNOLOGII INOVATIVE
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

TRIBOLOGIE
TRIBOLOGY

TRANSFER TEHNOLOGIC
I INOVARE
TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFER
AND INNOVATION

MANAGEMENT.
DEZVOLTARE DE PRODUS
MANAGEMENT. PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT

ISSN 0573 7419

EDITOR: ICTCM CITAf - OID.ICM

041303 Bucuresti
os. Olteniei nr. 103, sector 4, O.P. 8
Tel: 332.37.70/234
Fax: 332.07.75; sau 332.31.95
E-mail: ictcm@ictcm.ro, oid@ictcm.ro

Responsabil editor: Irina Rdulescu

Responsabil marketing: Mariana
Craciunoiu

Tehnoredactor: Adelina Trimbez

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revistei.

CONT ICTCM:
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TIPAR: OID.ICM

COPYRIGHT 2003
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TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 - 2 / 2008

ANUL 60 / 2008 NR. 1 - 2

TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV


COLEGIUL DE REDACIE

Octavian BOLOGA - Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu
Olivier BONNEAU Universitatea din Poitiers, Frana
Ion BOSTAN Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei
K.D. BOUZAKIS Aristoteles University of Thessaloniki, Grecia
Doug BRANHAM - Lubrication Systems Company, Houston, Texas, USA
Dan BRNDAU - Universitatea Lucian Blaga din Sibiu
Mircea CIOBANU - Universitatea tefan cel Mare din Suceava
Valeriu DULGHERU - Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei
Dan FILIPOIU - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Michel FILLON - Universitatea din Poitiers, Frana
Mohamed HAJJAM - Universitatea din Poitiers, Frana
Tudor ICLNZAN - Universitatea Politehnica din Timioara
Nicolae Valentin IVAN - Universitatea TRANSILVANIA din Braov
Gheorghe MOGAN Universitatea TRANSILVANIA din Braov
Ilie MUSC - Universitatea tefan cel Mare din Suceava
Nicolae OANCEA - Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai
Dumitru OLARU - Universitatea Tehnic Gheorghe Asachi din Iai
Juozas PADGURSKAS - Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuania
Tudor PRISCARU - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Vasile PUIU - Universitatea din Bacu
Stanisaw PYTKO - University of Science and Technology, Krakw, Poland
Alexandru RADULESCU - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Minodora RP - Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai
Lucian TUDOSE - Universitatea din Cluj
Thami ZEGHLOUL - Universitatea din Poitiers, Frana

COMITET ONORIFIC

Gheorghe AMZA - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Niculae Napoleon ANTONESCU Universitatea Petrol i Gaze din Ploieti
Traian AURITE - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Gavril CALEFARIU - Universitatea TRANSILVANIA din Braov
Mircea COZMNC - Universitatea Tehnic Gheorghe Asachi din Iai
Emanuel DIACONESCU Universitatea tefan cel Mare din Suceava
Marian GHEORGHE - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Constantin ISPAS - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Valeriu JINESCU - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Aurel JULA - Universitatea TRANSILVANIA din Braov
Constantin MINCIU - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Eugen PAY - Universitatea de Nord din Baia Mare
Iulian POPESCU - Universitatea din Craiova
Aurelian VLASE - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti
Ioan VOICA - Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti

EDITOR
Centrul Incubator Tehnologic de Afaceri
S.C. ICTCM S.A. BUCURETI

RESPONSABIL EDITOR
Irina Rdulescu

REDACTOR
Irina Rdulescu

TEHNOREDACTOR
Adelina Trmbez

TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 - 2 / 2008 5
CUPRINS

TEHNOLOGII INOVATIVE / INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

1. CREEP AND OTHER IRREVERSIBLE DEFORMATION IN ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE APPARATUS
V. V. Jinescu, I. C. Popescu
POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest, Faculty of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Romania pag. 7

2. MACHINERY FOR THE REHABILITATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF ROAD SYSTEMS
I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
S.C. ECONET PROD SRL,
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3
S.C. IMCF S.A. Bucharest, Romania pag. 13

3. MODERN METHODS OF REHABILITATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF ROAD SYSTEMS
I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3

4. RESEARCH REGARDING THE RUNNING MODE OF THE VALVES OF THE EXTRACTION PUMPS
I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3

5. ANALIZA STRUCTURAL I MICROSCOPIC A MEMBRANELOR AMBREIAJELOR AUTO
PRELUCRATE TERMOMECANIC
Petric Corbieru
1
, Anioara Corbieru
1
, Baciu Constantin
2
, Lozovan Mihai
3
, Vasilescu Dan Drago
4

1
SC PRESUM PROIECT SA Iai,
2
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi Iai,
3
Institutul National CD
Fizica Tehnica Iasi,
4
SC PROCOMIMPEX Iai, Romania pag. 33

6. ANALIZA STRUCTURAL A STRATURILOR BIMETALICE ALE COMPONENTELOR AUTO
Anioara Corbieru
1
, Petric Corbieru
1
, Baciu Constantin
2
Comneci Radu
2
3

1
2
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi Iai,
3
SC PROCOMIMPEX Iai, Romania pag. 37

7. CERCETAREA METALOGRAFIC A PIESELOR BOROCARBOVANADIZATE
Vasilescu Dan Drago
1
, Anioara Corbieru
2
, Petric Corbieru
2
, Baciu Constantin
3
Comneci Radu
3
1
SC PROCOMIMPEX Iai,
2
3
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi Iai, Romania pag. 41

8. ANALIZA DETERMINRILOR DE MICRODURITATE ALE STRATURILOR SUPERFICIALE
BOROCARBOVANADIZATE
Vasilescu Dan Drago
1
,Petric Corbieru
2
, Anioara Corbieru
2
, Baciu Constantin
3
, Lozovan Mihai
4
1
SC PROCOMIMPEX Iai,
2
3
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi Iai, Romania
4
Institutul National CD Fizica Tehnica Iasi, Romania pag. 47

9. COMPLETE CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS WITH CHRYSAN INDUSTRIES
Kook-Wha Koh

Chrysan Industries, Inc., U.S.A pag. 51

10. THE MATHEMATICAL MODELLING AND RESIDUAL TENSION ANALYSIS
IN THE COATINGS OBTAINED BY THERMAL SPRAYING
USING THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Leonard Teodoru, Valentin Mihailescu
Prof. Constantin Popovici Foundation, Bucharest, Romania pag. 53

11. INOVATIVE AND ECOLOGICAL WELDING/PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES FOR ALUMINUM
AND ITS ALLOYS
R. Cojocaru, L. Boil, C. Ciuc
National R&D Institute for Welding and Material Testing, Timisoara, Romania pag. 59

12. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SINTERED AlN
Igor Fesenko
1
, Pavlo Kisly
1
, Maya Kuzenkova
1
, Galina Oleynik
2
, Valeriy Sulzhenko
3

1
Institute for Superhard Materials, Kyiv, Ukraine,
2
Institute of Problems in Materials Science, Kyiv, Ukraine
3
Institute of Physics of Metals, Kyiv, Ukraine pag. 67

TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 - 2 / 2008 6
13. BIODIESEL CARBURANT REGENERABIL FOLOSIT N TRANSPORTURI
Ioan Brdescu
1)
, Amelitta Legendi
2)
, Gabriel Ionescu
3)

1)
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti-UTCB, Romania
2)
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti-UTCB, Romania
3)
Institutul de Construcii pentru Echipamente i Tehnologii n Construcii-ICECON, Romania pag. 69

TRIBOLOGIE / TRIBOLOGY

14. INNOVATIVE TRIBOMETERS AND SCRATCH TESTERS
Marc Bellantonio
TRIBOtechnic, Clichy France pag. 77

15. TRIBOLOGICAL SOLUTION TO REDUCE THE WEAR RATE IN THE DIE AND THE CYLINDER
FOR CERAMIC MVFF
I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3
S.C. IMCF S.A. Bucureti, Romania pag. 79

16. DES ASPECTS CONCERNANT LECOULEMENT DES FLUIDES NON-NEWTONIENS
DANS LES REGIONS AVEC DES DISCONTINUITES, APPLICABLES
POUR LES RESEAUX DES TUYAUX
Alexandru V. Radulescu
1
, Dominique Bonneau
2
, Mohammed Hajjam
2
,

1
Universit POLITEHNICA de Bucarest, Roumanie,
2
Universit de Poitiers, France pag. 85

TRANSFER TEHNOLOGIC SI INOVARE /
TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFER AND INNOVATION

17. INNOVATION AUDITS
CONCEPT, EXPERIENCES AND OPTIONS FOR TTI CENTERS IN ROMANIA
Michael Guth
ZENIT GmbH (Zentrum fur Innovation und Technik in NRW), Germany pag. 93

MANAGEMENT. DEZVOLTARE DE PRODUS /
MANAGEMENT. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

18. RESEARCHES CONSIDERING NEW TRENDS IN PRODUCT LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT
Irina Rdulescu
S.C. ICTCM S.A. Bucharest, Romania pag. 97

19. MANAGEMENT OF INNOVATION THROUGH SOCIAL SOFTWARE
AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Elena Pallares Beamonte
1
, Domnica Cote
2
, Maria Dumitrache
2
1
Institute of Technology, Aragon, Spain,
2
S.C. ICTCM S.A. - CITAf Bucharest, Romania pag. 101

20. GENERAREA SINERGIILOR POZITIVE N INTREPRINDERILE INDUSTRIALE
PRIN ARMONIZAREA BINOMULUI CULTUR ORGANIZAIONAL STRATEGIA FIRMEI
Ioan Piurescu, Domnica Cote, Maria Dumitrache, Irina Rdulescu

S.C. ICTCM S.A. - CITAf Bucharest, Romania pag. 105


7

CREEP AND OTHER IRREVERSIBLE DEFORMATION
IN ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE APPARATUS

V. V. Jinescu, I. C. Popescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Faculty of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering
ic.popescu@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Ultra high pressure apparatus used in industrial purposes are manufactured in
compound construction. The nearest components for synthesis capsule (a die and two
anvils) are made from tungsten carbide. These WC-Co components are binding with steel
rings. The pressure in the synthesis capsule from the die is above 4.5 GPa and
temperature above 1700K. In this paper are analyzed the stresses in the die and the
behavior of the material of the die in these conditions. The plastic deformation of the die
made from tungsten carbide resulted in the creep fatigue process presented. The
correlations between the plastic deformations and the process parameters are shown.

KEYWORDS: High-pressure apparatus, WC-Co, synthesis capsule, creep, plastic
deformation

1. INTRODUCTION

Ultra high pressure and high temperature
apparatus are used in synthetic diamond and other
superabrazive materials manufacture.
The pressure is above 4,5 6,0 GPa and temperature
above 1700K in the synthesis capsule. The real
pressure and temperature on the die inner cylindrical
surface is unknown. It is possible only an indirect
estimation. The pressure values in the capsule, during
a synthesis conditions cycle, are measured using
phase transition method.
Pressure calibration was carried out using as sensors
the metals that undergo phase changes upon
determined pressure values (Bi = 2,55 GPa and PbSn
= 4,3 GPa), and temperature with special type-K
(cromel-alumel), varying from the refrigeration
output [1,2].
During the synthesis cycle the temperature is
measured on the flat surface of the die using a special
device. The stresses are measured on the flat surface
using electrical strain gages.
Using a finite element program analysis [3, 4] is
approximate at the pressure on the inner cylindrical
surface of the die (the contact surfaces between the
external surface of the capsule and inner cylindrical
surfaces of the die), the gradient pressure in
pyrophiltitte gasket conical zone of the die and the
temperature on inner cylindrical surface of the die.
The pressure on the internal cylindrical surface is
estimated at 4,0 GP and the temperature between 800
and 1000K, in the highest stressed part of the
synthesis cycle. In these zones the material of the die
(WC-Co) is in fatigue creep conditions.
The temperature in the external zone of the die
(in the contact zone with the first steel ring) is always
below creep temperature of the used WC-Co.

2. CONSIDERATION ABOUT
THE BEHAVIOR OF THE WC-CO
IN HIGH TEMPERATURE AND
ULTRA HIGH HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE CONDITIONS

In normal thermal and hydrostatic pressure
condition WC-Co is considered a fragile material.
Beginning of the 90s, some experiments showed
relative important plastic deformation at the inner
diameter of the die [3, 4,]. Experiments made by
Bridgmann correlated the hydrostatic pressure testing
with the physical-mechanical properties of the WC-Co.
Another experiments correlated the temperature with the
physical-mechanical properties of the WC-Co [5].
All these experiments show the influence of the
cobalt binder content.
In the domain up to temperatures about 800-
900K, the WC-Co materials, in principal, deform
elastically and show brittle fracture. Fracture can
occur, starting at WC/WC grain boundaries.
The cobalt forming the ligaments is free from
constraints and it can deform. The binder phase is
responsible for the toughness of the material in this
state [6].

8
The domain between 800-900K and 1200K is
characterized by plastic deformation of the binder
(Co). Some dislocations have been observed in WC
grains but no important plastic deformations of WC
grains have been found. This domain is transition
between brittle behavior and creep. The plasticity
remains limited because of the rigid skeleton. The
deformation is entirely related to the deformation of
the cobalt phase [7, 8, 9]
The transition temperatures to the creep domain
furthermore depend on the cobalt contents.
The high temperature domain is marked by low
flow stresses and high deformation at fracture. At the
temperatures above 1200K the creep has been
attributed to grain boundary sliding. Grain boundary
sliding is the predominant deformation mechanism.
This mechanism is confirmed by the low value of
yield stress and the decreasing of the yield stress with
decreasing WC grain size.
At room temperature WC-Co are brittle at
standard mechanical tests. With increasing
temperature these materials have important plasticity
before fracture. Ductile-brittle transition temperature
T
d
is equal to 450-550 K for micron grades and 550-
950 K for submicron grades. Essential plasticity at
fracture is observed only at temperature more than
850-950 K [10]. Transverse stress rupture decrease
slowly with increasing temperature, as Young
modulus does, up to 850 K and more rapidly at
higher temperature.

3. THE THEORETICAL
SYNTHESIS CYCLE

In figure 1 is shown an ultra high pressure and
high temperature apparatus. The apparatus is mounted
in a frame press. The displacements of the anvils are
made using the press hydraulic system. The pressure
is generated by the displacement of the anvils and
closing a synthesis capsule. The displacements of the
anvils are controlled with computer software to
maintain the synthesis pressure in optimal range.
The temperature is generated by the Joulles
effect. An electrical circuit is made using top anvil
the synthesis capsule (top steel ring graphite and
metallic disks bottom steel ring) bottom anvil.
The temperature can be modified using many
parameters, like: composition of the synthesis
capsule, current, temperature and the flow of the
cooling water. These parameters are controlled using
special software.
It is necessary to maintain the same dies
temperature at the start of every run.
The diagrams for general synthesis cycles used in
diamond synthetic production [11-13] are represented
in figure 2. In this figure the pressure is the hydraulic
pressure in hydraulic cylinder of the press.

4. THE STRESSES IN THE DIE
DURING THE SYNTHESIS
CYCLE

In the synthesis cycle in the die one has the
following actions stresses:
- stresses produced by the binding steel
rings (in the assembly procedures) (curve 3 in
figure 2);
- stresses produced by the synthesis pressure
(curve 1 in figure 3);
Time (s)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Pressure
Current
Temperature
Figure 2. Diagrams for general synthesis
cycles.
Figure 1. Ultra high pressure and high temperature
apparatus
1. bottom anvil with binding rings, 2. WC-Co die, 3. top
anvil with binding rings, 4. binding steel rings, 5. support
anvil block, 6. cooling jacket, 7. synthesis capsule.

9
- stresses produced by the temperature gradient
during the synthesis process (temperature curve 1
is represented in figure 3),
- modification of the physical and mechanical
properties of the WC-Co produced by the
temperature and the effect of the hydrostatic
pressures;
All these stresses were analyzed in static or
quasistatic conditions [3, 4, 14-17].
The duration of the synthesis cycle is between
30-60 minutes for a cycle designed to produce
maximum percentage mass per operation of the grains
size 500/400 m.
For a maximum percentage mass of grains size
125/100 m the duration of the cycle is 10 minutes
[1, 2]. In this synthesis process, the pressure and
temperature must be controlled very accurately to
obtain saw grade grits which consist of cubo-
ctahedral single crystal. In such a process,
reproducibility of pressure and temperature is
maintained by accurate control of the process
parameters.
When the die is not in synthesis cycle, it is
compressed inward by the interference fitting of the
steel binding rings. The contact pressure is so high
that it almost reaches the limit of compression failure
of the die. When the die is pressurized during the
synthetic diamond synthesis cycle, it is stretched
outward to the limit of tensile failure. The die, during
the synthesis cycle, is cycling near its strength limits
between compression and tension.
In an approximate analysis it is considered that
the temperature above 800-900K is between 2-4
minutes for a 10 minutes cycle and 5-10 minutes for a
30-60 minutes cycle. For all cycles (short or very
long) the inner part of the die is in creep condition.

Analyzing the stresses it appears a superposition of effects:
- produced by the thermo-mechanical fatigue
(a superposition of the thermo-fatigue with a
mechanical fatigue). Generally the Whler
fatigue curve of the WC-Co is a straight line
with a very small slope of the amplitude
tension versus number of cycle curve;
- produced by the repeated creep during short
period of time. The creep cycle can be
approximated with a trapeze shape cycle. If the
duration of the maximum pressure and
temperature is very short the shape of cycle
may be approximated by a triangular shape.
From theoretical analyses [18] and
experimental results the greatest plastic
deformation is in triangular shape of the cycle;
- produced by the local hydrostatical tensor
stress component on the physical and
mechanical properties of the WC-Co [18].

5. THE CREEP DEFORMATIONS
OF THE INNER DIAMETER
OF THE DIE

The dies used in the experiments are made from
three grades of tungsten carbides. The physical-
mechanical properties are presented in table 1 and 2.

Table 1. Physical properties of the WC-Co alloys used
in tested high-pressure apparatus construction [14]
Type

Composition
% by weight
Carbide
grain
size
(m)
Density
(10
-3
kgm
-3
)
Hardness
(HV30)
P-
R
9 Co-91Wc 1,5 14,60 1300
B 9 Co-91Wc 2,7 14,64 1350
S 11Co-89Wc 2,7 14,40 1250
Figure 3. The stresses and the temperature in
the inner surface of the die.
1. The stress from pressure cycle,
2. The temperature cycle,
3. The stress from binding rings.
Time (s)
s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

K
)
1
2
3
Figure 4. Deformation of the inner diameter
of the die during the use in synthesis cycles.
1. Die type S;
2. Die type B cu 8% Co;
3. Die type B R cu 9% Co;
4. Die type P;
5. Die type P-R[19].
1
2
3
5
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
number of cycles
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

i
n
n
e
r

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
m
m
)
4

10

Type

Young
Modulus
(GPa)
Compressive
strength
( MPa)
Transversal
Rupture
Strength ( MPa )
P-R 590 - -
B 596 4250 3300
S 575 4800 2700

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the WC-Co alloys
used in tested high-pressure apparatus construction [14]

The temperature during the synthesis cycles is
sometimes above 900K and is possible for short
periods to be over these values, possible 1100K.
Plastic deformation at normal temperature in die was
experimentally detected.
Monitoring the deformation of the inner diameter
of the die, during the real synthesis cycles, it is possible
to represent this deformation versus the number of runs.
In figure 4 are represented these correlations for 5 types
of WC-Co used for dies construction. The deformations
of the inner diameters of the dies represented in figure 4
are the global deformations: the plastic deformations
of the dies bellow the creep conditions and the
deformations in creep conditions.
The inner diameter was measured after every
cycle for the first 20 runs and after every 10 cycles
for the rest of the runs. The measurement must be
made at the same temperature, the temperature at the
start of the synthesis cycle.
The inner diameter of all dies after the assembly
process decreases 0,3-0,4 mm. This deformation is an
elasto-plastically deformation at low temperature.
All the synthesis cycles are similar in pressure
and temperature values. The dies temperature at the
start of the cycle is maintained constant by
controlling the time between runs (time for reloading
a new synthesis capsule in ultra high apparatus) and
the flow of the cooling fluid. The temperature of the
cooling fluid and the temperature in facilities space is
necessary to be constant.
From the dates shown in figure 5 correlations
between the theoretical and actual specific
deformation are determined:
c
d
n b a
D
+
=
1
(1)
where
d
D is the deformation of the inner diameter
of the die; n is the number of the runs; a, b, c -
constants.
The constants from equation 1 are represented
in table 3.

Type of the die /
Inner diameters
of the dies
A b c
B-R / 1,2D 20,452 -15,449 0,0179
S / 1,2D 30,552 -26,206 0,0135
P-R / 1,2D 12,584 -9,989 0,0190
P / 1,2D 34,482 -28,926 0,0175
B cu 8% Co/
1,2D
54,611 -49,186 0,0099
Tabel 3. The experimental constants used in equation (1)

The WC-Co used in dies type S have 11% Co all
the other dies have 8% Co. The dies type B and B-
R and respectively P and P-R used WC-Co with
8,5% and respectively 9% Co. The differences
between types B and B-R and respectively P
and P-R are the used facilities and sintering
technologies.
From these experiments resulted:
- for the same Co content the facilities and
sintering technologies are important;
- small differences in Co content have less
influence like facilities and sintering
technologies;
It is very important to predict the deformation
curve of the inner diameter of the dies. The difference
between the external diameter of the synthesis capsule
and the inner diameter of the die must be very small. If
the difference is relatively great a relative large quantity
of the displacement of the anvils is used to fill the inner
volume of the die. In this case the gasket is deformed
without a rise of synthesis pressure.

The synthesis capsule must be manufactured with
different external diameters and the curves like the ones
from figure 4 are used to design an economical
production.
Figure 5. Deformation of the inner diameter
of the die during the use in synthesis cycles.
1. Constant synthesis cycles;
2. The cycle is modified - rise pressure and/or
temperature;
3. The cycle is modified diminish pressure
and/or temperature.
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
number of cycles
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

i
n
n
e
r

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
m
m
)
2
1
3

11
During the experiments when the cycle
(maximum pressure and temperature) was modified
the correlations between the deformations versus
number of runs changes the slope:
- if the pressure and / or temperature rise, the
correlations between deformations of the inner
diameter versus number of cycles is represented in
figure 6 appear an inflexion point (a jump of the
deformation of the inner diameter) and after a
numbers of runs the slope of the curve returns to
the same shape;
- if the pressure and / or temperature decreases, the
correlations between deformations of the inner
diameter versus number of cycles shows a constant
portion and after a number of cycles the slope of
the curve is similar to the slope before the change
of the parameters;
In the first case the jump is possible because of
another cause: the fracture of the steel binding rings. In
this case if the broken rings are not replaced the die is
fractured in few runs.

The producers of the ultra high apparatus must
analys two situations:
- the temperature of the dies is maintained low
during the synthesis cycle. In this case the
material is brittle and the mechanical
properties of the WC-Co are high. The creep
deformations of the dies are very small. It is
possible to appear an explosion during the
fracture process. A crack produced in the die
can grow very fast;
- the temperature of the dies is above the
transition brittle-ductile temperature. There
are high creep deformations of the dies. It is
a very small probability for the brittle
fracture (explosive mode of fracture). The
inner diameter of the die must be monitored
every day. The external diameter of the
synthesis capsule must be correlated with the
inner diameter of the die. The diamond
synthesis parameters must be correlated with
the grow dimensions of the inner dies;
Deformation of the inner diameter of the dies
after some cycles can be a symmetrical shape or an
asymmetrical shape (figure 6). In figures 4 and 5 are
presented the deformation of the diameters in the
symmetrical plane of the dies:
- for symmetrical barrel shape deformation of
the inner diameter of the die during the use
in synthesis cycles is 2R;
- for asymmetrical barrel shape this
deformation is 2(R
t
+ R
b
);
The symmetrical barrel shape is a normal
deformation shape and is produced by the real stress
state [14, 15, 19] and by the vertical temperature
gradient in the dies. The greatest values of the
temperatures are on the inner surfaces of the dies in
planes of symmetry.
The asymmetrical barrel shape appears in two
cases:
- the cooling fluid has different temperature in
top part from the bottom part of the binding
rings; the cooling system must assure an
equal temperature in top and bottom of the
steel rings. It is proposed to use only parallel
cooling system.
- the bindings rings produce an non constant
external pressure on the die.
The barrel shape has a negative influence. The
difference of the barrel shape and cylindrical volumes
must be filled with the content of the synthesis
capsule. A part of the displacement of the anvils is
used to fill the volumes and the rest of the
displacement is used to compress the synthesis
capsule. It is very important to maximize the
displacement used to produce the synthesis pressure
in the synthesis capsule.

Figure 6. Deformation of the dies shape after some
synthesis cycles.
a) initial shape, b) symmetrical barrel shape of the
deformation of the dies,
c) asymmetrical barrel shape of the deformation of
the dies,
D
a)
D
D
r d
r d
D
b
t
b) c)
symmetrical
deformed
shape
asymmetrical
deformed
shape
R
R
R

12
6. CONCLUSIONS

Analyses of the real behavior of the dies of the
ultra high pressure apparatus showed a very complex
effects superposition: the thermo-mechanical fatigue,
repeated creep during short period of time and local
hydrostatical tensor stress component.
The monitoring of deformation of the inner diameter
of the die is important for a correct and efficient
synthesis production.

REFERENCES

1. Guerold S. Bobrovnitchii, William da Silva Vianna,
Leonardo Oliveira Tavares, Processos de sntese e
sinterizao de materiais superduros em novo sistema
automatizado, Tecnologia em Metalurgia e Materiais,
So Paulo, v.2. n.4, p. 57-62, abr.-jun. 2006
2. William da Silva Vianna, Guerold S. Bobrovnitchii,
Optimization of the process of industrial diamond
synthesis, 6th World Congresses of Structural and
Multidisciplinary Optimization, Rio de Janeiro, 30 May
- 03 June 2005, Brazil
3. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu, Reactoare de foarte nalt
presiune cu componente fabricate din aliaje de carburi
de wolfram i cobalt, I, Rev. de Chimie, nr. 12, 1997, p.
981-991, ISSN 0034-7752, (ISI-MJL 7569)
4. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu , Reactoare de foarte nalt
presiune cu componente fabricate din aliaje de carburi
de wolfram i cobalt, II, Rev. de Chimie, nr. 1, 1998, p.
56-63, ISSN 0034-7752, (ISI-MJL 7569)
5. B. Zetterlund , Cemented carbide in high pressure
equipment, The Second Int. Conf. High Pressure
Engineering , ( IME, EHPRG, HPTA) Ed. H Ll Pugh ,
Londra , 1977, p.35-41
6. Stphane Bolognini, Proprits mcaniques haute
temprature de cermetsTi(C,N)-WC-Mo-Co gradient de
composition pour outils de coupe, Thesis EPFL N 2161, 2000.
7. D. Mari, Dformation Haute Temprature des
Composites WC-Co, Thesis EPFL N938, 1991.
8. J.-J. Ammann, Etude des Proprits Mcaniques du
Matriau WC-Co par Frottement Intrieur, Thesis
EPFL N861, 1990.
9. T. Sakuma and H. Hondo, Plastic flow in WC-
13wt.%Co at high temperatures, Materials Science and
Engineering A156, 125 (1992).
10. Milman Yu.V., Luyckx S., Goncharuck V. A.
Northrop J. T., Mechanical Properties in Bending
Tests and Mechanical behaviour of Submicron and
Micron WC-Co Grade at Elevated temperatures, 15 th.
Int. Plansee Sem. Proc., 2001, vol. 2., p. 75-90
11. Pink R L. Model for command in processes of heating
in high pressure reaction cell, In Treatment of materials
for high pressures. Ed. IPM, Kiev, 1987, 132-137
12. Potemkin A. A. , Poliakov V. P. The evolution of pressure
during diamond synthesis in a high pressure apparatus,
High Pressure Sci. Technol, 1998, 7, 1004-1006
13. Guerold S. Bobrovnitchii, William da Silva Vianna,
Leonardo Oliveira Tavares, Processos de sntese e
sinterizao de materiais superduros em novo sistema
automatizado, Tecnologia em Metalurgia e Materiais,
So Paulo, v.2. n.4, p. 57-62, abr.-jun. 2006
14. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu, Reactoare de foarte nalt
presiune, multifretate, I, Construcia de maini, nr. 12,
p. 48-54, 2000, ISSN 0573-7419
15. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu,Rreactoare de foarte nalt
presiune, multifretate, II, Construcia de maini, nr. 4, p.
1-8, 2001, ISSN 0573-7419

16. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu, .a., Mrirea duratei de via
a unor componente ale reactoarelor de foarte nalt
presiune, utilizate la sinteza diamantului, Construcia de
maini, nr. 1, 2002, ISSN 0573-7419
17. V.V.Jinescu, I. Popescu, Consideraii privind
utilizarea reactoarelor de foarte nalt presiune,
utilizate la producerea superabrazivilor, Construcia de
maini, nr. 7-8, p.7-20, 2003, ISSN 0573-7419
18. V. V. Jinescu, Principiul energiei critice si aplcatiile
sale, Ed. ACADEMIEI ROMANE, Buc., 2005
19. P. Georgeoni, I. Popescu, M. Istrtescu, L. Argeanu,
Comportarea diferitelor tipuri de aliaje dure din
sistemul WC-CO, utilizate la construcia matrielor
reactoarelor de foarte nalt presiune, Mecanica
Ruperii, nr. 9, p. 8-14, 2000, ISSN 1453-8148.

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TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 2 / 2008

13

MACHINERY FOR THE REHABILITATION
AND CONSOLIDATION OF ROAD SYSTEMS

I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3
S.C. IMCF S.A. Bucureti, econetprod@mail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper presents some machinery for the modern technologies of the road rehabilitation and
consolidation. These special machineries are included into the large family of the machinery for
construction, maintenance and rehabilitation and consolidation of the roads. In the actual stage
of the roads network, when the most of the roads are already built, but these roads have many
year of utilization and also they haven't the capacity to support the requirements of the actual
traffic, the main purpose, in comparison with the construction of a new roads or maintenance of
the actual roads, is rehabilitation and consolidation of the actual roads.

KEYWORDS: machinery, road, rehabilitation, consolidation, maintenance

1. INTRODUCTION

Modern technologies for the rehabilitation
and consolidation of road systems also imply,
besides work methods, adequate machinery. The
relationship method-machinery being biunique, the
evolution of work methods leads to the creation of
performing machinery, and reciprocally, they lead
to the improvement of work processes.
The variety of work methods makes difficult an
exhaustive classification of the used machinery,
because there is machinery specific in a particular
field, but also machinery that covers two or more
fields.
Generally, the machinery for road works can be
grouped on three activity fields:
- machinery for road systems construction;
- machinery for road systems maintenance;
- machinery for road systems rehabilitation and
consolidation.
In this paper we approached machinery specific for
road systems rehabilitation and consolidation.

2. MODERN MACHINERY
FOR THE REHABILITATION
OF WEARING LAYERS

In accordance with reconstruction methods of
the layer there can be considered the following
groups of machinery specific for these works:
- machinery for in situ rehabilitation of the wearing layer;
- machinery for in motion rehabilitation of the
wearing layer;
- machinery for rehabilitation of the wearing layer
with fixed plants.

2.1. MACHINERY
FOR IN SITU REHABILITATION
OF THE WEARING LAYER

In situ rehabilitation of the layers involves
specialized machinery for the execution of the
operations specific for the used methods such as:
- pre-heating of the wearing layer;
- thermal-profiling;
- thermal -regeneration;
- remixing;
- milling - blending;
- take over of dislocated material by milling.

2.1.1. PRE-HEATERS

Hot rehabilitation of wearing layers needs their
heating at a temperature of 140-150
0
C. The heating
operation takes place in two stages:
- the increase of the temperature of the layer to 90-
100
0
C with pre-heaters;
- reach of final temperature with the means of the
machinery that insures in situ remixing.


14
In figure 1 is represented a pre-heater of
asphalt layers. It executes the heating of the layer
by means of radiant panels, which use propane as
fuel.

Fig. 1. A pre-heater of asphalt layers
1- chassis;
2 movement system;
3 engine;
4 pliable heating plates;
5 lifting-lowering system;
6 fuel tank

2.1.2. THERMAL-PROFILERS

The thermal-profilers (fig. 2.) insure in situ
hot rehabilitation, without material addition, of the
wearing layer executing the following operations:
- heating of the wearing layer;
- scarification of the wearing layer;
- the blending of scarified mixture;
- leveling, pre-compaction and profiling of the new
layer.

Fig. 2. The thermal-profilers
1- heating plates;
2 scarification;
3 distribution screw;
4 leveling plate;
5 pre-compacting beam;
6 engine;
7 gas tank;
8 diesel fuel tank

2.1.3. THERMAL-REGENERATORS

The thermal-regenerators are machinery used
for the in situ hot rehabilitation, without addition of
materials, of the wearing layer allowing, at the same
time, the laying of the new layer over the rehabilitated
one.
The thermal-regenerator (fig. 3) executes the
following operations:
- the heating and the scarification of the existent
layer;
- addition of the new asphalt mixture;
- leveling, pre-compacting and profiling of the new
wearing layer.

Fig. 3. The thermal-regenerator
1-bin;
2 heating plates;
3 transporters;
4 scarification;
5, 7 distribution screw;
6 leveling plate;
8 pre-comp-acting beam;
9 engine;
10 gas tanks;
11 storage bins;
12 diesel fuel tank

2.1.4. REMIXERS
The remixes execute the hot reconstruction of the
wearing layer, with material addition (Fig. 4.a.).

Fig. 4.a- Standard Remixer
1-bin;
2- bitumen tank;
3-heating plate;
4-transporter;

15
5-diesel fuel tank;
6-dosing bin;
7-milling drum;
8-propane tanks;
9-blender;
10-engine;
11-distribution screw;
12- pre-compression beam

The operations that it executes simultaneously are:
- the heating in the second stage of the layer;
- the milling of the wearing layer;
- the addition of aggregates and hot bitumen;
- the blending of added materials with the
dislocated material by the means of a two-axle
blender;
- the pre-compaction and profiling of the new layer.
The Remixer plus (fig. 4.b.) executes in situ hot
reconstruction of the wearing layer and the laying,
at the same time, of a new layer over the
reconstructed one.

Fig. 4.b - The Remixer plus

2.1.5. COLD RECYCLERS

The in situ, cold rehabilitation of the wearing layers
or of the base layers constitutes an economical
method with a wide spreading. The machines that
work after method are the recyclers.
In figure 5 a recycler on wheels is schematically
presented. For larger width works the weight of the
machinery increases being necessary the placement
of caterpillars (fig. 6)

Fig. 5. A recycler on wheels:

1-Emulsion tank,
2-Operator platform,
3-Action group,
4-Front axle,
5-Adjustable brackets,
6-Milling drum,
7-Emulsion injection,
8-Blender,
9-Beating beam,
10-Control panel.

Fig. 6. Caterpillar
1-Variable vibrant finishing beam,
2-Action group,
4-Control panel,
5-Water and emulsion dosing unit,
6-Water tank,
7-Caterpillar,
8-Anti-dislocation beam,
9-Water and emulsion injection,
10-Milling and cutting drum,
11-Caterpillar,
12-Distributor screw.

In figure 7 is presented a cold recycler used for the
case when it is necessary an addition of aggregates.

Fig. 7. A cold recycler
1-Vibrant-finishing beam,
3-Water tank,
4- Cement tank,
5-Emulsion tank,
6-Power unit,
7-Mineral aggregate bin,
8-Anti-dislocation beam,

16
9-Supply conveyor mineral aggregate,
10-Scarificator,
11-Injection sludge and emulsion,
12-Agitator for cement and water,
13-Continuous blender,
14-Caterpillar,
15-Distributor screw.

2.1.6. BLENDER-MILLERS

Blender-millers are machines that execute cold
rehabilitation of aged layers after Novacol method.
The equipment of the blender-millers (fig. 8)
insures:
- the dislocation of the worn layer by milling;
- the crumbling and blending with bitumen;
- the gathering and cord placement of the formatted
mixture

Fig. 8. The blender-miller
1-chassis;
2-caterpillar;
3-fracturing plate;
4-milling drum;
5-crumbling grille;
6-blende

2.1.7. CORD ELEVATORS

The materials arranged in cord on the
platform of the road are gathered for the transfer in
reception bins of other machines, by cord elevators
(fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Cord elevator
1-elevator;
2 storage-transfer bins;
3 movement system;
4 belt conveyer
2.2. MACHINERY
FOR THE REHABILITATION
OF LAYERS WITH MOBILE PLANTS

The reconstruction in motion of the wearing
layer needs the following operations:
- the dislocation of the worn layer;
- the transfer of the dislocated material, in a mobile
plant of asphalt mixture preparation;
- hot preparation of asphalt mixture;
- unload of the mixture prepared in the bin of the
asphalt distributor. In figure 10 is presented a mobile
installation of asphalt mixture preparation.

Fig. 10. A mobile installation of asphalt mixture
preparation
1-brush rollers ;
2 plough blades;
3 aspiration system;
4 motor wheels;
5 filtering group;
6 sedimentation chamber with multi-cyclones
battery;
7 bitumen tank;
8 conveyer;
9 dosing bins;
10 blow pipes;
11 dryer-blender drum;
12 gas exhaust system;
13 conveyer;
14 ant segregation bin;
15 bituminous emulsion tank;
16 bitumen sprayer

The regeneration of road systems layers
composed of asphalt mixtures implies their hot or
cold dislocation, and the transfer of dislocated
material to a fix plant located outside the road.
The dislocation of the old layer is executed with
milling machines. The milling machines for road
systems roads are composed of:
- bearing structure (chassis);
- movement system (wheels, caterpillars);
- action engine (diesel engine);
- work body (cogged milling drum);
- belt conveyer ;
- action and command systems.


17
From the point of view of the milling work manner
in relation to movement there are two constructive
types of milling:
- with ascendant milling (fig. 11.);
- with descendent milling (fig. 12).

Fig. 11. ascendant milling

Fig. 12. descendent milling

In the first case the dislocated material is
unloaded frontally in a dumper that moves in front
of the milling machine.
At descendent milling the dislocated material is
loaded from the back side giving the possibility to
be transferred to a recycler from the technological
flow.

REFERENCES

1. Babeu T, Faur N, Das I. D , Studiul starii de tensiune din
organele active de dislocare acoperiri asfaltice, Buletin AGIR,
Nr 4/1999
2. Faur N, Stoia M, Das I. D , Considerations regarding the
stress concentration effect at the splice pletes of the chains from
the mechanical gearings, Conference XXVI Jupiter 1999
3. Heinz H , Modern Methoden und Maschinen fr
Straenindstandsetzung , Rev. Baumeshinendienst no. 6, 1991
4. Stefanescu M, Contributii asupra optimizarii procesului de
frezare a straturilor de uzura a drumurilor, Teza de doctorat,
UTCB , 2004
5. Das I. D, Studiul durabilitatii organelor active la masini de
frezat a imbracamintilor rutiere , Teza de doctorat , UPT , 2007

Quick Info

Converting automotive noise and
vibration into sound and comfort

Automobile purchasers are continually
demanding better driving comfort, improved
driving dynamics, and safety.
Vibracoustic, the vibration control business
of Freudenberg, answers this call by closely
cooperating with its customers in order to prevent
annoying vibration and noise in vehicles.
Through LMS Test.Lab, Vibracoustic has implemented
a comprehensive and productive testing environment
that makes it possible to quickly configure and run a
wide range of tests, evaluate results, determine root
causes, and assess potential solutions.
Freudenberg Vibracoustic designs and produces a
variety of modules and components for vibro-acoustic
control in chassis and suspension, engine mounts,
dynamic dampers, torsional vibration dampers, drive
train components, and air spring modules.
Vibracoustic can analyse any noise vibration and
harshness (NVH) problem and to develop optimal vibro-
acoustic control solutions from a full-vehicle
perspective. Airspring modules for example are
designed to reduce harshness and support maximum
comfort under all loading conditions. In the subsidiarys
lab at Weinheim, Germany, vibration and acoustic
evaluations of product variants are extensively tested
while integrated into the total vehicle.

Fig. 1 and 2. Freudenbergs dedicated vibro-acoustic
control solutions improve vehicle ride characteristics
drastically.

To assess the NVH performance of the vibration
control component and to optimise their functioning
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root cause of a problem.
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respond very quickly to OEM requirements.


18
Leaving no angle unexplored

Vibracoustic covers a broad range of physical
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LMS Test.Lab workbook concept, guides the user
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that allow Freudenberg to profoundly test and
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Vibracoustic's test lab in Weinheim uses roller
benches, multi-axle test rigs, impact testing, and road
testing to analyse NVH problems and optimise
designs. The challenge for the Freudenberg engineers
is to assess the noise, vibration and harshness impact
of any modification either in the vibro-acoustic
control component or in the vehicle design.
A typical example of the Vibracoustic whole-
vehicle approach to optimize NVH is a case where the
OEM modified the differential of the gearbox. The
vehicle is tested on the roller bench, the 4-poster test
rig, on the street or a test track. On the roller bench, a
70-channel measurement setup with charge
accelerometers on the vehicle, microphones inside
and outside the car, and tachometer tracking is used.
The high channel setup allows fast and in depth
evaluation of the differences in NVH performance,
especially on the chassis, axle, engine, and inside the
passenger cavity of the car for interior noise.
Typically measurements are done in run up,
start/stop, idle, and shift conditions. During the test
runs, LMS Test.Lab offers online visualization of
the acquired data through multiple graphical
displays that are defined during setup and
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immediate feedback on the progression of the test and
the quality of the acquired data for vibration or
acoustic channels. They allow the testing teams to
make a first assessment on the spot and perform
additional testing if needed, said Mr. Wojts-Saary.
During measurements on the test track, the on-line
processing combined with the use of references
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The Freudenberg engineers also make extensive
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runs. Immediately after the test run, the deflection
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domain. This functionality enables full flexibility for
the engineer in choosing the appropriate offline
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The post-processing phase may include the
calculation of additional orders or maximum order
contribution, and allows further exploring the NVH
issues at hand. In the post-processing phase LMS
Test.Lab enables retrieval of earlier projects with
web-based navigation tools, making it possible to
analyse the physical process in greater detail.
TheVibracoustic engineering team faces the
continuous challenge of testing prototypes in ever-
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design changes to optimize the NVH performance of
their vibro-acoustic control components, in the full-
vehicle context. Mr. Wojts-Saary comments: In
addition to the broad application coverage and
functionality of the LMS products, there is LMS
very responsive technical support that helps us get
even more out of our measurements. The people at
the other end of the line know the software very well.
The reactiontime is very fast and they always come
back with helpfull answers to our questions.
LMS Test.Lab offers the productivity that
Vibracoustic requires, as it contains all the features
required to drill to the root causes of NVH vibration
issues in one integrated solution. During
measurement as well as in the post-processing phase,
LMS Test.Lab provides the engineers with the
comprehensive array of tools for in depth
investigation and comparisons of the vast amounts of
data generated during the testing.
Bruno Massa is with LMS International nv, Leuven,
Belgium. www.lmsintl.com
(http://www.engineerlive.com/european-design-
engineer/automotive-design)


19

MODERN METHODS OF REHABILITATION
AND CONSOLIDATION OF ROAD SYSTEMS

I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3

ABSTRACT
This paper presents modern technologies for road rehabilitation, consolidation and reconstruction of the base
layer. These technologies are selection according with the type of defects of the road layer, and each of these
is present with the special machines which are utilization. These technologies are utilized with hot or cold
milling or scarification of the wearing layer and with or without mixture between the old material and the
material addition.

KEYWORDS: road, rehabilitation, consolidation, maintenance, reconstruction, remixing, bitumen, milling

1. GENERALITIES

The quality of the driving surface of modern
roads is appreciated by users especially its evenness,
which insures both comfort and reduction of vehicles
wearing, and also its roughness, which mainly regards
the safety of traffic.
The superior layers of the supra-structure ate
subject to vertical and horizontal actions, resulted
from traffic and also to climacteric actions. As a
result of these actions, in time, there appear defects
of the driving surface: grooves, cracks, holes,
wearing, deformations that lead to the discomfort
and decrease of traffic safety. All these defects
must be removed by rehabilitation measures:
surface treatment;
coverage with a new layer;
milling the defect layer and replacement with
a new one;
The selection of the adequate method depends
on the type of defect, its cause and traffic actions
over the new layers.
The reconstruction of the wearing layer of the
asphalt pavement needs works of wide scope
realized with special machinery.
The used work methods, and also the
machinery from the technologic process depend on
many factors:
the place where the components of the asphalt blend
are mixed are (fixed plants, in situ, in motion);
the temperature at which works are executed (hot
or cold);
the need of regeneration of the layer material
(with or without material addition).
2. METHODS OF REHABILITATION
IN PLACE (MRP)

The method consists of treatment in place (in
situ) of the layer by:
hot or cold milling or scarification of the wearing
layer;
mixture with or without material addition;
mixture lying.
Depending on the needs of regeneration of the
asphalt mixture with or without addition materials
there are more hot and cold recondition methods of
the wearing layer.

2.1. THERMO-RECONDITIONING

This method consists of hot rehabilitation of the
deformed or worn layer, without material addition
(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Hot rehabilitation of the deformed or worn
layer, without material addition


20

1 heating plate;
2 scarification;
3 leveling blade;
4- pre-compacting beam;
5 compacting cylinder;
6 thermo-reconditioning

The method applies only when the road does
not present any structure defects, after the
verification of the physical-mechanical
characteristics of the mixture, before and after the
thermal-reconditioning, so that the characteristics
of the binder would not be affected.
The thermal-reconditioning, the machinery
that does the thermal-reconditioning, executes the
following operations:
the heating of the layer up to ~ 160C with the
aid of an infrared device;
the scarification of the layer on a depth of 1 4
cm without breaking the aggregates;
the leveling of the material by means of a
transversally oscillatory blade;
pre-compacting of the material and its
conditioning with the aid of a vibrating beam;
final compaction of the layer with compacting
cylinders.

2.2. REMIXING

The remixing allows the rehabilitation of the
layers of asphalt mixtures 5 6 cm thick.
The method consists of in situ hot
reconstruction of the layer, with addition of
material.

Fig. 2. Remixing

The work process consists of the following
stages (Fig. 3):

Fig. 3. Work process

1 pre-heater;
2 heating plate;
3 milling drum;
4 transporting bin;
5 binder tank;
6 blender;
9 installation mixtures preparation;
10 dumper;
11 compacting cylinder

the heating of the layer with heating panels of the
recycling machinery;
the milling of the layer and bringing the
dislocated material in the axis of the machinery;
the blending of the old mixture with a new
mixture and/or with correction binders;
even distribution of the obtained mixture;
pre-compaction with the vibrating beam;
final compaction with compacting cylinders.

2.3. NOVACOL METHOD
The method consists of in situ cold re-treatment
of the aged and cracked asphalt pavements, using a
bituminous cationic emulsion.
The execution technology is composed of the
following operations (Fig. 4):
the distribution of the correcting broken stone (if
necessary) before the milling operation;
cold milling of the layer;
addition and dosage of bitumen;
blending of milled material with the binder;
conditioning of mixture with the cord elevator and its
dumping in the bin of the mixtures distributor;

Fig. 4. The execution technology

21
1 fracturing plate;
2 miller;
3 grille;
4 blender;
5 water tank;
6 binder tank;
7 cord elevator;
8 bin;
12 - blender miller;
13 - asphalt distributor

2.4. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE
BASE LAYER

a) Reconstruction of the base layer without
material addition.
In case of degradation of the wearing layers
together with the base layer it is used a method to
create a new base layer without material addition.
For this the worn layers are cold milled, the
dislocated material being blended in the mixing
chamber (Fig. 5)

Fig. 5. Dislocated material blended in the mixing
chamber

b) Reconstruction of the base layer with
material addition
If it is necessary to add some aggregates it is
used the technological flux from Fig. 6. The added
material is spread from the dumper which had a
spreading device, after that the added material is
leveled. After the mixture of the milled material
and added aggregates is complete, it is
reconditioned and compacted.

Fig. 6. Technological flux
1 Compacting;
2 Profiling;
3 Granulation;
4 Leveling;
5 - Admixture spreading

c) Reconstruction of the base layer with
bituminous emulsion addition.
The principle of the method (Fig. 7) consists of
the followings:

Fig. 7. The principle of the method
1 - Bituminous emulsion;
2 - Water

cold milled of degraded layers;
simultaneously there are injected emulsion and
cold water;
the blending of the constituents is realized;
the back wall of the mixing chamber adjusts the
thickness of the new layer.
In Fig. 8 it is presented the technological flow in two
versions:
without material addition;
with material addition.


22

Fig. 8. The technological flow
1 Compacting;
2 Profiling;
3 - Milling and Mixing;
4 Emulsion;
5 Water;
6 Leveling;
7 - Material addition

d) Reconstruction of the base layer with
cement addition.
The increase of the bearing strength of the
base layer is realized by adding cement. This is
realized either by spreading cement on the
pavement that will be milled and injection of water
in mixing chamber (Fig 9).

Fig. 9. Spreading cement on the pavement
1-Water Addition;
2-Cement;
3-Flow meter

or by pumping cement grout in the mixing chamber
(Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Pumping cement
1- Addition with cement grout

The associated technological flows are
presented in Fig 11, respectively Fig. 12.

Fig. 11. Technological flows
1-Compacting ;
2-Profiling ;
3-Milling and Mixing;
4-Water;
5-Cement;
6-Leveling;
7-Aggregates

Fig. 12. Technological flows
1-Compacting ;
2-Profiling ;
4-Cement grout ;
5-Leveling;
6-Aggregates

e) Reconstruction of base layer with cement
and bituminous emulsion addition.
The principle of the method is represented in
Fig 13 where the cement is spread on the layer that
will be milled, and also in Fig 14 where the cement
grout is injected in the mixing chamber.


23
1-Bituminous emulsion;
2-Water;
3-Cement ;
4-Flow meter

1-Bituminous emulsion addition;
2-Cement grout addition

In Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 are presented the
technological flows of the two methods and their
associated machinery.

Fig. 15. Technological flow
1-Compacting ;
2-Profiling;
4-Emulsion;
5-Water ;
6-Cement;
7-Leveling
8-Aggregates

Fig. 16. Technological flow
1-Compacting ;
2-Profiling;
3- Milling and Mixing ;
4-Cement grout;
5-Emulsion;
6-Leveling ;
7-Additional Aggregates

f) Reconstruction of base layer with expanded
bitumen.
This method is a very successful one considering its
ecological and economical benefits.
Expanded bitumen (foamed) is obtained by the injection
of a quantity of cold water (2 3 % from the bitumen
mass) in hot bitumen at ~180 C (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17. Obtaining expanded bitumen
1-Flow regulator ;
2-to other nozzles;
3-Air ;
4-Pressure chamber;
5-Spongy bitumen ;
6- Water;
7-Hot bitumen ;

When the water is injected in hot bitumen, the
water evaporates and produces the expansion of the
bitumen that increases its volume 15 20 times. The
foamed bitumen (spongy) leaves the expansion
chamber through a nozzle being introduced in the
mixing chamber (Fig. 18).

Fig. 18. The method
1-Water for spongy bitumen;
2-Hot bitumen ;
3-Water


24
IN MOTION (MRM)

The technology of reconstruction in motion
of the wearing layer uses a mobile plant of
preparation of asphalt mixtures positioned in the
technological reconstruction flow.
The plant prepares a new asphalt mixture
from the dislocated material by milling from the
old layer and material addition.
The method contains the following operations
(Fig. 19):

Fig. 19. Operations method of rehabilitation in
motion
1 dumper;
2 milling rotor;
3 conveyer;
4 group of lift-transfer of milled
material;
5 dozer bin;
6 dryer-blender;
7 binder reservoir;
8 bin;
9 distribution screw
10 pre-compacting group;
12 miller;
13 - movable station of asphalt
mixtures;

allocation of added granular materials using a
dumper with distribution equipment;
cold milling of old layer together with the
distributed material;
gathering of milled material and hot
preparation of mixture;
allocation and vibrant-finishing of mixture;
compaction with cylinders.
The technological flow and the machinery are
presented in Fig. 20.

Fig. 20. The technological flow and the machinery

WITH FIXED PLANTS (MRP)

The method uses cold or hot milling of old
layers, evacuation of milled material to a fixed plant
of preparation of asphalt mixtures and the realization
of anew layer with the new mixture (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21. Methods of rehabilitation with fixed plants

4.1. COLD MILLING

Cold milling consists of the dislocation of the
asphalt mixture from the worn layer with the help of a
cogged drum mounted on a self-driven aggregate. The
milling machine moves on the layer that has to be
milled with the drum lowered at the necessary depth.
The milled material is loaded with the aid of a
conveyor belt in the dumper and transported to fixed
plants of preparation of asphalt mixtures.
After milling on the resulted surface there is laid a
new mixture layer (Fig. 22).
Technologically speaking cold milling has a
series of advantages:

can be used both to asphalt pavements and also to
concrete cement;
allows the layered removal of a single layer;
the milled surface is unevenly which contributes
favorably to the adherence of the new layer;
the surface is flat and in accordance with the profile;
allows material re-use.


25

Fig. 22. Cold milling
1milling drum;
2conveyer;
3,6dumpers;
4aggregates deposit ;
5installation mixtures preparation;
7bin;
8distribution screw;
9pre-compacting beam;
11 miller;

4.2. HOT MILLING

The method is used when the asphalt
pavement presents cracks.
The method consists of the heating of the
wearing layer (1 4 cm) at 160 - 180C, and then the
material is milled. By heating, the bituminous coating
becomes malleable, the resistance to milling decreases
and, consequently, there can be used milling machines
with a reduced installed power.

Fig. 23. Hot milling

1 heating panel;
2 milling rotor;
3 conveyer;
4,7 dumper;
5 aggregate deposit;
6 installation mixtures preparation;
8 bin;
12 miller;
5. MIXED METHODS
OF REHABILITATION
OF WEARING LAYERS

5.1. THERMAL-REGENERATION

The method consists of the heating and milling
of the layer keeping, partially or totally, the dislocated
material and the addition of a new asphalt layer.
The technologic process is realized with
complex machinery that realizes: the heating and
milling of the existent asphalt layer, the evacuation of
the excess material, the addition of the new asphalt
mixture, the allocation, the leveling and per-
compaction of the new layer.

5.2. REMIXING PLUS

It is a method that combines standard remixing
of the wearing layer with the layering of a new layer.
Remixing plus is executed by a single passing of
complex machinery whose work principle is shown in
Fig. 24.

Fig. 24. Remixing plus
1-pre-heater; 2-heating plate; 3-milling drum;
4-transporting bin; 5-binder tank; 6-blender;
7,11-distribution screw; 8-beating-levelling plate;
9-installation mixtures preparation; 10-dumper;
12-pre-compacting beam; 13-compacting
cylinder; 14 remixes - plus

REFERENCES:

1. Babeu T, Faur N, Das I. D, Studiul starii de tensiune din
organele active de dislocare acoperiri asfaltice, Buletin AGIR, Nr
4/1999
2. Faur N, Stoia M, Das I. D , Considerations regarding the stress
concentration effect at the splice pletes of the chains from the
mechanical gearings, Conference XXVI Jupiter 1999
3. Heinz H, Modern Methoden und Maschinen fr
Straenindstandsetzung, Rev. Baumeshinendienst no. 6, 1991
4. Stefanescu M, Contributii asupra optimizarii procesului de
frezare a straturilor de uzura a drumurilor, Teza de doctorat,
UTCB, 2004
5. Das I. D, Studiul durabilitatii organelor active la masini de
frezat a imbracamintilor rutiere, Teza de doctorat, UPT, 2007


26
Quick Info

Camera-based
system 'improve
road safety'

A small low-priced 3D CMOS camera has been
developed for applications such as blind-spot
monitoring in cars, robot control and for
monitoring building access points.
The camera's core component is a high-
performance light sensor.
Modern vehicle electronics can prevent many
accidents, but problems are often caused by traffic
coming from the sides; objects or pedestrians
approaching rapidly from the side have so far been
almost impossible to detect.
However, researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for
Microelectronic Circuits and Systems IMS in
Duisburg, Germany, have developed a small,
robust and low-priced camera that emits a rapid
series of short laser flashes that are invisible to the
human eye.
From the reflected light signals, the camera
determines not only how far away an object is, but
also its three-dimensional shape.
Rays of light that encounter protruding areas are
reflected back sooner than those that encounter
lower-lying areas. Precision control of the camera
aperture separates these light signals and
subsequently uses them to create a 3D image.
The observation of lateral traffic is only one
possible application scenario; the camera system
can also be employed for robotic applications or for
controlling access to buildings.
The researchers' goal was to develop a low-cost
device from standard components - for instance, by
using off-the-shelf components for the camera
lenses and the laser diodes.
The core component of the camera is the CMOS
chip developed by the researchers themselves,
which transforms light signals into electrical
impulses.

The chip can be manufactured at low cost in a
standard process. Werner Brockherde, the project
manager, comments: The challenge we faced was to
create a chip that would reliably interpret light
signals in any situation. For example, the electronics
cut out interfering background light from their
calculations by opening the aperture for one millionth
of a second and measuring the natural ambient
light.
Depending how far away an object is, a greater or
lesser amount of reflected light enters the camera.
The CMOS chip therefore has to be capable of
analysing extremely bright images as well as very
dark ones.
The researchers have developed special algorithms to
achieve this high level of dynamic performance.
The 3D CMOS camera will be on show at the Vision
2007 trade fair in Stuttgart, Germany, from 6-8
November 2007 (Hall 4, stand C56).
(Fraunhofer Institute)
The Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft undertakes applied
research of direct utility to private and public
enterprise and of wide benefit to society.Brockherde
is confident that it will be launched on the market for
the first automotive applications in about five years'
time - perhaps as an alternative to radar proximity
sensors, which are relatively expensive, or for blind-
spot monitoring.

(http://www.engineerlive.com/european-design-
engineer/automotive-design)

27

RESEARCH REGARDING THE RUNNING MODE
OF THE VALVES OF THE EXTRACTION PUMPS

I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3

ABSTRACT
The paper work presents the experimental researches regarding the running mode of the
valves of the extraction pumps. It spotlights the fact that the valves closing and opening
moments are preceded by a phase difference bigger during the opening and smaller
during the closing and due to the percussion phenomenon during the closing period
between the ball and the seat-ring take place one, two or three elastic collisions having
lower raising high. Corresponding to these processes there occur liquid leaking that
influence the volumetrically efficiency of the extraction pumps.

KEYWORDS: seat, ball, raising, valve, corrosion, toughness, pump

1. INTRODUCTION

In the pumping plant the extraction pumps
with piston are very important and their reliability
and behavior in the working condition of derricks
have a big influence for the total efficiency of the
extraction plant. To chose an extraction pump is
necessary to take account about more factor such as:
the fluid flow to be extracted , the physical and
chemical characteristics of the pumped mixture, the
pumping depth, the gas crude oil ratio, the solid
impurity content, the drill hole geometry, and so on.
To work with a higher capacity, the seat-ball valves
must have the following characteristics:
- the liquid section pass through the valve must
be as big as possible to have a smaller
resistance to the liquid flow ;
- the seat must have a mass as high as possible
and the ball as small as possible; this condition
can increase the working life and it can be
realize either by the diameter decreasing or by
lowering the ball density;
- it is necessary that the ball to have a permanent
rotation movement during the working time ,
to obtain an uniform wear;
- the ball hardness must be bigger than seat one
because during the valve working the ball must
keep the initial surface shape but it is not
necessary this for the seat , as long as the valve
keeps the tightness (we can admit fluid leaking
up to 50 ml/24 hours at a working pressure of
200 bar);
- the seat toughness must be bigger the ball one to
avoid its breaking and crushing as a result of the
repeated ball shocks because the active surface of
the seat side is by far less than the active surface
of the ball;
The main reasons of the wear are:
- the environment corrosion;
- the abrasion due to the sand from the extracted
liquid;
- the environment corrosion and abrasion .
From the point of view of the composition, the
working fluid is:
- normal , with less than 30% mineralized water,
no H2S, CO2, O2 in water, less than 0.3% sand
in suspension ;
- abrasive, with more than 0.3% sand in
suspension ;
- corrosive , with more than 30% mineralized
water, more than 20 g / l salinity in water, H2S,
CO2, O2 , pH < 7, contaminated with HCl <10%;
- abrasive and corrosive with more than 0.3% sand
in suspension, more than 20 g / l salinity in
water, H2S, CO2 and O2 ;
- fluid with crust deposition, with more than 30%
mineralized water with content of CaSO4,
BaSO4, SrSO4, CaCo3, FeCo3;
- fluid with deposition of paraffin with crude-oil
with up to 10% paraffin and lowered
temperature;

28
- fluid with great gas content , with gas liquid
ratio > 300 Nmc/mc and free gas at pump port
intake;
- fluid with viscosity content for crude-oil or for
emulsion , with the crude oil or water/crude
oil emulsion greater than 200 cP at 20C.
The extraction pump hydraulic efficiency is
determined by the loss between piston and cylinder
and through the two ball valves, fixed and mobile.
The losses through the space between piston and
cylinder are dependent by some factors and the
most important are: the radial play, the length and
the piston displacement speed, the crude-oil water
mixture viscosity at the fixation depth of the pump,
the gas-crude oil ratio and other. The losses
through the ball valves appear during their closing
and as a consequence of the seats and balls wear
due to the permanent erosion phenomenon.
Between these two losses the most important are
considered the one of the valves leaky because the
pressure in pump acts on them.

2. CONSTRUCTIONAL
AND FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS
FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL STAND

The laboratory stand is used for trying of the
extraction pumps with medium length in working
conditions very close by the real ones from the
derricks. It permits the materials couples testing
for piston and long cylinder, the establishment of
the radial play influence on the pressure
distribution in the cylinder-piston ring space and
the determination of the high of the ball raising
from the valve seat, depending of the piston
position. To equilibrate the load, in the stand are
two vertical medium length extraction pumps and
the ascendant motions of the piston are the active
repression motion. At the upper side of the piston is
a seat ball valve in to an inductive transducer of
movement which permits the measurement of the
high of the ball depending of the piston position
and of the fluid flow on the valve. It can not be
researched the ceramic valves because we use an
inductive transducer.

3. THE EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF THE HIGH OF THE BALL
FROM THE VALVE SEAT

After the experimental research it was drawn
the characteristic curve of the inductive transducer.
This curve indicates the low voltage induced in the
secondary wrapping depending of the high of the
ball from the seat.
The controlled raise of the ball on vertical
direction was done using a fine step screw made of
aluminum. The assembling scheme for the high ball
measurement is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. The assembling scheme for the high ball
measurement
1- transformer;
2- screw for ball raising;
3- bridge rectifier;
4-data acquisition board;
5- process computer

In Figure 2 is presented the characteristic curve for
the transducer.

Fig. 2.The characteristic curve for the transducer

The equation that defines this curve is polynomial
type:

h = a + b * U + c * U + d * U+ e * U4 (1)

where the numerical constants a, b, c, d, e are :
a = 47992.108;
b = - 101389.73;
c = 80175.273;
d = - 28138.741;
e = 3700.3579.

As we see from the characteristic curve look, for the
raising high h of the ball up to 12 15 mm, the
voltage values U vary linear with the ball raising.
This high where the voltage has a linear variation
correspond to a high less than the high that can be for
the ball in the extraction pump cage in real condition.
In the second part of the research , using the inductive
transducer in the extraction pump cage in the
experimental stand, as we can see in Figure 4, there
were done a lot of successive registering of the

29
voltage variation in the secondary wrapping of the
inductive transducer on a limited period of time
(one minute).
The high frequency of scanning (150 scan/sec)
done by the acquisition board type Spider 8 had as
a result more than 9000 registered value on one
minute for each parameter.
Using the equation (1), based on the interpretation
of the values registered in the moment of the
characteristic curve drawing for the inductive
transducer, it was realized the conversion of the
curves that describe the voltage variation in time in
curves that define the high of the raising ball
variation in time for the three types of fluid used:
drinking water with oil with emulsifying power
(AU), water oil-field (90%) with crude oil (10%)
(AzT) and mixture crude-oil (99.8%) with water
oil-field (0.2%) (TAz).
The resulted curves are presented in Figure 3 and
separate for each fluid type pumped with the
extraction pump fixed on the experimental stand.
In Figure 6 is presented the high of the raising ball
variation in time in one pumping cycle for the three
types of fluids and in Figure 7 the variation of the
same parameter for more pumping cycles.

Fig. 3. Resulted curves

Fig. 4. Successive registering of the voltage
variation

Fig. 5. Successive registering of the voltage variation

Fig. 6. The high of the raising ball variation in time
in one pumping cycle for the three types of fluids

Fig. 7. The variation of the same parameter for more
pumping cycles

From these diagrams results the following:

a. For the mixture AU
- The physical properties for the fluid: density
=999 Kg/m; dynamic viscosity =1.004 *10
Pa*s; working temperature in stand t=23C
- The parameter establishment using the graphic
interpretation:
- Time for a double throw of the pump piston
tcd=1.287 s;
- The high peak for the raising ball in cage at the
stroke upward hl=17.420 mm;
- Opening ball time td = 0.340 s;
- Lag time for the valve opening tdd = 0.633 s;

30
- Ball closing time at the stroke downward
ti=0.120 s;
- The impact number of the ball on the
valve seat nc =3;
- The high of the raising ball from the seat
after the first impact, h2=2.946 mm;
after the second impact, h3=2.467 mm;
- Lag time for the valve closing tdi=0.194 s;
- The ball vibrating swing when the valve is
opened at the stroke upward (influenced
by the dynamic viscosity of the pumped
fluid), hamp=2.897 mm;

b. For the mixture AzT
- The physical properties for the fluid:
density of water oil-field az=1064
Kg/m; density of crude-oil t=914 Kg/m;
emulsion density =1049 Kg/m; dynamic
viscosity for water oil-field az=84.323
*10 Pa*s; dynamic viscosity for crude-
oil t=90.09 * 10 Pa*s; the dynamic
viscosity for emulsion =84.9 * 10 Pa*s;
- The parameter establishment using the
graphic interpretation:
- Time for a double throw of the pump
piston tcd=1.287 s;
- he high peak for the raising ball in cage at
the stroke upward hl=13.280 mm;
- Opening ball time td=0.280 s;
- Lag time for the valve opening tdd =0.621
s;
ti=0.160 s;
- The impact number of the ball on the
valve seat nc=2;
after the first impact, h2=2.5 mm;
opened at the stroke upward (influenced
by the dynamic viscosity of the pumped
fluid), hamp=2.40 mm

c. For the mixture TAz
- The physical properties for the fluid:
density of crude-oil t=914 Kg/m;
density of water oil-field az=1064
Kg/m; mixture density =914 Kg/m;
dynamic viscosity for crude-oil t=90.09 *
10 Pa*s; dynamic viscosity for water oil-
field az=84.323 *10 Pa*s; the dynamic
viscosity for the mixture =90.08 * 10
Pa*s; working temperature in stand
t=23C;
- The parameter establishment using the
graphic interpretation:
- Time for a double throw of the pump piston
tcd=1.287 s;
- The high peak for the raising ball in cage at the
stroke upward hl=11.174 mm;
- Opening ball time td = 0.353 s;
- Lag time for the valve opening tdd = 0.561 s;
ti=0.160 s;
- The impact number of the ball on the valve seat nc =1;
opened at the stroke upward (influenced by the
dynamic viscosity of the pumped fluid),
hamp=1.247 mm

4. THE RESULTS AND
MEASUREMENT INTERPRETATION

The curves registered at the experimental stand
for seat-ball valves for the three fluid types, show the
following:
- the high of raising ball from the valve seat is
under the peak high admitted by the cage
construction that is 20 mm
- the moment of valve opening and closing is
preceded by a lag time, greater at opening and
smaller at closing; in this period of time, at
closing, from the moment when the balls is
moving from the peak high (from the valve seat)
up to the contact between ball and seat is
realized, is leaking a bigger volume of liquid for
fluids with high viscosity and a smaller volume
for fluids with a lower viscosity;
- because of the jerk phenomena in the closing
valve period, between ball and seat one , two or
three elastic impact take place with raising high
lower and lower ; according to these impacts
some leaks take place both at raising and coming
down movement of the ball, proportionally with
the number of impacts.;
- in the open position, the ball of the valve
registered a succession of vibration with uniform
amplitude, determined by the installation work
and by the viscosity of the pumped fluid.
- The big number of registering for the ball vibration
is due to the data acquisition board (Spider 8 type)
sensibility, which is set for a frequency of 150
scanning / sec. The vibration amplitude is higher for
fluids with lower viscosity and lower for fluids with
higher viscosity.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The research regarding the high of the raising
valve ball had the following conclusions:
- for drinking water with emulsified oil , to
reduce the stand corrosion, the peak high of

31
the ball is at 17.420 mm comparing with
20 mm of the cage high;
- the raising and coming down of the ball to
seat take place in the same time, the
fluctuation from the maintaining period in
high position being determined by the
vibrations that take place in the system
(the registering of these vibrations was
possible due to the sensibility of the data
acquisition board type Spider-8 which was
set for 150 scanning/sec.);
- at the coming down of the ball, for water,
3 impacts on the valve seat take place;
- in the period of time when the ball is
coming down and is close to seat and the
moment of the first impact we can see a
delay because the it acts the pressure
created in the centrifugal pump that feed
the pumps ensemble, similar to the
pressure created by the dynamic level of
the liquid column from the ring space of
the derrick;
- the peak high for the raising ball is lower
than the peak high created by the cage;
- on the period of time when the ball is
raised from seat , its position is not
constant because of the flow variation due
to piston, the gas compressibility from the
pump cylinder and the system vibration ;
- for the mixture water-oil field 90% and
crude oil 10% as working fluid we
observe a lower high for the raising ball
than the one for the mixture water with
emulsified oil as working fluid, because of
the viscosity difference ;
- for the mixture crude oil 99.8% and water-
oil field 0.2% we observe a lower high for
the raising ball and a lower amplitude for
the ball vibration inside the cage.

REFERENCES

1. Tudor A,. Dumitru V,. Negriu R.M, Proc.
Tribological Congress, Vienna 2001
2. xxx Patents RO 112660, RO 114241 ,RO111844,
RO112609, RO119448
3. xxx API specification I lAX-2006
4. Prakash L., Proc. 13 , Plansee Seminar, vol. 2
(1993), pp 80-109
5. Tracey V.A. Refractory Metals & Hard Materials
(1992), pp 137-147
6. Schatt W, Wicters K.P., Powder Metallurgy,
EPMA (1997) pp 442-476
7. Ekemar S., and others , Proc 10 , Plansee Seminar,
vol. 1(1981), pp 477-492
8. Takaj, K.J and others , Proc. PM94 ,Paris, vol.
1(1994) pp 227-234
9. Telle E.,and others , Proc. PTM93, Dresden
(1993), pp 821-83 1
10. Micski A. and. Uhrenius B, Proc. PM94, Paris, vol
1(1994), pp 127-129
11. A. Storm and S. Bunescu , Proc. First International
Conference on Materials and Manufacturing
Technologies, MATEHN94, Cluj-Napoca, pp 87-92
12. Brookes K.J.A., Hardmetals and other hard materials,
International Carbide Data, 1992
13. xxx 1S04505: , Metallographic determination of
porosity and uncombined carbon , 1978
14. Nicolae P. , Proc. FGM98 , Dresda, pp482-486, Ed.
WA, Kaysser, Trans. Tech. Publications Ltd
15. Wang W. H, and others , 3D measurement of crater
wear by phase shifting method, WEAR , 2006

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33

ANALIZA STRUCTURAL I MICROSCOPIC
A MEMBRANELOR AMBREIAJELOR AUTO
PRELUCRATE TERMOMECANIC

Petric Corbieru
1
, Anioara Corbieru
1
, Baciu Constantin
2
, Lozovan Mihai
3
4

1
SC PRESUM PROIECT SA Iai, e-mail: pcorabieru@yahoo.com
2
Universitatea Tehnic Gh. Asachi Iai, cbaciu @yahoo.com
3
Institutul National CD Fizica Tehnica Iasi, loz@phys-iasi.ro
4
SC PROCOMIMPEX Iai, e-mail: oficeprocom@yahoo.com

REZUMAT
Tehnologia de fabricaie a membranelor arc disc pentru ambreiaje auto prin
tratamente termomecanice controlate pe linii tehnologice automatizate de clire
cambrat i propune obinerea calitii corespunztoare a produselor finite n
condiii de eficien economic i respectnd cerinele directivelor europene de
mediu. Calitatea membranelor este determinat de structura obinut n urma
prelucrrilor termomecanice. Principalii parametri tehnologici care influeneaz
calitatea membranelor ambreiajelor auto sunt: temperatura de clire, timpul de
meninere la clire, temperatura de revenire, timpul de meninere la revenire, viteza
de rcire, gradul de deformare prin cambrare. Structura troostit de revenire este o
structur corespunztoare ambreiajelor auto, oferindu-le tenacitatea i elasticitatea
solicitat de condiiile de exploatare.

ABSTRACT
The technology of manufacture of the spring-disk diaphragms for automobiles
clutch pedals by controlled thermo-mechanical treatments on automatic
technological lines of bended quenching has as purpose to obtain the proper quality
of the finished products in conditions of economic efficiency and observing the
requirements of the European environment directives. The quality of the diaphragms
is determined by the structure obtained after the thermo-mechanical processing. The
main technological parameters which influence the quality of the diaphragms of the
automobiles clutch pedals are: quenching temperature, maintaining time at
quenching, tempering temperature, maintaining time at tempering, cooling speed,
degree of deformation by bending. The structure of tempering troostite is a structure
corresponding to the automobiles clutch pedals, offering them the tenacity and
elasticity requested by the exploitation conditions.

CUVINTE CHEIE: membrane, ambreiaje auto, structur

KEYWORDS: diaphragms, clutch pedals, structure

1. INTRODUCERE

Scopul cercetrilor este realizarea i
implementarea tehnologiei de obinere a membranelor
arc-disc pentru ambreiaje auto prin tratamente
termomecanice controlate pe linii tehnologice
automatizate de clire cambrat, conducnd la
obinerea calitii corespunztoare a produselor finite.
Complexitatea tehnologiei const n faptul c
se caut o soluie tehnic care s conduc la un
ansamblu de proprieti fizico-mecanice i
caracteristici de uzur, favorabile unei asociaii
optime duritate-elasticitate-eficien, n condiiile
depirii constrngerilor tehnologice. n sprijinul
specificului complex al tehnologiei se remarc
caracterul multidisciplinar prin diversitatea
activitilor de cercetare (analiz structural
cantitativ i calitativ, ncercri fizice, chimice,
mecanice, ncercri de uzur la oboseal mecano-
termic), a tehnicilor i metodelor de analiz i
control abordate.

34

2. FLUXUL TEHNOLOGIC
EXPERIMENTAL

Fluxul tehnologic de fabricaie al membranelor
arc disc pentru ambreiaje auto prin tratamente
termomecanice controlate de clire cambrat este
format din urmtoarele faze tehnologice principale:
F 1 Alegerea i stabilirea semifabricatului
de pornire: band de oel slab aliat (gr.=2 mm)
F 1.1 Control compoziie chimic
F 1.2 Control structur
F 1.3 Control duritate
F 1.4 Control ncercri mecanice
F 2 tanare band
F 3 Crestare semifabricat
F 4 Raionare semifabricat
F 5 Planare la cald a semifabricatului
F 5.1 nclzire la 680C
F 5.2 Planare
F 6 Prelucrare termomecanic complex
F 6.1 Clire cambrat
F 6.2 Deformare plastic prin cambrare
grad de deformare 10%
F 7 Revenire medie cu obinerea structurii
duro-elastice troostitice
F 8 ncercri tehnologice de educare prin
gimnasticare (cicluri de deformare + revenire
elastic=min. 50 cicluri/min fr apariia
fenomenului de ncetinire de rspuns)
F 9 - Control caracteristici mecanice i
structurale-produs finit
F 9.1 Control duritate
F 9.2 Control structur
F 9.3 Control rezisten mecanic
F 10 Montaj produs finit n ansamblu
general (ambreiaj)
F 11 Control tehnic final
F 11.1 ncercri la ncovoiere
F 11.2 ncercri la oboseal, ocuri
F 11.3 ncercri la forfecare
F 12 Verificri i probe n exploatare
F 12.1 - Analiza comportrii n exploatare n
condiiile produciei de serie a ambreiajelor
F 12.1.1 Uzura curent
F 12.1.2 Uzura curent cumulat
F 12.1.3 Uzura procentual
F 12.1.4 Uzura procentual cumulat
F 12.2 Analiza durabilitii
F 13 Automatizare tehnologie
F 14 Implementare.

3. PRINCIPALELE CARACTERISTICI
I PARAMETRI DE LUCRU

Principalii parametri de lucru i intervalele
de variaie ai acestora sunt prezentai n tabelul 1.

Tabelul 1 Intervale de variaie a principalilor
parametri de lucru
Nr.
crt.
Denumire parametri
de lucru
Simbol
parame-
tru
Unitate
de
msur
Valoarea
minim
Valoarea
maxim
P 1.1 [mm] 2 4
1
Semifabricat de baz
P 1.2 %C 0,40 0,55

2
Temperatura de
lucru la planare

P 2

[C]

650

700

3
Temperatura de
clire cambrat

P 3

[C]

850

900

4
Timp meninere la
clire

P 4

[h]

0,1

0,7

5
Viteza de rcire la
clire

P 5

[C/s]

200

300

6
Grad de deformare
plastic la cambrare

P 6

%

8

15

7
Temperatura de
revenire

P 7

[C]

250

400

8
Timp de meninere
revenire

P 8

[h]

1

2

Principalele caracteristici tehnice ale membranelor arc
disc pentru ambreiaje auto sunt prezentate n tabelul 2.

Tabelul 2 Intervale de variaie a caracteristicilor tehnice
Nr.
crt.
Denumire
caracteristic
Simbol
caracteristic
Unitate de
msur
Valoare
minim
Valoare
maxim

1
Structur
membran
arc-disc

C 1
constituieni,
indice de
mrime
grunte,
punctaj
incluziuni
nemetalice

80%
troostit

100%
troostit

2
Randament
instalaie de
clire
cambrat

C 2

buc/h

10

25

3
Cicluri =
deformare +
revenire
elastic de
educare prin
gimnasticare

C 3

cicluri/min

50

80

4
Duritate
medie
suprafa
membran

C 4

uniti
HRC

40

50

5

Rezistena
mecanic la
traciune

C 5

N/mm
2

1200

1600

6
Reziliena -
rezistena la
ocuri

C 6

J/cm
2

40

110

7

Durabilitate

C 7
h,
funcionare
n sarcin
intermitent

1500

2000

35
4. STUDIUL ANALIZELOR
MICROSCOPICE I STRUCTURALE

Din membranele arc-disc experimentate s-au
prelevat probe care au fost supuse studiului
metalografic. n funcie de principalii parametri
tehnologici (temperatura de clire, timpul de
meninere la clire, temperatura de revenire, timpul de
meninere la revenire, viteza de rcire, gradul de
deformare prin cambrare) s-au obinut urmtoarele
tipuri de structuri:
1 Troostit de revenire preponderent peste 80% -
structur corespunztoare ambreiajelor auto
oferindu-le elasticitate i tenacitate.
2 Sorbit de revenire structur cu comportare
medie elasticitate modest + tenacitate.
3 Martensit cubic + Austenit rezidual
structur necorespunztoare elasticitate slab +
tenacitate.
4 Structur predominant perlitic P=80-90% -
structur necorespunztoare elasticitate slab.
a duritate corespunztoare, HRC > 40
elasticitate + tenacitate
b duritate necorepunztoare, HRC 40
elasticitate necorespunztoare
c - gimnasticare corespunztoare, nr. cicl.80
cicl./min. elasticitate corespunztoare a
membranei
d - gimnasticare necorespunztoare, nr. cicl.<80
cicl./min. elasticitate necorespunztoare a
membranei.
Principalele structuri obinute n urma analizei
rezultatelor experimentale sunt prezentate n tabelul 3.

Tabelul 3. Studiul analizelor microsopice
i structurale rezultate experimentale
Nr.
Crt
Parametri
tehnologici
Determinri
experimentale
- rezultate
Structur: atac
2% nital
x 150
1
T clire=845 C
t
clire
=20 min.
T revenire=355 C
t
revenire
=45 min.
Vrcire=205C/min
Grd. def.=10 %
Duritate=28HR
C
Gimnasticare=
50[nr.cicl./min.]
Structur
predominant
Perlitic P=80-
90%, structur
necorespunztoare
, elasticitate slab
Nr.
Crt
Parametri
tehnologici
Determinri
experimentale
- rezultate
Structur: atac
2% nital
x 150
2
T clire=850 C
t
clire
=25 min.
T revenire=370 C
t
revenire
=50 min.
Vrcire=205C/min
Grd. def.=11 %
Duritate=30HR
C
Gimnasticare=
55[nr.cicl./min.]
Structur
predominant
Perlitic P=80-
90%, structur
necorespunztoare
, elasticitate slab
3
T clire=870 C
t
clire
=30 min.
T revenire=390 C
t
revenire
=65 min.
Vrcire=215C/min
Grd. def.=14 %
Duritate=38HR
C
Gimnasticare=
65[nr.cicl./min.]

M+ Arez 5%
Structur
necorespunztoare
, elasticitate slab
+ tenacitate
4
T clire=870 C
t
clire
=35 min.
T revenire=395 C
t
revenire
=65 min.
Vrcire=220C/min
Grd. def.=14 %
Duritate=38HR
C
Gimnasticare=
65[nr.cicl./min.]
Mcubic + Arez
5%
Structur
necorespunztoare
, elasticitate slab
+ tenacitate
5
T clire=885 C
t
clire
=35 min.
T revenire=420 C
t
revenire
=75 min.
Vrcire=230C/min
Grd. def.=15 %
Duritate=42HR
C
Gimnasticare=
75[nr.cicl./min.]
Sorbit de
revenire, structur
cu comportare
medie, elasticitate
modest +
tenacitate

36
Nr.
Crt
Parametri
tehnologici
Determinri
experimentale
- rezultate
Structur: atac
2% nital
x 150
6
T clire=890 C
t
clire
=35 min.
T revenire=420 C
t
revenire
=80 min.
Vrcire=235C/min
Grd. def.=15 %
Duritate=42HR
C
Gimnasticare=
80[nr.cicl./min.]
Sorbit de
revenire, structur
cu comportare
medie, elasticitate
modest +
tenacitate
7
T clire=900 C
t
clire
=40 min.
T revenire=440 C
t
revenire
=85 min.
Vrcire=245C/min
Grd. def.=17 %
Duritate=45HR
C
Gimnasticare=
85[nr.cicl./min.]

Troostit de
revenire
preponderent
peste 80%,
strcutur
corespunztoare
ambreiajelor auto,
oferindu-le
elasticitate i
tenacitate

8
T clire=905 C
t
clire
=40 min.
T revenire=440 C
t
revenire
=90 min.
Vrcire=245C/min
Grd. def.=17 %
Duritate=45HR
C
Gimnasticare=
90[nr.cicl./min.]

Troostit de
revenire
preponderent
peste 80%,
strcutur
corespunztoare
ambreiajelor auto,
oferindu-le
elasticitate i
tenacitate

5. CONCLUZII

structura corespunztoare ambreiajelor auto
este troostit de revenire preponderent peste
80%, structur corespunztoare care confer
membranelor arc-disc elasticitate i
tenacitate;
structura troostitic s-a obinut n
urmtoarele condiii tehnologice
experimentale: temperatura de clire 895-910
C; timp de meninere la clire 40 minute;
temperatura de revenire 430-450 C; timp de
meninere la revenire 85-90 minute; viteza de
rcire 240-250 C/min; gradul de deformare
prin gimnasticare 16-17%;
duritatea medie la suprafaa membranelor
arc-disc n cazul celor cu structur troostitic
a fost de 45 HRC, iar numrul de cicluri la
verificarea prin gimnasticare pn la
ncetinirea reaciei de rspuns a fost de peste
85 de cilc/min valoare care confer
garania unei comportri corespunztoare n
exploatare.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Contract 179/20.07.2006, Tehnologia de fabricaie a
membranelor arc-disc pentru ambreiaje auto prin
tratamente termomecanice controlate pe linii
tehnologice automatizate de clire cambrat, etapa I -
Fundamentarea condiiilor tehnologice de realizare i a
caracteristicilor funcionale specifice membranelor arc-
disc pentru ambreiajele auto, 05.12.2006, Iai
2. Contract 179/20.07.2006, Tehnologia de fabricaie a
membranelor arc-disc pentru ambreiaje auto prin
tratamente termomecanice controlate pe linii
tehnologice automatizate de clire cambrat, etapa II
Realizarea, n condiii de laborator, a modelului
experimental (ME) al mebranelor arc-disc, 30.10.2007,
Iai
3. Petric Corbieru, Anioara Corbieru, ARC DISC
DIAPHRAGMS, MANUFACTURED BY CONTROLLED
THERMO-MECHANIC PROCESSING Conference
Excellence Research a Way to E.R.A. Braov 2007,
Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, ISSN 1843-5904
4. Corbieru P., Corbieru A. Alinierea tehnologiilor
de fabricaie a pieselor auto metalice, la cerinele
Directivei Europene de mediu Dir.99/13/CE Revista
Construcia de Maini-serie nou TEHNOLOGIA
INOVATIV, anul 57/2005, nr. 3-4, pag. 6-8, ISSN-
973-718-345-2
5. Varga A., Cercetri privind reciclabilitatea
automobilelor, Revista de Politica tiinei i
Scientometrie (2005)


37

ANALIZA STRUCTURAL A STRATURILOR BIMETALICE
ALE COMPONENTELOR AUTO

Anioara Corbieru
1
, Petric Corbieru
1
, Baciu Constantin
2
Comneci Radu
2
3

1
2
3

Rezumat
Componentele auto uoare (lagre, cuzinei, axe, buce) din semifabricate bimetalice obinute din
faz lichid se realizeaz prin aplicarea procedeului de turnare centrifug orizontal. Tehnologia
poate fi realizat pe o linie automatizat, reuind urmrirea strict n timpul procesului a
principalilor parametri tehnologici i a caracteristicilor produsului finit. Obiectivul principal este
creterea fiablitii i a performanelor componentelor auto uoare printr-o optimizare a structurii
i proprietilor. Calitatea componentelor auto bimetalice este determinat de structura mbinrii
care este puternic influenat de temperatura i timpul de mbinare.

Abstract
The light component parts of the automobiles (bearings, supports, axles, bushes) of bi-metallic
half-products obtained from the liquid phase are achieved by the application of the horizontal spin
casting procedure. The technology can be applied on an automatic line, succeeding the strict
survey during the process of the main technological parameters and of the finished product. The
main objective is the increase of the reliability and of the performances of the light component
parts of the automobiles by an optimization of the structure and properties. The quality of the
bimetallic component parts of the automobiles is determined by the structure of the joint that is
strongly influenced by the temperature and the joining time.

Cuvinte cheie: componente auto bimetalice, faz lichid

Keywords: bimetallic component parts for automobiles, liquid phase

1. INTRODUCERE

O metod eficient de reducere a consumului
de aliaje pe baz de cupru este realizarea pieselor
bimetalice oel-bronz. Ca material de baz se
utilizeaz un oel cu un coninut de pn la 0,3% C,
deoarece utilizarea unor oeluri cu un coninut mai
ridicat nu asigur difuzia i aderena corespunztoare
ntre suportul de oel i aliajul antifriciune,
producndu-se clirea excesiv a suportului la rcirea
n ap. Componentele auto bimetalice oel-aliaj
neferos permit s se obin o reducere important a
consumului de aliaje neferoase, precum i o
mbuntire a caracteristicilor de exploatare.
Acoperirea suporilor de oel cu aliaje
neferoase se poate realiza prin mai multe procedee
dintre care metoda centrifugrii materialului depus
topit este foarte utilizat. Pe plan mondial cuzineii i
bucele auto bimetalice din oel-bronz se obin prin
centrifugare orizontal. Realizarea componentelor i
pieselor bimetalice prin procedeul de depunere prin
centrifugare din faz lichid impune necesitatea
asigurrii i pstrrii centrrii coaxiale a piesei auto n
timpul rotirii i respectrii metodologiei de lucru
elaborat.

2. PROCEDEUL TEHNOLOGIC
EXPERIMENTAL

n figura 1 este prezentat instalaia de
obinere a componentelor auto uoare bimetalice
prin turnare centrifug orizontal.

Figura1. Instalaia de obinere a componentelor auto
uoare prin turnare centrifug orizontal


38
1. alimentator cu bronz topit;
2. materialul suport din oel slab aliat;
3. motor antrenare;
4. curea de transmisie;
5. roi de curea;
6. ax antrenare;
7. lagr;
8. eav rcire ap;
9. strat depus de bronz

Principalele faze tehnologice sunt urmtoarele:
1. Elaborarea aliajului de bronz;
2. Pregtirea suportului de oel n vederea
turnrii (curire, prenclzire);
3. Montarea capacului;
4. nchiderea aprtorii de protecie;
5. Insuflare pulbere fin de Ni;
6. Poziionarea alimentatorului;
7. Turnarea bronzului concomitent cu nceperea
micrii de rotaie;
8. Solidificarea bronzului pe suport sub
influena forei centrifuge;
9. Oprirea micrii de rotaie;
10. Extragerea componentului auto bimetalic cu
ajutorul mpingtorului acionat de cilindrul
pneumatic;
11. Rcirea pn la temperatura ambiant.

EXPERIMENTAL

n fig. 2 este prezentat fluxul tehnologic experimental
de obinere a componentelor auto bimetalice prin
turnare centrifug orizontal direct din faza lichid.

Figura 2. Fluxul tehnologic experimental
F 1 Alegerea i stabilirea materialelor de baz.
F 1.1 Control compoziie chimic.
F 1.2 ncercri mecanice.
F 2 Alegerea i stabilirea materialului depus.
F 2.2 ncercri mecanice.
F 3 Alegerea i stabilirea materialului intermediar.
F 3.2 Control granulometric.
F 4 Elaborarea materialului depus.
F 4.1 Control compoziie materii prime.
F 4.3 Control temperatur.
F 4.4 Control timp elaborare.
F 5 Pregtire instalaie de turnare centrifug.
F 5.1 Verificare cochil.
F 5.2 Verificare dimensiuni.
F 5.3 Verificare configuraie geometric.
F 5.4 Verificarea gamei de turaie.
F 5.5 Verificare funcionare instalaie electric i
de comand.
F 6 Turnare centrifug.
F 6.1 Depunere strat intermediar de legtur.
F 6.2 Control turaie.
F 6.3 Control temperatur de turnare.
F 6.4 Control timp de turnare.
F 6.5 Control vitez de turnare.
F 6.6 Verificare cantitate de metal lichid turnat.
F 6.7 Depunere strat intermediar.
F 7 Solidificare strat depus.
F 7.1 Verificare timp solidificare.
F 7.2 Verificare turaie de regim.
F 7.3 Verificare temperatur.
F 7.4 Protecie antioxidant.
F 8 Tratament termic de detensionare.
F 8.1 Verificare temperatur tratament.
F 8.2 Verificare timp meninere.
F 8.3 Verificare vitez de rcire.
F 8.4 Verificare zona de mbinare.
F 9 Prelucrri mecanice.
F 9.1 Control dimensiuni.
F 9.2 Control porozitate.
F.9.3 Control rugozitate.
F 10 ncercri mecanice i tehnologice.
F 10.1 Microduritate.
F 10.2 Densitate.
F 10.3 Traciune.
F 10.4 Aderen specific.
F 10.5 ncercare la ndoire (desprindere).
F 11 Control caracteristici mecanice i structurale.
F 11.1 Analiz fazic.
F 11.2 Difracie raze X.
F 11.3 Microscopie optic-structur-constituieni.
F 11.4 Aspect macroscopic.
F 12 Verificri i probe n exploatare.
F 12.1 Rezistena la uzura abraziv.
F 12.2 Uzura curent.
F 12.3 Uzura cumulat.
F 12.4 Uzura procentual.
F 12.5 Uzura procentual cumulat.

39
4. STUDIUL I ANALIZA
STRUCTURAL A STRATURILOR
BIMETALICE EXPERIMENTATE

n cadrul experimentrilor s-au realizat
componente bimetalice OLT45- CuSn10 i OLT45-
CuAl9T.
Principalii parametri tehnologici au variat
ntre urmtoarele limite:
temperatura de mbinare T= 1000-1190C;
timpul de mbinare t= 58-165 s;
viteza de rotaie v= 300 750 rot/min.

Probele metalografice au fost debitate din
componentele i piesele bimetalice experimentate
fiind prelucrate i pregtite n laboratorul
metalografic.
Micrografiile probelor metalografice au pus
n eviden fazele comune de tranziie oel-bronz,
materialul de baz i stratul depus din vecintatea
zonei de mbinare precum i interfaa MB-SD (zon
de mbinare - ZI).
Probele metalografice au fost atacate cu
persulfat de amoniu (NH
4
)
2
S
4
O
8
10 g + ap distilat
100 cm
3
, fiind analizate la o mrime de 200:1.
Analiza i studiul structurii mbinrilor
bimetalice n funcie de valorile parametrilor
tehnologici sunt prezentate n figurile 3-6.

Figura 3. Structura bimetalului OLT45-CuSn10

(T
mb
.=1000C;
t
mb
=60s;
aderena specific q=50 N/mm
2
mbinare moale necorespunztoare).

SD s.s. +compus intermetalic acicular Cu
3
Sn;
MB- ferit grosolan+perlit;
ZI- poriuni unde are loc contopirea parial i apariia
nodurilor de mbinare, oxizii se menin n locuri
singulare ntre straturi.


(T
mb
.=1050C;
t
mb
=85s;
2
mbinare medie).

SD s.s.;
MB-structur ferito-perlitic;
ZI- noduri de mbinare pe poriuni ntinse; oxizi
prezeni n locuri singulare ntre straturi- n
apropierea yonei de mbinare apar concentraii de
defecte.


(T
mb
.=1100C;
t
mb
=120s;
2
mbinare tare corespunztoare).

SD s.s. poliedric;
ZI- zon de trecere oxizii sunt dizolvai compui
chimici.


40


(T
mb
.=1110C;
t
mb
=125s;
2
mbinare tare corespunztoare).

SD s.s.;
ZI- poriuni ntinse cu zone de trecere
neuniformiti chimice i structurale n aproprierea
zonei de mbinare difuzia C i Fe n bronz cu
formare de legturi chimice.

5. CONCLUZII

Temperatura i timpul de mbinare influeneaz
structura mbinrii bimetalice sub urmtoarele aspecte:
T
mb.
<1100C - poriuni unde are loc
contopirea parial a aliajelor i apariia
nodurilor de mbinare; poriuni unde oxizii se
menin n locuri singulare ntre straturi i
poriuni unde sunt dezagregai
transformndu-se n particule singulare
sferice; concentraii de defecte n apropierea
limitei de mbinare; poriuni alternante de
noduri de mbinare i puni de coeziune;
1100CT
mb
1190C zon de trecere pe
toat suprafaa; oxizii sunt compet dizolvai;
legturi chimice formate de atomii de carbon
i fier care au difuzat n bronz;
T
mb.
>1190C poriuni alternante cu puni
de legtur i zone de trecere la interfa;
oxizii sferici izolai; cuprul difuzeaz n oel
iar carbonul i fierul n bronz; neuniformiti
chimice i structurale n aproprierea zonei de
mbinare.
La temperaturi de mbinare foarte ridicate, peste
limita optim, mbinarea nu mai este puternic,
rezistena mbinrii se micoreaz deoarece:
accelerarea difuziei carbonului n bronz; creterea
adncimii de ptrundere a carbonului n bronz;
decarburarea puternic a oelului de baz; carburarea
puternic a suprafeei bronzului cu apariia coroziunii
intercristaline; n cazul bronzului cu aluminiu apar
compui intermetalici duri i fragili.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. Corbieru P., .a - Alinierea tehnologiilor de fabricaie
a pieselor auto metalice, la cerinele directivelor
europene de mediu: Dir. 99/13/CE i Dir. 76/464/CEE
precum i a Dir. 2000/53/CE, Contract 31/201168/2006,
Sectorial II- Ministerul Economiei i Comerului, Etapa
I Studiu preliminar Analiz comparativ n domeniul
produciei de componente auto metalice, Iai 2006.
2. Corbieru A., .a - Tehnologia de fabricaie a
componentelor auto uoare (lagre, cuzinei, ax, buce
etc.) din semifabricate bimetalice obinute din faz
lichid, Contract 180 CEEX, 2006, AMCSIT Bucureti,
Etapa I - Fundamentarea condiiilor tehnologice de
realizare i a caracteristicilor funcionale specifice
componentelor auto uoare, Iai 2006
3. Corbieru A., .a - Tehnologia de fabricaie a
componentelor auto uoare (lagre, cuzinei, ax, buce
etc.) din semifabricate bimetalice obinute din faz
lichid, Contract 180 CEEX, 2006, AMCSIT Bucureti,
Etapa II Realaizarea, n condiii de laborator a
modelului experimental ME al componentelor auto
uoare din semifabricate bimetalice obinute din faz
lichid, Iai 2006
4. Ladd M.F.C., Palmer R.A. Structure determination
by X-ray Cristallography Plenum, New York, 1985
5. Morrison R.S. The chemical Physics of surface
Plenum, New York, 1990


41

CERCETAREA METALOGRAFIC A PIESELOR
BOROCARBOVANADIZATE

Vasilescu Dan Drago
1
, Anioara Corbieru
2
, Petric Corbieru
2
, Baciu Constantin
3
Comneci Radu
3

1

2
3

REZUMAT
Tratamentul de borocarbovanadizare are drept scop mbogirea straturilor
superficiale ale sculelor de deformare plastic i organelor de maini cu
urmtoarele elemente: carbon, bor, vanadiu. Prin borocarbovanadizare se produc
pe lng modificrile structurale i modificri ale compoziiei chimice n structurile
superficiale tratate. ntre materialul de baz al pieselor i stratul superficial
borocarbovanadizat se creeaz o diferen net de structur i caracteristici
mecanice. Diferenierea strat superficial-miez poate fi accentuat prin aplicarea
unor tratamente fa de care cele dou zone se comport complet diferit. Structura
influeneaz caracteristicile straturilor superficiale borocarbovanadizate.

ABSTRACT
The boron-carbon-vanadium treatment has as purpose the enrichment of the
superficial layers of the tools of plastic deformation and machines parts with the
following elements: carbon, boron, vanadium. By the boron-carbon-vanadium
treatment, beside the structural modifications, also modifications of the chemical
composition take place in the superficial treated structures. Between the base
material of the parts and the superficial layer treated with boron-carbon-vanadium a
net difference of structure and mechanical characteristics is created. The difference
between the superficial layer and the core can be accentuated by the application of
certain treatments by respect to which the two zones have a different behavior. The
structure influences the characteristics of the superficial layers treated with boron-
carbon-vanadium.

Cuvinte cheie: borocarbovanadizare, organe de masini, scule

Keywords: boron-carbon-vanadium treatment, machines parts, tools

1. INTRODUCERE

Originalitatea procedeului de borocarbovanadizare
const n urmtoarele aspecte:
n prima faz se realizeaz alierea straturilor
superficiale cu paste depuse pe suprafaa
zonelor active ale sculelor de deformare
plastic la rece i organe de maini;
mbogite n elemente de aliere B, V, iar
coninutul de carbon crete pn la 0,6%;
n partea a doua a procedeului se realizeaz
prelucrarea termochimic rapid controlat
electrotermic BOVACONTROL avnd loc
simultan 2 fenomene:

o clirea martensitic ( transformare
structural de faz) obinndu-se
structur martensitic dur;
o formarea compuilor chimici duri n
stratul superficial : carburi dure de
B, V, (transformri chimice).
Complexitatea rezult din corelaia rezultatelor
obinute n concordan cu datele de intrare ale
procesului (compoziie chimic a materialului de
baz, compoziia chimic mediului granular, a pastei
de aliere borocarbovanadizant;, temperatura de
nclzire proces termochimic, temperatura de
austenitizare, timpi de nclzire i meninere, medii de
rcire i datele de ieire ale procesului (caracteristicile
mecanice i structurale obinute de piesa metalic n
urma procesului de fabricaie, comportarea la
ncercrile tehnologice).

42
LA NIVEL INDUSTRIAL

Procedeul de borocarbovanadizare rapid
controlat electrotermic n mediu granular al
organelor de maini i al sculelor de deformare
plastic are caracter de noutate pe plan naional.
Fluxul tehnologic preliminar cuprinde urmtoarele
faze i operaii tehnologice:
F1 Alegerea variantelor tipodimensionale i
calitative ale mrcii 21MoMnCr12
F2 Analiza chimic 21MoMnCr12
F3 Prelucrare mecanic- finisarea suprafeei
sculelor i pieselor
F4 Control aspect, dimensiuni, form geometric
scule de deformare plastic
F5 Curire chimic-degresare suprafa activ
scul de deformare plastic
F6 Preparare past borocarbovanadizare tip II a
F7Tratament termic preliminar
anteborocarbovanadizare recoacere de nmuiere TP
F8 Depunerea pastei pe suprafaa sculelor din
21MoMnCr12 mod de depune re II a
F9 Uscarea pastei de borocarbovanadizare
F10 Preparare amestec carburizator granular AG1
F11 Pregtirea incintei de tratament termochimic
F11.1 Pregtire
F11.2 Curire
F11.3 Verificare volum AG1
F12 mpachetarea pieselor i sculelor n amestec
granular
F13 Borocarbovanadizare electrotermic n mediu
granular TTCH1
F14 Control parametri electrici, timp, temperatur
F14.1 Control tensiune
F14.2 Control intensitate
F14.3 Control temperatur
F14.4 Control vitez nclzire
F14.5 Control durat meninere
F15 Rcirea pieselor i sculelor
borocarbovanadizate n cuptor pn la 300C
F16 Rcirea n aer: 30020C
F17 Despachetarea i curirea organelor de maini
i sculelor borocarbovanadizate
F18 Control tehnic calitate strat borocarbovanadizat
F18.1 Control chimic
F18.2 Control macroscopic
F18.3 Control duritate
F18.4 Control adncime strat
F18.5 Control aderen
F19 Tratament termic secundar
F20 Tratament termic final TF2
F20.1 Control temperatur
F20.2 Control vitez nclzire
F20.3 Control durat meninere
F21 Control aspect, dimensiuni, caracteristici
mecanice
F21.1 Control macroscopic
F21.2 Control metalografic
F21.3 Control duritate
F21.4 Control adncime strat
F21.5 Control compoziie chimic

3. REZULTATE PRELIMINARE

Analiza rezultatelor preliminare a condus la
abordarea continurii cercetrilor n vederea
fundamentrii procedeului BOVACONTROL prin
studierea aprofundat a urmtoarelor variante:
oel slab aliat 21MoMnCr12;
o variant compoziional de amestec granular
pentru tratarea probelor din oel AG1;
o variant de past pentru borocarbovanadizare
superficial tip II pentru probele din
21MoMnCr12;
regim de nclzire riguros controlat din punct de
vedere al parametrilor termofizici (tensiune
electric, intensitate de curent, temperatura de
nclzire);
o variant de tratament termochimic bovacontrol
pentru marca de oel experimentat industrial:
TTCH1 pentru 21MoMnCr12
o variant de tratament termic final TF2.
S-au prelevat probe din oelul experimental
21MoMnCr12 analizat chimic controlat aspectual
dimensional i ca form geometric fr defecte
majore de suprafa i microovaliti
Compoziia chimic a oelului 21MoMnCr12
experimentat determinat prin analiz spectral i
analiz chimic cantitativ este n conformitate cu
precizrile standardelor n vigoare.
n cazul oelului slab aliat 21MoMnCr12
standardul n vigoare prevede recoacere de nmuiere
antetratament termochimic. conform tabelului 1
(anteborocarbovanadizare).

Tabelul 1 Tratament termic preliminar
anteborocarbovanadizare faza F7
Varianta de
tratament termic
preliminar
faza F7
Marca de oel Parametrii de
tratament
Duritatea obinut

TP Recoacere
de nmuiere
21MoMnCr12 680C/ meninere
cca. 1,0 min/ mm
grosime/ rcire n
cuptor
Duritate HB= 210
215dan/mm
2

Se urmrete obinerea structurilor de
echilibru cu grad ridicat de dispersie uniform
repartizat n seciunea piesei.


43
Faza F6 - Preparare past de aliere i durificare
tip II borocarbovanadizare
Prepararea pastei de aliere i durificare se
execut manual la o temperatur de preparare de
2025C utiliznd componeni sortai granulometric
pentru probe din oel 21MoMnCr12. Varianta de
past conine substana purttoare de carbon activ,
activatorul carbonat, liantul organic i elementul de
dispersie adugate n cantitile necesare pn la
obinerea consistenei de past. Rezultatele obinute n
cadrul experimentrilor indic n principal utilizarea
unei variante de paste pentru borocarbovanadizarea
pieselor din oel experimental ales 21MoMnCr12.
Prile compoziionale ale pastei de borocarbovana-
dizare tip II sunt urmtoarele:
Grafit 47,00 %
Fe-V 4,00 %
Fe-B, C
4
B 4,00 %
BaCo
3
4,00 %
Rin sintetic (novolac) 10,00 %
Element dispersie (alcool tehnic) 25,00 %
FeNi 3,00 %
FeCr 3,00 %.

Faza F10 - Prepararea amestec carburizator
granular AG1
La mpachetarea sculei de deformare
plastic se utilizeaz un amestec granular AG1 pe
baz de grafit din electrozi i activatori.
Componena amestecului granular
carburizator AG1 este urmtoarea:
grafit electrozi: 87,00 %:
accelerator BaCO
3
: max 8,00 % (nu trebuie
s depeasc aceast valoare pentru a se
evita supracarburarea);
ap: 5 %
Grafitul din electrozi s-a obinut prin sfrmare i
cernere, sortndu-se granulometric la dimensiuni de
0,1 0,4 mm ce asigur urmtoarele proprieti:
o permeabilitate bun la trecerea gazelor;
o suprafa de reacie suficient de mare;
o rezistivitate adecvat;
dup fiecare nclzire a ncrcturii,
amestecul granular solid ars se
remprospteaz cu 20-40%.
Carburizatorul nu trebuie s produc
supracarburri n piesele tratate, microtopituri sau
apariia porilor.

Faza F13 - Borocarbovanadizare electrotermic
n mediu granular
Procesul de borocarbovanadizare al pieselor
i sculelor din 21MoMnCr12 se desfoar conform
diagramei din figura 1.
Figura 1. Diagrama de tratament de
borocarbovanadizare n mediu granular electrotermic
al sculele de deformare plastic experimentate la
nivel industrial TTCH1

Faza F20 - Tratamentul termic final TF
n scopul studierii comportrii oelului slab
aliat 21MoMnCr12 la mbogtirea straturilor
superficiale n elemente carburigene la limita
eutectoid (0,7%C), s-au aplicat variante procedurale
de tratament final TF2.
Tratamentele termice finale TF2
experimentale au avut ca scop mbuntirea
fiabilitii, a productivitii i scderea consumurilor
energetice.

Tabelul 2 Tratamentul termic final TF2
Regim Tratament termic final TF2
Material de baz: 21MoMnCr12
Clire I: T=850 900C;
Rcire ulei prenclzit la
6080C;
Clire II: T=760 820C
Rcire n CMC;
Revenire joas: T=180 210C;

4. CERCETAREA METALOGRAFIC
A PIESELOR
BOROCARBOVANADIZATE

Cercetarea metalografic a presupus analiza
microscopic a probelor prelevate din sculele i
piesele durificate prin procedeul de
borocarbovanadizare BOVACONTROL.
n micrografiile probelor au fost puse n
eviden stratul superficial aliat i durificat, zona de
tranziie strat - miez i matricea de baz din marca
21MoMnCr12.

44

Figura 2. Microstructur strat superficial
P1 (x100, atac nital 2%)

1-strat superficial: M+carburi complexe+Ce
acicular;
2-zon tranziie: P de tranziie +urme de ferit;
3-metal de baz: Fe+P

1-strat superficial: M+carburi complexe;
2-zon tranziie: predominant P de tranziie;

1-strat superficial: M+carburi complexe+Ce
acicular;
2-zon tranziie: P de tranziie +urme de ferit;


2-zon tranziie: predominant P de tranziie;


2-zon tranziie: structur perlitic;
3-metal de baz: Fe+P;
4-amprent microduritate Vickers HV=670


1-strat superficial: M+carburi complexe +Ce;
2-zon tranziie: structur predominant perlitic;
3-metal de baz: Fe+P dispers.

45
5. CONCLUZII

n urma experimentrilor la nivel industrial s-a
constatat c la baza procesului termic stau
fenomene de transfer de mas prin difuzia
carbonului i elementelor de aliere la zona
interfazic metal past de aliere tip IIa.
Mecanismul procesului de borocarbovanadizare se
desfoar pe 3 stadii distincte :Stadiul I: disocierea
pastei de aliere i durificare tip IIa n atomi activi ;
Stadiul II: absorbia ( modificarea ) poziiei
atomilor activi pe distane foarte mari; Stadiul III:
deplasarea atomilor absorbani prin vacanele sau
interstiiile reelei cristaline.
Fenomenul fizico-matalurgic: trecerea curentului
electric prin mediul granular n straturile cruia se
gsete mpachetat scula sau piesa vopsit cu pasta
II, provoac la suprafaa de contact a particulelor cu
piesa metalic microdescrcri electrice
(microarcuri) n apropierea crora se dezvolt o
temperatur ridicat, sub aciunea creia se
formeaz carbon activ atomic. Treptat are loc
absorbia elementului atomic carbon ctre
suprafeele piesei metalice i formarea zonei de
difuzie din faza gazoas n exces;
Coninutul de carbon nu influeneaz duritatea
superficial a stratului dar influeneaz adncimea
de borurare (stratul borurat posed o mare
stabilitate la temperaturi ridicate);
Transportul de material n cazul
borocarbovanadizrii cuprinde etapizat absorbie +
difuzie + saturare pn la limita solubilitii, urmat
de rcire rapid. Consecina acestui fenomen este
obinerea unei soluii suprasaturate, dure n afar de
echilibru.
Compoziia chimic a straturilor superficiale ale
probelor prelevate din piesele borocarbovanadizate
n cadrul experimentrilor la nivel industrial au
oscilat ntre urmtoarele valori: C = 0,58- 0,62; V
= 0,80- 1,00; B = 0,19- 0,25; Ni = 0,83- 1,10; Cr =
0,75- 1,10; Variaia C n stratul superficial are loc
pe o adncime de 3 mm iar variaia V, B, Ni i Cr
are loc pe o adncime de 2 mm variaie a
compoziiei chimice n conformitate cu compoziia
pastei tip II.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. CEEX 2005/C 8/3.10.2005- Cercetri privind realizarea
noii tehnologii de obinere a sculelor de deformare
plastic la rece tip tane, matrie, poansoane, dornuri
de tragere, scule de laminare la rece-extrudare i
organelor de maini supuse la uzare tip tije, axe, arbori,
supape de presiune, nuca pivot prin
borocarbovanadizare rapid controlat electrotermic-
BOVACONTROL- Etapa IV
2. Alexandru A. Contribuii privind alierea i
depunerea superficial prin scnteie electric i
influena tratamentelor termice asupra caracteristicilor
straturilor obinute ale materialelor metalice. Tez de
doctorat, U.T. Iasi, 2002.
3. Corbieru A., Alexandru I., Velicu S.,Corbieru P.,
Vrabie I., Butnaru S. Superficial hardening of tools
through successive alloying Buletinul Institutului
Politehnic din Iai, tomul LII (LVI), fasc.2, secia-
tiina i Ingineria Materialelor, 2006, pag. 203-210,
ISSN-1453-1690
4. Anderson A.W. Physical chemistry of surfaces Wiley-
Interscience, New York, 1990.
5. Corbieru P., Predescu C., Corbieru A., Butnaru S.
Experiments regarding the casting of bimetallic
cylinders with smooth barrel roll - Buletinul
Institutului Politehnic din Iai, tomul LII (LVI), fasc.2,
secia-tiina i Ingineria Materialelor, 2006, pag. 211-
216, ISSN-1453-1690.

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other gases. Its effectiveness increases proportionally
to the concentration of CO2 in the gas.
This method, known as facilitated transport,
is comparable to the way human lungs get rid of CO2
when we breathe: it is both a complex and an effective
mechanism.

46
The novelty is that instead of using a filter
that separates directly between CO2 and other
molecules, we use a so-called agent. It is a fixed
carrier in the membrane that helps to convert the gas
we want to remove, says NTNU professor May-Britt
Hgg. She is head of the research group Memfo that
works on the new membrane technology.
The agent helps so that the CO2 molecules in
combination with moisture form the chemical
bicarbonate, which is then quickly transported through
the membrane. In this manner, the CO2 is released while
the other gases are retained by the membrane.
Various materials are used to make
membranes, including plastic, carbon and/or
ceramics. Membrane separation of gases is a highly
complex process. The materials must be tailored in an
advanced way to be adapted to separate specific
gases. They must be long-lasting and stable.

Nanotechnology

The new membrane is made of plastic,
structured by means of nanotechnology to function
according to the intention. Membranes based on nano-
structured materials are eco-friendly and will reduce
the costs of CO2 capture.
With this method, we can remove more
CO2 and obtain a cleaner product for smaller plants.
Thus, it becomes less expensive, Hgg says.
We also have membranes today that are
used to separate CO2 and have been used for a couple
of decades, but these membranes are used for natural
gases at high pressures, and are not suited for CO2
from flue gas. If the membrane separated poorly, very
large amounts of the material is needed, and that
makes this separation expensive, Hgg explains.

Membrane details

To begin with, either single polyvinylamine (PVAm),
or a blend of PVAm and additional polymer
component solution is cast on a suitable support such
as polysulfone (PSf). This composite membrane then
undergoes drying and post-treatment, a process that
promotes cross-linking.
A number of important variables determine the final
structure of the membrane. These include:
o The molecular weight of the PVAm.
o The porosity of support.
o Temperature and time for drying and post-
treatment.
o Concentration of casting solution.
o the type of cross-linking agent used.
These variables can be modified depending
on the feed gas composition and the place where the
membrane will be used.
The membranes rely on facilitated or carrier
mediated transport for their function. This in turn
involves a reversible chemical reaction in
combination with a diffusion process.

Reversible reaction

The Memfo facilitated transport membrane
uses amine groups as fixed-site-carriers (FSC) for
CO2 transportation. A reversible reaction occurs at
these amine fixed-site-carriers forming bicarbonates
from CO2 and water molecules. The bicarbonates
move to the other side of the membrane (permeate
side) and release CO2. The amine fixed-site-carriers
together with water molecules give fast reversible
reaction and high mobility of CO2 in the form of
bicarbonate comparable to that of the mobile carrier
membranes (liquid membranes) solving the
degradation problem common to the liquid
membranes at the same time.
The cross-linking agent ammonium fluoride
makes water molecules more basic which will have an
increased affinity for CO2. This leads to both
increased concentration of bicarbonate in the
membrane and increased transport of CO2. The
transportation (diffusion) of non-polar gases such as
methane and nitrogen is hindered due to the increased
polarity of the membrane caused by fluoride ions.
This should then lead to much enhanced CO2
permeance and high selectivity in favour of CO2
when this membrane is applied for natural gas
sweetening or CO2 separation from flue gas.

The commercial view

Membranes have a major potential to become an
inexpensive and eco-friendly alternative in the future. An
international patent has been taken out for the new type.
Memfo recently joined a consortium of 26
European businesses and institutions within a project named
Nanostructured Membranes against Global Warming.
Currently, five different types of
nanomembranes are simultaneously being designed in
the framework of the project: polymer membranes;
diffusion transport membranes, block copolymers;
fixed-site carrier-type membranes, cellulose acetate or
polyamides; ionomeric high voltage membranes,
electrically modified materials; and carbon
membranes carbon molecular sieve membranes; and
ceramic membranes.
According to Hgg, the new technology ought to be
very interesting for coal-powered plants. Within a
five-year period, the plan is to test the membrane
technology in four large power plants in Europe. We
believe this will result in an international
breakthrough for energy-efficient CO2 membranes,
she says.

For more information on the Norwegian University of
Science and Technology, ,visit www.ntnu.no.

(http://engineerlive.com)

TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIV Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 2 / 2008 47

ANALIZA DETERMINRILOR DE MICRODURITATE ALE
STRATURILOR SUPERFICIALE BOROCARBOVANADIZATE

Vasilescu Dan Drago
1
,Petric Corbieru
2
, Anioara Corbieru
2
, Baciu Constantin
3
, Lozovan Mihai
4

1
2
3
4
Institutul National CD Fizica Tehnica Iasi, loz@phys-iasi.ro

REZUMAT
Borocarbovanadizarea presupune introducerea sculelor i organelor de maini acoperite
cu pasta de durificare, n incinta de lucru a cuptorului n care se afl amestecul
carburizator ce servete ca surs de atomi activi. nclzirea acestui ansamblu se
realizeaz pn la temperatura optim 900-950C i meninere un timp determinat de
adncimea de penetrare a atomilor. Tratamentul de borocarbovanadizare presupune
urmtoarele etape: Etapa I: disocierea descompunerea moleculelor n atomi activi de
C, B i V; Etapa II: absorbia fenomenul de accelerare la suprafaa pieselor a atomilor
activi de C, B, V i interaciunea acestora cu atomii metalului de baz 21MoMnCr12;
Etapa III: difuzia migrarea atomilor absorbii pe suprafaa piesei tratate ctre interior.
Straturile borocarbovanadizate prezint o microduritate ridicat, corespunznd din
punct de vedere calitativ.

ABSTRACT
The boron-carbon-vanadium treatment supposes the introduction of the tools and
machines parts, covered with hardening paste, in the work precincts of the furnace in
which the carburizing mixture exits. This carburizing mixture serves as source of active
atoms. The heating of this assembly is achieved up to the optimum temperature 900-
950C and the maintaining during a time determined by the depth of penetration of the
atoms. The boron-carbon-vanadium treatment supposes the following steps: Step I:
dissociation decomposition of the molecules in active atoms of C, B and V; Step II:
absorption the phenomenon of acceleration at the parts surface of the active atoms of
C, B, V and the interaction of these ones with the atoms of the base metal 21MoMnCr12;
Step III: diffusion migration of the atoms absorbed by the surface of the treated part
towards the interior. The layers treated with boron-carbon-vanadium present a high
micro-hardness, suitable from the quality point of view.

Cuvinte cheie: tratament, borocarbovanadizare, microduritate

Keywords: treatment, boron-carbon-vanadium treatment, micro-hardness

1. INTRODUCERE

Tehnologia const n depunerea unei paste de
carburare pe suprafaa sculelor din oel, mpachetarea
acestora ntr-un amestec granular electroconductiv, n
incinta paralelipipedic experimental i legarea
sistemului la un circuit electric debitat de un
transformator cu tensiune secundar reglabil ntre 50-
150 V i intensitatea curentului cuprins ntre 250-
1000 A, conform figurii 1.

Figura 1. Schema instalaiei de tratament termic a
pieselor din oel n mediu granular
BOVACONTROL

Fluxul tehnologic al procedeului de
borocarbovanadizare rapid controlat
electrotermic este prezentat n figura 2.

Figura 2. Fluxul tehnologic de borocarbovanadizare

3. PARAMETRI TEHNOLOGICI

Modul de depunere al pastei de borocarbovanadizare tip II:
se aplica n dou straturi de grosime 4 4,5 mm
prin imersie; aplicare i uscare natural n aer a
stratului 1 timp de 0,5 ore; aplicare strat 2 cu uscare
prin calcinare timp de 2 ore deasupra cuptorului
prenclzit i pentru uscarea amestecului granular
AG1. depunerea pastei pe probele experimentale nu
va depi 5 mm grosime;
metoda uscrii naturale, prin calcinare la 100
C
ct i uscarea deasupra cuptorului prenclzit de
regul nu conduce la apariia de defecte sub
form de exfolieri a stratului de past.

Tabelul 1 Prepararea compoziiei de past tip II
Nr.crt OPERAIA TEHNOLOGIC
1 Se mojareaz separat, manual sau prin mcinare
n mori uscate cu bile, fiecare din substanele
granulare pn la fracii de maxim 0,15 mm.
2 ntr-un maloxor de 500-1000 turaii / minut de
capacitate adecvat se introduc n ordine:
grafitul i ferovanadiul, Fe-B(C
4
B).
3 Dup o mixare timp de 5 10 minute se
introduc n proporii activatorul i rina
sintetic dup care se las la omogenizare timp
de 10 15 minute.
Nr.crt OPERAIA TEHNOLOGIC
4 Peste compoziia din malaxor se adaug
fracionat cantiti mici de alcool tehnic i se
amestec pn la epuizarea cantitii
prestabilite
5 ntreaga compoziie de past se amestec timp
de 20 25 minute pn la obinerea unei
densiti optime de 1,5 g/cm
3

n cadrul experimentrilor la nivel industrial
s-a utilizat grosimi de 2,2 mm past
borocarbovanadizare depus pe suprafaa sculelor
ntre dou straturi de past depus se utilizeaz
uscarea pe cale natural sau cu ajutorul cuptorului
prenclzit.
Componena amestecului granular carburizator
AG1 este urmtoarea:
grafit electrozi: 87,00 %:
accelerator BaCO
3
: max 8,00 % (nu trebuie s
depeasc aceast valoare pentru a se evita
supracarburarea);
ap: 5 %.

n cazul mrcii de oel 21MoMnCr12
tensiunea electric se va adopta 50-70 V, intensitate
150700A temperatura amestecului 1000-1100C, iar
temperatura piesei 900

C cu o durat de tratament de
240 min.
Urmrirea variaiei parametrilor U i I este
necesar pentru calculul bilanului electric al
cuptorului de tratament termochimic.

Tabelul 2 Tratamentul termochimic de
borocarbovanadizare TTCH 1
Regim Tratament termochimic de
borocarbovanadizare TTCH1
Material: 21MoMnCr12
- Temperatura de carburare T=900
- Durata de nclzire t
= 1 or
- Durata de meninere la temp.de regim
t
m
= 4 ore
- Rcire aer forat

Tabelul 3 Tratamentul termic final TF2
Regim Tratament termic final TF2
Material de baz: 21MoMnCr12
Clire I: T=850 900C;
Rcire ulei prenclzit la
6080C;
Clire II: T=760 820C
Rcire n CMC;
Revenire joas: T=180 210C;

4. ANALIZA DETERMINRILOR
DE MICRODURITATE
ALE STRATURILOR SUPERFICIALE
BOROCARBOVANADIZATE

Determinrile de duritate Vickers cu sarcini
mici i foarte mici s-au efectuat pe probele prelevate
din sculele i piesele borocarbovanadizate n cadrul
experimentrilor la nivel industrial. Media
determinrilor de duritate HV30 realizate n cadrul
experimentrilor la nivel industrial sunt prezentate n
tabelul 4.

Tabelul 4 Media determinrilor de duritate HV30
Duritate HV30 la 20
o
C, daN/mm
2
Nr
crt
Prob

Materi
al
HV la
suprafaa
stratului
superficial
HV la 1 mm
adncime
strat
HV la 2 mm
adncime
strat
HV la
3 mm
adnci
me
strat
1 P1 670 470 335 280
2 P2 675 465 320 275
3 P3 670 460 325 265
4 P4 660 475 325 280
5 P5 650 480 340 265
6 P6 645 445 340 280
7 P7 650 455 335 280

8 P8 640 475 330 275
9 P9 640 480 320 265
10 P10 645 475 320 275
11 P11 670 470 325 290
12 P12 675 465 330 290
P13 670 450 340 285
14 P14 665 465 350 280
15 P15 655 455 345 275
16 P16 685 465 335 270
17 P17 700 455 340 265
18 P18 645 480 335 260
19 P19 650 475 320 270
20 P20
21Mo
MnCr
12
670 475 325 275

n conformitate cu datele prezentate n
tabelul 4 cderile de duritate pe adncimea stratului
superficial durificat sunt prezentate n figurile
urmtoare:

Din analiza cderilor de duritate rezult
faptul c piesele borocarbovanadizate n cadrul
experimentrilor la nivel industrial corespund din
punct de vedere al microduritii, stratul superficial
borocarbovanadizat prezentnd valori cuprinse ntre
640-700 HV.

5. CONCLUZII

Durificarea prin borocarbovanadizare n medii
granulare se realizeaz prin metoda de nclzire
electric direct care prezint timp redus de
nclzire, randament electric i termic ridicat i
consum de energie relativ redus;
Pasta de aliere i durificare poate conine
elemente carburante grafit, mangal, cocs,
elemente de activare carbur de sodiu,
elemente de dispersie alcooli. Anumite
categorii de elemente menionate adugate n
proporii bine determinate, au permis reetei
optime de paste de carburare tip II;
Pentru un procent de 0,1% carbon adugat n
compoziia oelurilor, rezistena la rupere crete
cu 90N/mm
2
, iar limita de curgere cu 40-50N/
mm
2
. Carbonul dizolvat n matrice durific
fierul pn la formarea soluiilor solide, iar
legat sub form de cementit, durific soluiile
solide de ferit sau austenit cu care formeaz
amestecuri mecanice eutectice. Diferenele de
concentraie n carbon la nivelul stratului
superficial carburat fa de miezul sculei i
piesei influeneaz caracteristicile de
comportare la tratamentul termochimic;
Straturile superficiale se mbogesc n V pn
la 1,00% n stratul superficial cu efect asupra
stabilizrii feritei, creterii duritii i
rezistenei la rupere i oboseal;
Straturile superficiale se mbogesc n B pn
la 0,25 % n stratul superficial cu efecte asupra
structurii, creterii duritii i rezistenei
mecanice datorit formrii carburilor de bor;
Prezena Ni pn la 1,10 % n stratul
superficial stabilizeaz austenita, finiseaz
structura, mrete rezistena mecanic, crete
substanial clibilitatea, favoriznd astfel
difuzia prin borocarbovanadizare;
Prezena Cr pn la 1,10 % n stratul
superficial are un efect pozitiv asupra finisrii
structurii, stabilizrii feritei, creterii rezistenei
mecanice;

La presiuni relativ mici, (13N/mm
2
) sculele
durificate prin borocarbovanadizare controlat
au prezentat o rezisten la uzare n regim de
frecare uscat bun, o comportare
corespunztoare obinndu-se i la presiuni de
peste 4 N/mm
2
; astfel putem considera c
procedeul de borocarbovanadizare poate
nlocui ntr-un mod eficient variantele clasice
monobloc de fabricaie a sculelor de deformare
plastic i organelor de maini.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

1. CEEX 2005/C 8/3.10.2005- Cercetri privind realizarea
noii tehnologii de obinere a sculelor de deformare
plastic la rece tip tane, matrie, poansoane, dornuri
de tragere, scule de laminare la rece-extrudare i
organelor de maini supuse la uzare tip tije, axe, arbori,
supape de presiune, nuca pivot prin
borocarbovanadizare rapid controlat electrotermic-
BOVACONTROL- Etapa IV
2. Vermesan G., s.a. Intensificarea procesului de
cementare prin metoda tratamentului termociclic,
Rev.Metallovedenie nr.5, 1985, p.58.
3. Vermesan G., s.a . Borurarea cu componente multiple,
Rev. METAL PROGRES, apr.1986, p. 24 26.
4. Corbieru A., Alexandru I., Velicu S.,Corbieru P.,
Vrabie I., Butnaru S. Superficial hardening of tools
through successive alloying Buletinul Institutului
Politehnic din Iai, tomul LII (LVI), fasc.2, secia-
tiina i Ingineria Materialelor, 2006, pag. 203-210,
ISSN-1453-1690
5. Alexandru I., Vasilescu D., Corabieru P., - Contribution
Concerning the Influence of Heat Chemical Treatment
in Solid Electroconductor Mediums upon
Characteristics and Strusture of Superficial Layerss
Steels First International Congres in Materials Science
and Engineering, nov.1994, Iasi, Buletinul Institutului
Politehnic Iasi, Tomul XL (XLIV),Fasc.1 2 ,vol.1,
pag.519 524.


COMPLETE CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS WITH CHRYSAN INDUSTRIES

Kook-Wha Koh

Chrysan Industries, Inc., U.S.A, e-mail: kookwha@chrysanindustries.com

ABSTRACT
Chrysan Industries, Inc. is a manufacturer of metalworking fluids and lubricants,
which is committed to provide customers with the highest quality, innovative
products and highest levels of technical, prompt and professional support.

Keywords: metalworking fluids, lubricants, cleaners, industrial chemicals

1. ABOUT CHRYSAN INDUSTRIES

Chrysan Industries, Inc., an established
manufacturer of metalworking fluids and lubricants, is
committed to providing customers with the highest
quality, innovative products and highest levels of
technical, prompt and professional support.
Quality leadership is vital to the long term
success of Chrysan in an increasingly competitive and
demanding marketplace. Building quality in
workplaces, products and services is essential to a
successful future for customers, employees, suppliers
and communities.
Some words about Chrysan beginning must be
said. Established in 1977 with the drawing compound
for metal stamping operations, Chrysan has
successfully developed and marketed cutting and
grinding fluids, such as well known C-225, soluble oil
and C-150, synthetic coolant in automotive and
aerospace industries.
In 1990, Chrysan expanded its operation to a new
30,000 sq. ft. facility in Plymouth, Michigan,
including 5,000 sq. ft. of research and development
laboratory. Product lines now range from industrial
lubricants, metalworking fluids, functional fluids,
industrial cleaners, and tumbling compounds to
automotive chemicals such as engine coolants, brake
fluid and washer fluid.
Chrysan Industries has a good experience in the
field, laboratory professionals are all college
graduates, with bachelors and masters degrees in
biology, chemistry, and chemical engineering.
Field engineers may be located on site to assist
customers with any questions or concerns they may
have. Product sampling analysis is accommodated
upon request. All samples are tested according to
ASTM methods or documented procedures.
Chrysan Industries quality testing equipment is
verified/calibrated with accuracy traceable to NIST or
appropriate national standards.
At the same time, Chrysan Industries provides 48
hours turnaround with the exception of certain tests,
which are time dependent (i.e., microbial or elastomer
degradation studies).
Chrysan Industries provides complete analysis
and service on all metalworking fluids manufactured
and distributed through Chrysan Industries.
Chrysan Chemical Management has as
certification:
- TS 16949, ISO 14001 and Ford Q-1 certified for
production fluid;
- Manufacturer of metalworking fluids, lubricants,
cleaners, and industrial chemicals;
- Tier one and Tier two supplier to Chrysler, Ford
Motor Company and General Motors;
- Certified Minority Business Enterprise;
- Michigan Minority Business Council Supplier of
the Year, 1995 and 2001.

2. THE CHRYSAN CHEMICAL
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Chrysan Chemical Management System
(CCMS) is a database solution developed specifically
for Chrysan's Chemical Management Programs in
order to reduce chemical usage and to reduce
chemical costs.
The CCMS accomplishes this by effectively
tracking and recording chemical usage, statistically
analyzing chemical usage data, and generating
chemical usage reports.
Fig. 1. Chrysan Chemical Management System

Chrysan Industries business is focused on service
to the customer, having quality and performance
products. There are service teams to respond quickly
to customers' needs, to establish frank and honest
communication channels with customers.
The firm monitors performance of the products,
compiles and reviews collected field information,
anticipates and solves problems, and recommend
preventive measures and improvements for customers'
operations. Chrysan Industries offers complete
analysis on all own metalworking fluids.
Fig. 2. Analysis on metalworking fluids

3. BENEFITS AND SERVICES
OFFERED BY CHRYSAN INDUSTRIES

Chrysan Chemical Management offers the
following benefits:
- Lower total operating costs
- Process improvements to improve quality and
productivity
- Implementation of best practices and innovative
technology
- Reduced chemical consumption
- Waste minimization, reuse and recycling
- Support of ISO 14001 environmental initiatives
- Continuous improvement.
Chrysan's Total Chemical Management services are
custom designed to offer the following services:
- Supply chain management
- Warehousing, transportation, and logistics
- Inventory management
- Chemical process management and optimization
- Analytical testing services
- Lubrication management
- Customized database technology to identify
chemical usage reduction opportunities (CCMS)
- Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) management
- Waste minimization and recycling
- Waste water treatment program
- ISO 14001 Environmental Management Program.
Complete chemical solutions at Chrysan begin
with superior products, engineering support,
analytical services, and Just-in-Time (JIT) logistics.
The firm manufactures a wide range of cutting
and grinding fluids, stamping and drawing
compounds, lubricants, process cleaners, rust
inhibitors, and custom blended products.

Fig. 3. Complete chemical solutions

Among the firm products there are:
Metalworking Fluids (C-1000 and C-2000
Series): Soluble Oils,Grinding Fluids, Synthetic
Coolants, Semi-Synthetic and Micro-Emulsion
Fluids, Non-Chlorinated Soluble Oils, Non-
Chlorinated Coolants, Vegetable Oil based
Coolants.
Cutting Oils (C-5000 Series): Broaching Oils,
Hobbing Oils, Honing & Lapping Fluids, Non-
Chlorinated Cutting Oils, Metalforming Fluids,
Drawing & Stamping Oils.
Cleaners (C-7000 Series): Process Cleaners for
Aluminum and Ferrous Metals, Emulsion
Cleaners, Oil Rejecting Cleaners, Floor Cleaners.
Specialty Products: Rust Inhibitors, Emulsifiers,
pH Enhancers, Defoamers, Biocides, Fungicides,
Anti-Mist Products, Water Treatment Chemicals.
Lubricants: Hydraulic Oils, Fire-Resistant
Hydraulic Oils, Way Lubricants, Spindle Oils,
Gear Oils,Greases.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Chrysan's commitment to quality means
continuous investment in research and innovative
technologies, process engineering, technical
consultation, state of the art analytical testing
services, and JIT delivery.
Chrysan Industries, Inc. is committed to the
continuous improvement of quality products and
services to fully satisfy or exceed the customer's
expectations.

REFERENCES

[1]. http://www.chrysanindustries.com

53

THE MATHEMATICAL MODELLING AND RESIDUAL
TENSION ANALYSIS IN THE COATINGS OBTAINED BY
THERMAL SPRAYING USING THE FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD

Leonard Teodoru, Valentin Mihailescu

Fundatia Prof. Constantin Popovici Bucharest, e-mail: lteodoru@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: The topic that the project aims to achieve is an original approach
regarding the remanent tensions in the coatings obtained by thermal spraying, at
the level of the sprayed particle, using the finite element method and the facilities
of the program package ALGOR for mathematical modelling.

KEYWORDS: Residual tension, thermal spraying, finite element method

1. INTRODUCTION

The essence of the analysis of remanent
tensions by finite element method is the creation of a
corresponding physical-mathematical model, to
simplify reasonably the given physical problem without
deviating too much from the behaviour of the real
system (support layer + coating), i.e. without crossing
some limits of error imposed in an acceptable manner.
The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a
modern procedure of computing and analyzing by
the stimulation of the elements' internal state in
mechanic systems (mechanic tension field,
temperature field) and of dynamic and non-linear
behaviour of physical systems in various fields of
interest (related to various social preoccupations):
technology engineering, scientific research,
medical field, the exploration of areas inaccessible
to humans directly: outer space, radioactive areas,
the interior of human body, etc.

2. DEPOSIT THROUGH
THERMIC PULVERIZATION.

In coatings obtained by thermal spraying,
generally all the types of tension appear (I, II, III), their
size depending on the spraying method, the coating
thickness, the sprayed material, previous preparation of
the spraying surface, technological spraying regime,
cooling conditions, etc.
When spraying the coatings, remanent
tensions appear, which are signalled by various signs,
can be of big size and can be distributed ununiformly in
the sprayed layer and on the base metal.

The presence of the remanent tensions is
characteristic of any type of coating by thermal
spraying.
The biggest influence of remanent tensions
is that upon the resistance of the complex between
base metal and coating: at high values, spontaneous
exfoliation takes place, or cracks in the coatings
appear, and if the piece is not rigid enough the
change of shape or exfoliation takes place.
Regarding the topic of this project,
modelling refers to the coating phenomenon of a
dropping material on a support layer made of
another material. These drops undergo physical
changes from the solid state to the liquide one and
vice versa when touching the support layer, of
lower temperature
Replacing the deformable particle by its
discrete finite element model and the study of its
interaction with the support must generate a
flexible and comprehensive physical-mathematical
model of the present phenomena.
The study should be carried out firstly at
micro- level, and then at the global scale of the
support plate and coating.
The construction of a geometrical model
and its corresponding quantization in finite
elements gives the possibility to perform
experiments on the coating behaviour at changing
physical conditions from several points of view:
changing the material and its properties;
taking in consideration several
temperature values in a given range;

54
testing the hypothetical values of a
physical quantity (unmeasurable
directly, through experiment);
estimating different dimensional values
of the drop;
testing the values of internal tension in
several areas, etc.
Different sources of energy are used for
spraying, whose energy is consumed for heating
and melting the sprayed material. The rod and the
wire melt by forming drops. The sprayed powder
also melts, or is used in a state close to melting.
The melted particles, strongly accelerated,
collide with the surface of the target support and
lay on it, which leads to the formation of a
protective coating which can have various
properties.
To picture the processes taking place
during spraying, it is necessary to study the heating
of sprayed material particles, their displacement
from the source to the support, and their collision
with the support, the structure of the transition area
between support and coating, the link between the
sprayed particles and the level of remanent tensions
in the coating.

Fig.1. Arc thermal spraying

The following factors have a decisive
influence on these processes:
o spraying method and technology;
o form and dimensions of powder particles
that undergo spraying;
o rod or wire parameter;
o density, specific heat, thermal conductivity;
o chemical reactions taking place at high
temperatures between the sprayed material
and the environment, etc.
o The physical model of deposit

3. THE PHYSICAL MODEL
OF DEPOSIT

The of a formation the flat layer from
particle thermal pulverization on justify through
appear takes the effects of elastic compression from
zone impact.
Subsequently below needle the component
of impulse of the pressure Pi, the liquid
compressed support an intense extension on the
surface support.
Component of shock of the pressure Ps
reprezent the result moving the elastic waves of
compression, carry propagate about particles begin
with the moment of these collision with the
support.
The maxim value a the pressure can be
calculated from the expression: v c P
S
=
1
2

whither - the what coefficient takes about
considers the capacity of relax the liquid particles
depending on speed of collision and form of the
particles; c - sound velocity about liquid ; the
liquid density.
Trend takes of displace the front of
solidification is perpendicular surface of thermic
transfer, therefore on produced in this kind particle
aboutcourse of flatted, the front of crystallization
on move for afront surface they his free.
On mouvement about depth of the particles
and supported temperature diminishes strong.
With haw the time is elder, with as haight
h( , 0) reprezent zone of particles crystalizzer is
elder this arrow to values how the elevated erect
maul of the temperature support respectively the
particles crystalizezer masured about space
adjacency the contact.
The thermic loop Tc( ) of of a spherical
deformed particles pursuant to the kinetic afferent
energy impact and solidify on supported can be
represented, as be consisted of two stages.
1 - Solidification of the particles, process
flat on a lapses(
0
), about carry temperature of the
contact Tc last constancy, and below the
cristallisation front mixed which about h( , r)
find liquid phase ;
2 - Cooling mass of the solidification
particle arrow to support temperature. The level To
arrow whereat is done the evaluation of the
temperature corresponds the temperature whereat
arrives the support about differed surface points of
pulverization.
These laws which differential equations
cause to interferes components the speed (u,v),
fields of temperature( T) and of pressure( p).
The fluid motion is described through the
laws of preserve table, amount motional and the
energy.
For the cases axisimetrice envisaged have [1]:
1 ( )
0
ru v
r r y

+ =

(1)

55
2 2
2 2 2
1
1
e
r
u u v p
u v
t r y r R
u v u u
f
y r r r r

+ + = +

+ + +

(2)
2 2
2 2
1 1
y
e
u u v p
u v
t r y y
u v u
f
R y r r r

+ + = +

+ + +

(3)
2 2
2 2
1 1
e r
T T T
u v
t r y
T T T
R P y r r r

+ + =

+ +

(4)
where: -
0 0
e
v d
R

= his number Reynolds

- and
p
r
C
P
k
= is his number Prandtl.

- , , ,
p
k C represents respectively mass
volume, the dynamic viscosity, the thermic
conductivity the si heat specifies material.
- V
0
is speed initially impactului.
- d
0
is the initial diameter of particle.

Heat transfer in the doplet was modeled by solving
the energy equation, neglecting viscous dissipation;
densities of liquid and solid :

( ) ( ) T k h V
t
h
= +
1
(5)
Since the energy equation has two
dependent variables temperature T and enthalpy h,
and he used the enthalpy of transformed the model
converted equation of energy dependency just
oneself variable: the enthalpy.
Main advantage of the method is as solve
equation of energy for both simultaneous phases.
Define a variable scalar fields F( r, t)
whichever value is the unity complete busy cells
with liquids is it zeroes when the cell is hole.
The cells containing one surface free and
shall have a value F between a zero an unit.
Through solidity of molten material define
a second scalar field O(r, t) in order to described
the region solidify.
The value 0 is assign about the arbitrary way,
is it the unit when bay liquid passes at solidify state.
The value betwen the zero and unit read
liquid - solid to surface for separation.

The final form, given by Pasadideh Fard is [1] [3]:

( ) ( )
2
1 1
+ = +
h h V
t
h
(6)
, where in the solid phase:
0 h ,
s
s
C
k
= , 0 = (7)
at the liquid solid interface:

f
H h < < 0 , 0 = , 0 = (8)
and in the liquid phase :

f
H h ,
l
l
C
k
= ,
l
l f
C
k H
= (9),
where is a new source term.
The energy equation now has only one
dependent variable, the enthalpy h. The relationship
between temperature and enthalpy is given by:
( ) + + = h
k
T T
m
1
(10),
where T
m
is the melting point of the droplet.
Heat transfer ithin the substrate is by conduction
only. The governing equation is:

( )
w w
w
w w
T k
t
T
C =
(11)
at a free surface of the droplet, we used an
adiabatic boundary condition.
This condition must be supplememted
with the h and functions and , immediately
outside the surface, where these values are needed
in the finite difference approximations for points
located at the free surface.
This condition can easily be modified to a
convective or radiative boundary condition.
For the cases under consideration, the
dominant heat transfer was due to conduction to the
substrat at the initial stages of impact, and
conduction and convection within the droplet at the
later stages of impact

4. MATHEMATICAL MODELING

The mathematical model developed in this
paper is based on the flllowing assumptions:
- fluid flow is laminar and compressible,
- axisymmetric system of coordinates is
used,
- impingement is perpendicular to the
substrate,
- the particle doesnt rotate during the fall,
- in the initial moment the particle is molten,

56
- one-dimensional heat conduction is assumed
for solidification process,
- the contact of the particle with the substrate
is ideal,
- the substrate is a cylinder and the initial
temperature T is constant,
- the surface of the substrate is smooth.
Following the above assumptions, the
governing equations for the axisym-metric system
of coordinates may be written as follows.
For the description of deforming particle
molten material movement lets use full Navier-
Stokes system of equations for compressible
viscous liquid written in natural variables
velocity-pressure the mass conservation law [2].

( ) 0 = +
V
t

(12)
the movement quantity conservation law:

( )
( )
( )
V
V V P
t
V g

+ = +
+
(13)
the energy conservation law
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
E
E V P V
t
T T

+ + =

, (14)
where
kin
E I E + = is the specific cpmplete
energy, ( )T T c I = is the specific internal energy
of the particle,
2
2
v
E
kin
= , is the specific kinetic
energy of the particle, is the material
conductivity, , , , T P are density,pressure,
temperature and kinematic viscosity of the fluid
respectively, and g represents the body force per
unit mass.
To complete the problem formulation of
the we should add the state equation:
( ) T f P , = .
Under movement of continuous medium
the surfaces is called free if surface tensions are
balanced at the expense of surroundings pressure.
As far as liquid borders upon gas, density of which
is small, border liquid-gas is a free surface.
The shape of the free surface as a rule is
unknown beforehand and is defined in the course of
problem solution that essentially complicates the
numerical algorithm.
In order to de,ne the domain occupied with
liquid, i.e. to define a free surface a scalar
function F is introduced.
It defines the fraction of cell volume
occupied with the liquid [3].
It is supposed that F=1 when a cell is fully
occupied with the liquid and F=0 in the case of
empty cell. The cells with 0<F <1 contain the free
surface.
For the function F the following equation
is true

( ) 0 = +
F V
t
F
(15)
The Laplace conditions are true on the free liquid
surface , defined with the help on function F:

( )
( )
1 2
l l
g r rr r rz z
r
P P n n n
k k n

= + +
+
, (16)
( ) ( )
z r
l
rz z
l
zz z g
n k k n n n P P
2 1
+ + + =
(17)
where
g
P is the pressure in the gas surrounding, P
is the liquid pressure on the free surface, is the
surface tension coefficient, k
1
, k
2
are curvatures of
main normal surface sectons, n
r,
n
z
are the
projections of a single normal vector to a
corresponding coordinate axis,
zz
,
rr
,
rz
are
the derivatives of the stress tensor components.
The heat exchange conditions are
established for the temperatureT on a free surface
. These conditions reflect the influence of the
surrounding temperature on the particle.
We use the condition:
( ) ( ) =
g T
T T
n
T
T (18)
Or the condition of heat transfer with radiation:
( ) ( )
( )
4 4
T g
b g
T
T T T
n
T T

= +

(19)
The coefficient of heat transfer
T

characterizes the eschange on outer side of frontier
layer and it is defined from the formula
( )
n
g
T
f D
u N

=
0
, where
n
f is the
coefficient of power shape D
o
is a diameter of a
particle,
g
is the coefficient of heat conductivity of
gases mixture (plasma) under temperature T
g
, Nu is
Nusselt number, defined by the modification of
Rantz-Marshall formula, and it depends on the
temperature in cells of the free surface.


57
Using the assumption relative to the model
of heat process in substrate and the symmetry of
the problem let define the temperature field by
means of one dimensional non- stationary quasi-
linear equation of heat conductivity:

( ) ( )
sub sub sub
sub
sub sub
T T
t
T
C =
(20)

5. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The finite element method is a numerical
procedure, that can be used to obtain solutions to a
large class of engineering systems, including stress
analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow and
electromagnetism.
In thermal spraying, finite element
analysis is used either to validate or predict
experimental results, through numerical
formulation.
Residual stress is a major problem in
thermal spraying where high thickness coatings are
required, due to the rapid solidification and cooling
of sprayed droplets during cooling.
Experimental analysis may help the
researcher understand where these stresses arise in
a component, hence lead to the prevention of such
outcomes. Finite element analysis may support
experimental findings and predict results for more
complex situations.
The finite element method use integral
formulations, rather than difference equations, to
create a system of algebraic equations.
Moreover, an approximate continuous
function is assumed to represent the solution for
each element.
The complete solution is generated by
connecting or assembling the individual solutions,
allowing for continuity at the inter-elemental
boundaries.
The basics steps involved in any finite
element analysis consist of the following:
Preprocessor Phase
- Create and discretize the solution domain into
finite elements, that is the system is sub-
divided into elements and nodes
- Assume a shape function to represent the
physical behaviour of an element.
- Develop equations for an element
- Arrange and assemble the elements to present
the entire system. Construct the global
stiffness matrix
- Apply boundary conditions, initial conditions
and loads.

Solution Phase
- Solve a set of linear or non-linear algebraic
equations simultaneously to obtain nodal
results, such as displacement values at
different nodes or temperature values at
different nodes in a heat transfer system
Postprocessor Phase
- Obtain other important information including
stress values, heat fluxes and so on.

Through the settlement of the features of
mathematical model with element finit the model
simplified of deposit results the matrices
conductibilities, of the temperature, of thermic flux,
movements what shipments.
Through setlement systems of equations
results is caused the values of characteristic in a
size of the number finit of points respectively allow
coefficients the concrete definiteness depending on
estimate.
For the base layer and the layer deposited
he chose as the guy of element - the element
membrane.
In during the element of defining the
selected membrane the model isotropic influenced
of temperature of reference sample through
orientation of nodal elements.
For the model of analysis with element
finit format from basic material and material
deposited a number of 66 nodes and 86 elements.
For the base layer he considered a number
of 44 elements and for the layer deposited a
number of 42 elements.
Nodes and the elements find have the
results dintr the process of generation 2D net of
discretize.
For the case considered this he has
urmatoarele features:
Elementul of generate - triangular
element.

Density " mesh" - 5.
Angle -15;
Geometric Ratie - 1. 25.
Factorul of close - 4.
Factorul of fineness - 1.
Measure mesh - 0. 5.
Tolerance - choose the automaton.
Coordonate of the system - rectangular


58
Fig. 2. The variation of the temperature
( nodes meshes) in section sample and the layer
deposited through thermic pulverization -
program ALGOR (values for the primarymodel)
Fig. 3. The remanent tensions( nodes meshes)
in sectional epruvetei and the layer deposited
through thermic pulverization - program
ALGOR (values for the primary model)
In as part as the program ALGOR for
analysis of remanent used tensions the module
Static Stress with Linear Material Models and for
analysis of the temperatures the module Steady
State Heat Transfer.

6. CONCLUSIONS

In the process of termic pulverization
appear hydrodynamic which effectsattend the
collision, strain and the flow of the particle
influence the level of remanent tensions from the
layers deposited;
The residual tensions represent a grand
question an in a case a thermic pulverization to the
depositthickness of material by reason of quick
solidification small droppings of material powdery
years the time for cooling;
At large in the analysis of residual
tensions consist in the solution analytic behavior of
the model the little maul molten droppings to the
interface impactului with the substratum of the
basic material;
For the description material motion of the
in the time deformation of molten particle i used
equations Navier-stokes for liquids viscosity
compressible, writed with natural variables" the
speed", connects with the preservation table.

REFERENCES

1. Zhi-Qiang Feang -Sur la modelisation
dun probleme multi-physique:la
projection a plasma-Laboratoire de
Mecanique et dEnergetique dEvry Val
dEssonne, 7 eme Colloque National en
Calcul des Structures Giens, France,
2005.
2. G.Gromyko, G. Zayats, A.Sherbaf
Mathematical modeling of particle impact
and solidification in thermal spray
process, Mathematical Modelling and
analysis, vol. 5, 2000, pag. 67 75.
3. J.Mostaghimi Modelling droplet impact
in plasma spray processes, Pure Appl.
Chem., vol. 74, No. 3, 2002.
4. L. Teodoru, Measurement of remanent
stress in the depositions by thermal
spraing, Revista Constructia de Masini,
ISSN 0573 7419, ICTCM, Bucharest,
1997.
5. L.Teodoru, Reduction of residual stresses
in thermal sprayed coatings, Revista
Constructia de Masini, ISSN 0573 7419,
ICTCM, Bucharest, 1999.
6. Sohoran, St., Constantinescu, I.N.,
Practica modelarii si analizei cu elemente
finite, Editura Politehnica Press,
Bucuresti, 2003.
7. Stokes, J., - The Theory and Application
of the HVOF Thermal Spray Process,
Dublin City University, 2008.


59

INOVATIVE AND ECOLOGICAL WELDING/PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGIES FOR ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

R. Cojocaru, L. Boil, C. Ciuc

National R&D Institute for Welding and Material Testing, Timisoara,
e-mail: rcojocaru@isim.ro

ABSTRACT
In paper are presented aspects about trends and actual stage on world level for
utilisatioon of aluminum alloys, as well as consideration about environmental
impact, consequence of significant increase utilization of these alloys .
It is presented the inovative and ecological friction stir welding (FSW) procedure,
technological alternative for arc welding of aluminum alloys, realisation and
contribution for aluminum alloys welding.
To complex characterization of the quality of the welded joints, was developed a
program that included destructive tests on welded joints, tensile and bending tests,
but also non destructive tests, macro and micro-metallographic analysis, X ray
control and penetrant liquids control.
In the end of the paper is realised a comparison between friction stir welding and
classical welding procedure, concerning consideration about economical and
environmental impact in production process, workpieces preparation, equipment
maintenance and furnishing.

KEYWORDS: aluminum alloys, transportation, FSW, economical efficiency, environment

1. INTRODUCTION

The applications where the weight
diminuation is important or some electrical and
magnetical characteristics are numerously.
These products frequently works in corrosive
medium or at extreme temperatures. For these
requirements assessed for products, the neferous
metals and alloys are recommended. Aluminum,
magnesium, copper, titanium and them alloys are
more used.
Aluminum and magnesium based alloys are
light alloys. These represent a category of materials
in which the main property is the light specific
weight (2700 Kg/m
3
, aproximately three times less
than iron), and are indispensable, for example, in
the manufacturing of components and structures
from transportation industries.
The metal welding at low temperatures is
usually realised using the traditional arc welding
(MIG; WIG). For application of these procedures
are necessary special conditions especially on
welding of aluminum and its alloy.

The ecological friction stir welding procedure
(FSW) is a recent and inovative development,
which has, at present, an special interest in
scientific world and is included in research
programms of main research institutions.
Friction stir welding offers a technological
alternative for arc welding procedure, allows easy
processing and elimination of majority of necessary
precaution.

2. UTILIZATION OF ALUMINUM IN
TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY

The increases of utilization grade of light
metals represent an actuality subject, of the actual
trends concerning increases and extends of utilization
at manufacturing products which have two major
technical characteristics: light weight and high
corrosion resistance. Some industrial areas are
mentioned: naval industry, vehicle construction, cars,
defence industry, aeronautics, oil platforms, etc.
The most important market for end users of
aluminum and its alloys is trasnsportation area

60
(aprox.. 25% from total). Aluminum, a light weight
material, is used more and more, at present, for
cars, buses, wagons, autotracks, trains, ships,
aircrafts and bikes [1].
Aluminum industry is active in colaboration with
transportation industry for new light products
development. Thus, aluminum utilization in automotive
industry will be double in the next few years.
In automotive industry, in special, and land
transportation, generally, exist a high competition
between producers, for technical performances
improvement and fuel consumption reduction.
The weight vehicles reducing, especially for
car bodies, is a possibility to realise this challenge.
This can be realised using more resistance
materials but with low section or using some
materials with low specific weight.
Considering all these, the designers attention
is focused on intensive utilisation of high resistance
materials, respectively light materials such as
aluminum, magnesium and composite materials, for
car bodies realisation.
The materials selection for different parts is
based on demands, passengers safety requirements
( rolling loading, impact stiffness), environmental
conditions (corrosion resistance), ecological
conditions (energy consumption, air pollution,
recycling, etc.), in correlation with new
technologies developed to realise these parts.
Aluminum is a viable choice for challenges
from transportation branch. Its ecological impact is
favourable: aluminum utilisation means low fuel
consumption, low noxes emission and low request
of raw material, because an important percentage of
products (aprox. 90%) can be recycled at the end of
lifetime.
Aluminum utilisation increase the safety in
exploatation (low weight means short distance of
braking). Through low specific weight, as results
of aluminum extensively utilisation can be obtained
a 300kg weight reduction, for a mean size vehicle
(1400kg).
Each 100kg reducing in cars weight means
0,3-0,6 liter fuel comsuption reducing for 100km,
as well as a reduction with 15-20% of noxes
emission.
Moreover, in transportation industry,
utilisation of aluminum parts allows the useful load
increases, maintain of the maximum weight of
vehicle, the number of transports for the same
quantity of goods is also reduced.
Aluminum industry has an important
contribution to body elements production for high
speed trains, trams, buses, subway and regional trains.
Actually, aluminum is used on a large scale
for body elements, safety systems, parts from
suspension system and other more applications.
As a result of aluminum parts utilisation it can
be obtained about 50% reduction for vehicle weight.
The implementation of idea adequate material
in adequate place is actually and can be shown in the
project of 1 liter car (fuel consumption), proposed
by Volkswagen company, figure 1, [2].

Fig. 1. Light metals structures of 1 liter car [2]

A great number of the technical solution for
aluminum utilization result from new product
methods, such as new casting technologies and
innovative technologies/ welding procedure [1].

3. FRICTION STIR WELDING
OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

The idea of fabrication the whole cars from Al
depends on joint technics which are used in
different parts manufacturing.
Development of new joint processes for
advanced materials is represented at horizontal level in
prioritary scientifical and technological fields of
european researches, such as future fabrication
processes, new materials, transports, aeronautics, as
well as restructuring of some traditionally industrial
sectors steel industry and constructions.
For the development of these fields, special
technical requirements are imposed for joint processes
(materials, shapes, dimensions, structures, loads) and
for environment (pollution, noxes).
Those requirements are in continuous
evolution and cant be fully obtain using actually
industrial welding procedures.
The innovative welding procedure FSW has
an extraordinary development potential and
accomplish these high requirements. Welding
metals at low temperatures are realised, generally,
using traditionally arc welding technologies (MIG;
WIG).

61
To apply these procedures for aluminum and its
alloys welding special conditions are necessary,
such as: border conditioning, oxides layers remove
before welding, shielding gases in welding
processes, right choice of filler metals, utilisation of
specifical operating parameters (alternating
current), as well as programming and memory
facilitation.
Moreover, if arc welding procedure is applied
to aluminum parts, where long joints are necessary,
important deformations are produced, and post
welding mechanical working are necessary for
initial shapes obtaining.
Friction stir welding offer a technological
alternative for arc welding procedure, allows facile
processing and majorities precaution elimination.
The FSW procedure is a recent and innovative
development which has, at present, an great interest
in international scientifical world and is included in
research programmes of the main research
institutions.
This statement is sustained by extremely high
number (aprox.800) which were published in the
main fluxes of information, as well as over 1800
protected patents in industrialized countries [3].
The majorities of international conferences
with topics welding have sections dedicated to
FSW process, but there are also scientific
international manifestations dedicated exclusively
to this process [3].
Very important companies such as Airbus,
Boeing, EADS, NASA, Toyota, Honda, have many
patents in FSW area.
From the beginning of 2000 years, FSW researches
were included in scientifical programm of ISIM
Timisoara. FSW is a solid state joining process
based on friction heating and subsequently plastic
deformation realised at intersection between a
welding tool which is rotating on workpieces
contact surfaces.
The procedure consists in plunging a rotating tool
in workpieces material and moving the tool along
the welding line.
The plasticized material is transferred to the back
zone, creating a solid state joint between the welded
parts, figure 2, [4].

Fig. 2. FSW principle

A research direction from ISIM follows FSW
welding/processing of different aluminum alloys.
FSW process implies complex movements of
material and plastic deformations. Welding
parameters, tool geometry and joint types have an
important role in the welding evaluation.
Tool geometry is the principal factor which has an
influence on process development.
The friction between shoulder and workpiece is the
biggest heating source of material. Size and tool
shapes, respectively shoulder are important for heat
quantity from welding process [5].
In figure 3 is presented a welding joint for
Al99 sheet with 6mm thickness, which was realised
in FSW experiments.

Fig. 3. FSW welding, Al99, 6 mm thickness

The welding tool made of steel with 40 45
HRC, presented in figure 4, is plunging vertical in
workpieces which are butt positioned and strongly
fixed on the steel backing plate. The pin has a M6
threaded shape, pin length is 5,8 mm and shoulder
diameter is 22 mm.


62

Fig. 4. Welding tool

To characterize the quality of the welded
joints, a complex program was developed, that
included non destructive tests (X ray control and
penetrant liquids control) but also destructive tests
on welded joints, tensile and bending tests, macro
and micro-metallographic analysis, hardness.
The metallographic analyses of the welded
joints was realised on a normal plane on the
movement direction of the welding tool.
In figure 5 is presented the macroscopic
structure of a welded joint realised with the welding
tool from figure 4, welding speed 190 mm/min and
rotation speed 1500 rot/min.

Fig. 5. Test 8 [Etching - NaOH 5%]

The nugget has a good development in the
center of weld, in concentrical rounds shapes.
The penetrant liquids control and X ray
control the lack of defects on the full length of
joints (l=300mm) was observed.
If the welding speed is excessively increased,
v=750 mm/min, the macrostructural analyse shows
a lack of penetration at root (figure 6).

Fig. 6. Test 13 [Etching NaOH5 %]

The defect has appeared because of improper
selection of welding parameters (too high welding
speed), as well as insufficient heating which has
affected the nugget consolidation.
The workpieces material support a strongly
plastical deformation caused by pin action during
the welding process and through highest
temperature, the metalurgical transformation by
dynamic recristalization appears.
The structure that was observed at optical
microscope, after reactive etching (figure 7 and
figure 8), a consequence of grain dimension
variation, as well as secondary phases from welding
process.
All groups has a fine structure with coaxial
grains.

Fig. 7. BM structure [500]

Fig. 8. SUD structure [500]
Shoulder
Pin

63
Selective superplasticity concept
FSP processed zone After plastic deformation

The quality of the welded joint was evaluated
by comparison between tensile tests, statical tensile
tests of base material (R
mMB
) and welded joints
(R
mIS
).
Depending on selected welding parameters it
was obtained R
mW
/R
mBM
= 0,91 for Al99 and 0,8 for
Al99,5.
Using arc welding procedures for aluminum
and its alloys, it was obtained R
mW
/R
mBM
= 0,65.
Moreover, this fact shows the advanced quality of
FSW joints.
At bending tests for Al99 and Al99,5 a
maximal deformability of welded joints was
obtained.
The researchers from metalurgical and
mechanical field analysing friction stir processing,
derived procedure from FSW,for surface properties
modification of different materials and for
aluminum alloys, in this case. Likewise, using
friction stir processing, some properties from
specific zones, can be improved, on considerable
depth [6].
Actually, FSP is the only solid state
procedure for microstructure and composition of
material modification, on some specifical and
limited zones.
The FSP procedure is applied, generally, for
fine grain structure obtaining.
Using FSP it can be obtained a specifical
microstructure in one pass, but for extrusion or
rolling processes, more steps for the same
microstructure are necessary. In this case the FSP
efficiency is obviously.
When using FSP three important scientifical
and technological aspects can be noticed [6]:
- Plastic flow tension: from scientifical
point of view, the difficulty of deformation
process has proven by its amplitude, but
from technological point of view is
important the maintain the value under 10
MPa;
- deformation grade: from scientifical point
of view represents an indicator of kinetical
flow mechanism, and from technological
point of view it is important because using
FSP, the time for plastic defromation is
reduced to a few minutes, in comparison
with a few hours for conventional
deformation procedures;
- the temperatures: from scientifical point
of view, represents an indicator of
efficiency for boundary grains sliding, but
from technological point of view, the low
temperatures are preffered from many
reasons, including energetical effciency.

Friction stir processing can be used like a
new technology that allows the new concepts
development and designing some of fabrication
processes.
For many components, sometimes it is
necessary to apply plastic deformation, on
specifical zones. In this case, fine grains structure is
necessary just on plastic deformation area.
Using conventional procedures, a fine grain
structure on specifical zones cant be obtained.
Using FSP, a specifical zone of sheet can be
processed for a superplastic behaviour.
Differences in microstructure has as effect the
selective deformation of fine grain area (figure 9).

Fig. 9. Schematical presentation of a FSP local
superplasticity concept[6]

A cast structure can be transformed, in a few
steps, in a structure with better plastic deformation
grade. This technics of fabrication is extremely
economical.
These concepts can be applied for a large
range of metals and composite materials with metal
matrix, maximum impact is on aluminum and
magnesium components.
At ISIM Timisoara were realised
experimental researches for a cast AlSi alloy,
having the chemical composition from table 1.

Table 1. Experimental researches for a cast AlSi
alloy, with chemical composition
Chemical compozition (%)
Alloying
elements
Al Si Fe Mn Mg Cr Pb Ti Sn
Percent
(%)
86,4511,93>1,020,240,0080,010,120,050,122

The base material has a typical cast
structures, with matrix rich in Al (light colour),
wherein are Si coarse plates, but very fragile (figure
10, a).


64

a) b)

a) b)
Fig. 10. Microstructures of AlSi processes FSP
1 pass

The nugget morphology shows deformation
occurrence and a microstructural evolution which
has been caused by process condition or
recrystalization process.
In the nugget the temperature is aprox.400 C.
As a consequence of great forces developed
during the welding process, the plastified material is
mixing and Si plates are strongly fragmentized, so
that, in the plastic deformation zone (weld), appear
under the form of very fine particles (figure 10,b).
For processing of big surfaces the succesive
passes method was used (figure 11 and figure 12).

Fig. 11.FSP probe processed in more passes

Fig. 12. Macrostructure of probe P5

The scope of the bending tests was the
determination of plastic deformation capacity of
base material and processed material, based on
breaking bending angle criteria.
The ductility of AlSi alloy as base material is
low, breaking angle is = 15
0
.
Two situations were analized for FSP
processed material:
- the rod positioning with paralell axes on
processing direction. The breaking was
produced at 25
0
, in thermomechanical
influenced zone of the last pass;
- the rod positioning with axes normal on
processing direction (figura 13).
The cracking appeared at 60
0
.
Analyzing these results it is obviously that
using FSP, plastic deformability of AlSi alloy was
increased (about 4 times).
When local improvement of deformability is
necessary, correlation between processing direction
and rod axes (perpendicularity) is very important.

Fig. 13. Bending tests for processed probe

The FSP parameters are not yet totally
optimised for maximum efficiency of the process or
the deformability.
For example, the optimum depth of
penetration of processing tool at maximum speed of
movement (minimal costs) and either maximum
deformability was not yet established.
Certainly it is not necessary that penetration
of the processing tool to be over half on material
thickness. Likewise the depth of penetration of tool
increases with bending grade, but bending limit is
restricted by local ductility of processed material.
Experimentally is not yet established a quantitative
correlation evaluation.
Reports between depth penetration and bend
radius is important, special for costs, when
processing FSP is applied on big surfaces.
If a bigger depth of penetration is necessary, it
implies a low processing speed, a bigger quantity of
heat in material, and decrease of some mechanical
properties of processed material.
The process parameters movement speed of
tools and rotating speed depends on type of tool and
can be different, in special when the scroll shoulder
and different types of pins are used.

Base material - BM
Processed material

65
Correlation between processing direction and
bending direction of processed material is
important. If processing direction is parallel with
bending axes of material, non homogenous flow
occurs, lines are deformed and because cumulated
tension the premature cracking occured.
Is necessary that the processing direction of
FSP to be normal on bending axes on material, to
obtain maximum deformability.

4. ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Butt welding of aluminum sheet with
thickness 3-6 mm is realised usually using MIG
procedure. For 6mm thickness MIG welding is
necessary a mechanical working in V of the edge.
The welding is realised in two passes and
using 1,6mm diameter wire. For 1m welding length
is necessary 173g wire, 60 l argon shielding gas,
welding time aprox. 5,2min.
In FSW case, the mechanical working of the
edges are not necessary, no gap, no filler metal and
shielding gas, welding time is 3,33min for
300mm/min welding speed.
Changing the MIG welding with FSW assure
complete elimination of filler material consumption,
substantial diminuation of fabrication time because the
mechanical working of the edges are not necessary
and efective welding time diminuation.
A comparative study between MIG welding
and FSW for wagon structure from Bombardier
Transportation Company, England, was realised by
a researcher group and specialists [7].
The comparison element was the annual
production of 400 undercarriage with 12 long welds
(8 butt welds and 4 corner welds) realised using
both welding procedure. Total welding length was
aprox. 96000m.
The economical and environmental impact in
production process, parts machining, equipment
maintenance, furnishing, etc. were analized.
From the tests results some important aspects
about FSW have been reported:
- energy consumption was reduced with
25000KWh, mean 0,26 KWh/m of weld;
- elimination of the consumable materials
(4200 kg welding wire, 18250 m
3
of Argon, 450
kg thermoplastic material from wire reels, 35 kg
Cu 4Cr) and costs of aquisition and transport from
suppliers;
- diminuation costs before and post welding
(the mechanical working of the edges are not
necessary, minimal deformations);
- diminuation of quantity of auxiliary
materials and waste (textil materials with solvents
380 kg, cleaning solvents 340 l, ~ 70 kg stainless
steel from wire brushes, etc.).

CONCLUSIONS

Al is a light metal, strong and durable. From
these 3 base properties, Al becomes the preffered
metal for applications in transportation area, light
weight conduced to the diminuation of fuel
consumption and high loading capacity. Products
such as car engines, aircrafts, ships, autotrucks and
trains are important examples in this case.
The idea of fabrication the whole cars from Al
depends by joint technics which are used in
different parts manufacturing.
Friction stir welding offer an ecological and
technological alternative for arc welding
procedures, allows easy processing and elimination
of majority of necessary precaution. FSW has many
advantages from economical efficiency point of
view. FSW is a welding procedure that has
remarcable possibilities of development and
applications, especially for light metals welding.
Friction stir welding can be used like a new
technology that allows the new concepts development
and designing some of fabrication processes.
Using FSW, a cast structure can be
transformed in a structure with a high plastic
deformability grade.
The paper was done in the CEEX project 103
41/10.10.2005 Researches about conception
orientation and fabrication technologies of
industrial products, seeing end of lifetime, for
reutilisation, recycling and ecological destruction,
closed in May 2008. The contractual authority
being CNMP, program INFOSOC.

REFERENCES

[1]. Aluminium Alloys Aluminium Usage in The
Transportation Industry Topics Covered, 2004.
[2]. Herold, H., Pieschel, J., Jttner, S., Mller, R., Sovetchenko,
P., The Application of high-alloyed Steel in Vehicle
Structures Welding Solutions Proceedings of the IIW
International Conference on Technical Trends and Future
Prospectives of Welding Technology for Transportation,
Land, Sea, Air and Space, Osaka, Japonia, 2004.
[3]. Botila, L., Cojocaru, R., Dehelean, D.,Cercetarea
procesului de sudare prin frecare cu element activ rotitor
reflectata in dinamica publicatiilor si brevetelor de
inventie pe plan mondial. Conferinta internationala
Tehnologii inovative pentru imbinarea materialelor
avansate, ISIM Timisoara, 2007.
[4]. Thomas, W., e.a., Improvements relating to friction
welding. European Patent Specification 0 615 480 B1, 1991.
[5]. Cojocaru, R., Botila, L., Consideratii privind sudarea
prin frecare cu element activ rotitor. Conferinta
internationala High productivity welding processes,
ISIM Timisoara, 2004.
[6] Mishra, R. S., Mahoney, M. W., Friction Stir Welding
and Processing. ASM International, The Materials
Information Society, Ohio, USA, 2007.
[7] Wood, M., Larsson, S., Dahlstrom, H., Corrosion resistance
of friction stir welds in aluminium alloys 2014A-T651 and
7075-T651. 3
rd
International Friction Stir Welding
Symposium, 27-28 September, Kobe, Japan, 2001.

66
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67

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SINTERED AlN

Igor Fesenko*, Pavlo Kisly*, Maya Kuzenkova*, Galina Oleynik**, Valeriy Sulzhenko***

*Institute for Superhard Materials, Kyiv, Ukraine,
**Institute of Problems in Materials Science, Kyiv, Ukraine
***Institute of Physics of Metals, Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: ifesenko@iptelecom.net.ua

ABSTRACT: Effects of temperature and porosity on mechanical properties and a
mechanism of failure in sintered AlN have been studied. Samples of various densities
were produced by pressureless sintering of the AlN nano-powder. The strength of
sintered AlN with porosity of 2% is about 300 MPa at room temperature.
At temperatures higher than 800
o
C the strength of AlN drops sharply. The higher
dislocation density indicates the development of the plastic deformation in the regions
near AlN grain boundaries during crack propagation.

KEYWORDS: aluminum nitride, pressureless sintering, bending strength.

1. INTRODUCTION

Studies of mechanical properties of the AlN ceramics
under high temperature are of interest from the viewpoint
of making parts with high thermal and wear resistance
[1], e.g. operating in the stream of a gas carrying the
abrasive powder at the temperature of about 800 C.
Besides, AlN is investigated as a structural material
to be used in metallurgy owing to high thermo-mechanic
stability and low solubility in the liquid steel [2, 3]. Use
of AlN ceramics as a heat-dissipating substrate and
package in microelectronics makes demand for high
strength and hardness. In this paper the effects of
temperature and porosity on mechanical properties and a
mechanism of failure in sintered AlN have been studied.

2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES

Samples of various densities were produced by
sintering AlN powder (Fig. 1) of an initial specific
surface of 15 m
2
/g (Neomat Company, Riga, Latvia) in
the temperature range from 1600 to 1950 C in nitrogen.
Green density of the samples was equal to 50-55 %.
The samples of 5535 mm were three-point bend
tested at temperatures from 20 to 1800 C using tungsten
supports for loading and bending tungsten rod of 18 mm
in diameter. Stress rate was 1 mm/min. Every strength
value was calculated for three samples.
Mean relative error was 16 %.
At room temperature, tests were carried out in air and at
higher temperatures in nitrogen. The density and grain size
of samples vs. sintering temperature are shown in the Table
1.

500 nm

Fig. 1.Starting AlN powder produced by a plasma
chemical synthesis

Table 1. The density and grain size of samples vs.
sintering temperature
Sintering
temperature,
o
C
Density, % Grain size, m
1600 56.8 0.5-1
1700 80 1-2
1800 94 2-3
1900 99 3-5


68
At room temperature the strength of the sintered AlN
rises rapidly with density of the samples (Fig. 2).
The strength of sintered AlN with residual porosity of 2% is
about 300 MPa at room temperature. With increasing
porosity the strength abruptly decreases and for samples
sintered at 1600
o
C is about 30% of that of a dense material.
Electron microscopy studies have shown that the
fracture of the material made of AlN nanopowder is
macroscopically brittle, transcrystalline.
A material of low density reveals an entirely
intercrystalline fracture. With the increase of density the
portion of intercrystalline fractured sample decreases and
the densest material fractures only in the transcrystalline
way.
The TEM examination of thin split-off particles
show that polytype interlayers, deformation twins,
stacking faults and pile-ups of dislocations are presented
in the bulk and at the grain boundaries.
The higher dislocation density indicates that the
crack propagation occurs with a contribution of the
plastic deformation process in the regions near
boundaries (Fig. 3). At temperatures higher than 800
o
C,
the strength of AlN drops sharply with the temperature
rise (Fig. 2). At this temperature the fracture changes
from transcrystalline to intercrystalline.
At 1600
o
C macroscopic deformation of the AlN
material can be seen. The softening of the material with
increasing temperature is relatively small, e.g., in the
temperature range from 20 to 1600
o
C for sintered
aluminum nitride with porosity of 2%, it does not exceed
20%. At 1400
o
C and above materials of AlN
nanopowders are stronger than silicon nitride is.
The bending strength of samples hot-pressed from
commercial AlN (DZKhR, Ukraine) in graphite die
increases with the rise of temperature (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Temperature dependence of fracture strength of
AlN powders sintered at :1600 (1), 1700 (2),1800 (3),
1950 (4) and coarse AlN powder (3.5 m
2
/g)
hot-pressed at 1800
o
C (5).

Fig. 3. TEM micrograph showing dislocations
in the region near AlN grain boundary.

The highest bending strength of approximately 350 MPa
is observed at 800
o
C for hot-pressed ceramics from
relatively coarser AlN powder. This may be attributed
first to the difference in carbon content of as obtained
samples.
At temperatures higher than 1700
o
C, carbon was
transferred via gas phase in a form of CO and CO
2
from
the volume of the graphite die to the AlN powder
compact. The effect of carbon content in AlN ceramics
from temperature needs further consideration.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Studies of the effects of temperature and porosity on
mechanical properties and a mechanism of failure in
sintered AlN have shown that the strength of the material
remains practically constant up to 800
o
C. With
increasing porosity the strength abruptly decreases.
The transcrystalline fracture that keeps to 800
o
C at
higher temperatures gives way to the intergranular one.
Pile-ups of dislocations indicate that the crack
propagation in polycrystalline AlN occurs with a
contribution of plastic deformation. AlN is believed to
serve as a basis for new materials, both functional and
structural, to be used at normal and elevated
temperatures.

REFERENCES

[1]. De With, G., Hattu, N. High temperature fracture of hot-pressed
AlN ceramics. Journal of Material Science, 18(2), 1983, p. 503-507.
[2]. Labbe, J.C., Laimeche, A. Study of the Behavior of Aluminium
Nitride in the Iron and Steel Industry. Journal of European Ceramic
Society, (16), 1996, p. 893-898.
[3]. Khan, A.A., Labbe, J.C. Aluminium Nitride Molybdenum
Ceramic Matrix Composites: Characterization of Ceramic Metal
Interface. ibid. p. 739-744.

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature,
400
300
200
100
F
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

M
P
a
1
2
3
5
4


69

BIODIESEL CARBURANT REGENERABIL
FOLOSIT N TRANSPORTURI

BIODIESEL REGENERABLE FUEL USED
IN TRANSPORTATIONS

Ioan Brdescu
1)
, Amelitta Legendi
2)
, Gabriel Ionescu
3)

1)
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti-UTCB, ROMANIA,e-mail: bardescu.liz30@yahoo.com.
2)
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti-UTCB, ROMANIA, e-mail: amelitta.legendi@gmail.com.
3)
Institutul de Construcii pentru Echipamente i Tehnologii n Construcii-ICECON, ROMANIA

REZUMAT
O scurt introducere n tem este urmat de prezentarea carburanilor regenerabili,
folosii n transporturi, structurai pe bioetanol pentru nlocuirea benzinei i
biodiesel pentru nlocuirea motorinei, precum i funciile i importana lor de
utilizare ca aditivi.
Se analizeaz materialele de origine vegetal, tratate pe dou grupe: alimentare i
nealimentare, cu exemplificri de culturi vegetale-energetice. n continuare se
trateaz numai biodieselul, cu exemplificri de cantiti produse n Romnia i n
alte ri, n principal din culturile de rapi i soia.
Se fac unele consideraii privind coninutul de energie i balana energetic
motorin-biodiesel, caracterul ecologic n producerea i folosirea biodieselului,
critici i soluii alternative, n scopul protejrii culturilor vegetale alimentare,
precum i concluzii eseniale.

ABSTRACT
The short theme presentation is followed by the exposure of regenerable fuels used in
transportations and their functions, structured on bioethanol for gas replacing and
on biodiesel for diesel oil replacing, as well as the importance in using them as
additives.
The vegetable origin materials are analyzed on two groups: alimentary and non
alimentary, giving examples of energy-vegetable crops. The biodiesel itself is
forwards presented, with examples of quantities produced in Romania and in other
countries, mainly from rape and soybean crops.
Some considerations regarding the energy content and diesel oil-biodiesel energy
balance, as well as the ecological character of biodiesel production and use are
made, in a view to defending the vegetable alimentary crops, focusing some essential
conclusions.

KEYWORDS: Biodiesel, diesel oil, ethanol, gas, vegetable crops, fuels, biofuels.

CUVINTE CHEIE: Biodiesel, motorin, etanol, benzin, culturi vegetale, carburani, biocarburani.

1. INTRODUCERE

Prin tema de fa se pun n eviden principalele
aspecte i carcteristici ale biocarburanilor, compara-
tiv cu actualii carburani majoritari, obinui din
motorin, precum i tendinele care se manifest n
domeniul transporturilor. Tema este structurat pe opt
capitole (Schema structural 1.1).
Dioxidul (bioxidul) de carbon (CO
2
), eliberat prin
arderea combustibililor fosili, ridic temperatura
pmntului n fiecare moment; el este principalul gaz
vinovat pentru efectul de ser.


70
Schema structural 1.1 Coninutul temei

Carbonul organic din biocarburant provine din atmos-
fer, fiind captat din plante n perioada de cretere,
benefic pentru mediu. La ora actual se consider c
biocombustibilii sunt carburani verzi curai.
Dioxidul de sulf (SO
2
) este mai nociv dect CO
2

deoarece n urma reaciei lui din atmosfer se produce
acid sulfuric, principala component a ploilor acide.
Se nregistreaz costuri incalculabile ale polurii
produse de autovehicule i de nsi producia petro-
lier. n scopul reducerii, pn la eliminare, a noxelor
din atmosfer, n principal CO
2
, SO
2
i a emisiilor de
azot, s-a trecut la utilizarea, pe scar larg, a energiei
regenerabile care are n vedere i biocarburanii.
Biocarburanii, ca parte a energiei regenerabile, se
utilizeaz n transporturi, ca dou produse:
(1) Bioetanol/etanol, ca alternativ la benzin sau
n amestec cu benzina, ca aditiv pentru mbun-
tirea caracteristicilor acesteia, utilizat la
motoarele prin combustie;
(2) Biodiesel, ca alternativ la motorin, sau ca
aditiv, utilizat la motoarele prin compresie.
Ideea de folosire a carburanilor din culturi vegetale
dateaz de peste 100 de ani.
Rudolf Diesel, a pornit motorul, care-i poart
numele, folosind ulei de arahide (1892)
Henry Ford a folosit alcool pentru deplasa-
rea primei maini concepute (1893)
Ambii inventatori au descoperit repede c dac com-
bustibilul obinut din iei (hidrocarburi) era rafinat
puin producea mult mai mult energie pe litru dect
combustibilul vegetal i, n plus, era mai ieftin; ca
urmare ei s-au orientat ctre combustibilul obinut din
petrol, care la acea vreme era mai ieftin.
Carburantul alcoolic, numit etanol, a reuit s revin
n for n SUA abia n anul 2000, mai ales sub form
de aditiv, formnd amestecul benzin-etanol. Aditi-
vul-etanol adugat benzinei amelioreaz proprietile
acesteia n sensul c o face mai puin detonant, iar
amestecul este mai puin poluant.
Aditivul-etanol se afl n competiie cu aditivul
chimic, propriu industriei petroliere, MTBE (Metilter
Butil Eter) care dup unii cercettori este suspectat c
ar fi cancerigen i care a nceput s se regseasc n
straturile acvifere; n multe state folosirea aditivului
chimic MTBE a fost interzis.
Carburanii verzi, pentru moment, exercit o atracie
incontestabil, n timp ce criticii afirm c este o
soluie tehnologic panaceu.

Tabelul 1.1 Procente de bioaditiv n
carburanii din petrol

Pn
n anul
Procent
de biocarburant
Cota anual
pentru Romnia
2010 5,75% 300.000 t
2020 10,0% 550.000 t

Pentru a elimina emisiile de CO
2,
Directivele de
mediu ale UE prevd ca din totalul de carburani
folosii n transporturi, cantitile n proporie minim
de 5,75%, pn n anul 2010 i 10% pn n anul
2020, trebuie s fie de origine vegetal (tabelul 1.1).
n acest scop a aprut i se dezvolt o industrie a
carburanilor care se cultiv.
Unii autori consider c Romnia folosete doar 40%
din suprafaa terenului ce ar putea fi exploatat. De
aceea, Romnia ar putea deveni unul dintre cei mai
mari exportatori de biocombustibil, fr s se fac
sacrificii.

2. BIODIESEL ENERGIE
REGENERABIL

Biocarburanii sunt de fapt carburani alternativi
regenerabili (combustibili lichizi) produi din culturi
vegetale i utilizai de motoarele cu ardere intern.
La motorul cu explozie cu aprindere prin
scnteie MAS (combustie intern), carburantul este
benzina ce provine dintr-un produs petrolier nere-
generabil care poate fi nlocuit cu bioetanol.
Etanolul fiind un alcool etilic, de origine vegetal, nu
cere neaprat folosirea prepoziiei bio.
La motorul cu autoaprindere prin compresie
MAC, numit i motor diesel, carburantul provenit din
produse petroliere neregenerabile este motorina ce
poate fi nlocuit prin biodiesel.

2.1. Biodiesel

Biodieselul se poate utiliza drept carburant:
singur i este simbolizat B 100 (o sut pri
biodiesel la zero pri motorin)
n amestec cu motorina din petrol, ca aditiv,
i este simbolizat, de ex. B 02, B 20.
Pentru ambele situaii simbolizarea are urmtoarele
semnificaii: litera B provine de la biodiesel, cifrele
alturate literei B reprezint raportul biodiesel/
motorin. De exemplu, B 02 este un amestec de dou
pri-procente (2%) ca aditiv la 98 pri motorin din
petrol (98%).


71
La rndul lui biodieselul poate fi aditivat cu diverse
alte produse lichide, n scopul mbuntirii compor-
trii lui pentru diferite condiii de mediu.
Att motorina ct i biodieselul se achiziioneaz fie
dup masa sa (kg, t), fie dup volum (dm
3
= litru,
m
3
= 1000 l); n relaia de transformare intervine
densitatea carburantului.
Utilizarea unui kg de biodiesel duce la economisirea
a 0,710,91 kg de motorin din petrol; diferena este
determinat de energia echivalent dezvoltat.

Biocarburanii mai sunt numii:
carburani regenerabili;
carburani din culturi vegetale;
energie de cas;
carburani verzi;
carburani curai;
nlocuitori de benzin i motorin;
carburani din culturi tehnice .a.

2.2. Biodiesel folosit ca aditiv

Primele autovehicule care au consumat amestec de
biodiesel cu motorin din petrol au fost utilajele
agricole i cele care transport materia prim
vegetal pentru fabricarea biodieselului.
n Europa de Vest, n transportul de persoane se
folosesc carburani obinui din petrol (motorin,
benzin) n amestec cu 2030% de biocarburani ca
aditivi (substan care se adaug alteia pentru a-i
ameliora proprietile). n perspectiva apropiat se va
folosi 100% biocarburant.
De la 1 iulie 2007, Uniunea European a obligat
toate rile, printre care i Romnia, s distribuie
la staiile de carburani motorin avnd n
componen cel puin 2% carburant ecologic
biodiesel.
Guvernul Romniei a aprobat, n luna mai 2008, o
hotrre prin care operatorii-distribuitorii, vor
introduce pe pia numai amestec de biocarbu-
rani i carburani convenionali, derivai ai
uleiurilor minerale (tabelul 2.1).

Tabelul 2.1 Procente de bioaditiv
n carburanii din petrol

Cote minime de Nr.
crt
Carburant
convenional
De la:
Biodiesel Bioetanol
1. Motorin 01.07.
2007
2%
01.01.
2008
3%
01.07.
2008
4%
2. Benzina 01.01.
2010
4%

2.3. Procesul de producie al biodieselului
Se deosebesc patru faze principale de obinere a
biodieselului [4].
(1) Obinerea uleiului vegetal, de ex. din rapi sau
din soia;
(2) Prelucrarea uleiului vegetal, obinut n prima
faz, prin amestecarea lui cu un reactiv
(substan participant la o reacie chimic) care
n final duce la formarea carburantului;
(3) Purificarea procesului tehnologic, prin elimina-
rea apei din carburant, recipiente-usctoare de
biodiesel;
(4) Colectarea i testarea n laborator a biodiese-
lului rezultat din prelucrarea i eliminarea apei
din uleiul vegetal.

2.4. Preul cu amnuntul n Germania a
biodieselului (iunie 2007)

Preurile la pomp pentru motorin (M), pentru
biodiesel (BD), precum i preul biocarburantului
pentru a obine energia echivalent unui litru de
motorin (C
ee
) n euro/l (Fig. 2.1)[1].

Fig. 2.1. Preul comparativ,
motorin-biodiesel

1,20
1,04
1,21
M BD C
ee


72

Schema structural 3.1 Culturi vegetale alimentare i nealimentare

II. NEALIMENTARE
(Plante tehnice)

I. ALIMENTARE
(Plante alimentare)

1. Tulpini-teci
2. Frunze
3. Buruieni
4. Arbori cu
cretere rapid
5. Rdcinoase
mari i adnci
6. Stuf
7. Rumegu-talaj
8. Alte materiale
secundare ale plantelor
9. Ierburi de preerie
10. Alge

A. BIODIESEL
1. Rapi
2. Soia
3. Floarea soarelui
4. Palmier
5. Arahide

B. BIOETANOL
1. Porumb
2. Trestie de zahr
3. Sfecl de zahr

3. MATERIALE ENERGETICE
DE ORIGINE VEGETAL

Din materiale vegetale energetice se produc biocarbu-
rani: biodiesel i bioetanol. Acetia pot fi extrai din
orice plante; din raiuni de eficien, cele mai folosite
sunt ns vegetalele oleaginoase i care conin
amidon.
Culturile vegetale pot fi structurate pe dou grupe
mari: alimentare i nealimentare (Schema structural
3.1).
Din ambele grupe de culturi se pot obine att
biodieselul, ct i bioetanolul cu remarca c cele din
grupa de culturi vegetale nealimentare ateapt
conceperea unor tehnologii de producie perfor-
mante, avnd costuri specifice reduse aa nct
biodieselul s coste mai puin dect motorina, iar
bioetanolul mai puin dect benzina
n etapa actual se remarc o febr a biocarburanilor
deoarece beneficiile poteniale sunt mari; n acest
scop se promoveaz asiduu plantele vegetale
alimentare.
Acest lucru poate conduce la reorien-
tarea agriculturii prin creterea suprafeelor pentru
plantele tehnice n detrimentul celor alimentare,
ridicnd preurile la produsele alimentare.
La baza fenomenului stau criza de carburani
convenionali i subveniile de stat care ncurajeaz
nfiinarea de culturi tehnice n detrimentul celor
alimentare; n aceast situaie, industria biocarbu-
ranilor se dezvolt ntr-un ritm fr precedent.

Harta parial a culturilor vegetale pentru
biodiesel
Uniunea European produce aproape 90% din
biodieselul consumat la nivel mondial i se bazeaz
pe culturi de rapi. Germania, care este lider
mondial bazndu-se pe culturi de rapi, a produs n
anul 2005 aproape 2 miliarde de biodiesel. SUA se
bazeaz pe culturi de soia. Asia de Sud Est i
Brazilia se bazeaz pe palmieri.
Producerea biodieselului din soia consum mai puin
combustibil specific fosil, ns din soia se obine o
cantitate destul de mic. Dac n SUA s-ar transforma
ntreaga recolt de soia n biodiesel, nu s-ar nlocui
dect 6% din necesarul de motorin.
Dintre parametrii de calitate i performan
financiar, care vor hotr viitorul biodieselului, trei
sunt eseniali: (1) cantitatea produs; (2) eficiena;
(3) preul la pompa de distribuie.

4. PRODUCIA DE BIODIESEL

n prezent, pe circa 1,8 milioane de hectare din terenul
agricol al Romniei, cresc plante oleaginoase (din
care se poate extrage ulei) de unde rezult o producie
anual de peste 1 milion de tone de ulei de floarea
soarelui, rapi, soia. Din aceast cantitate de ulei
numai 300.000 t (30%) este folosit n scop alimentar,
excedentul de 700.000 t (70%) devine biodiesel.
Romnia produce acum de aproape apte ori mai mult
biodiesel dect se consum (tabelul 4.1).

CULTURI
VEGETALE

(exemplificri)


73
Tabelul 4.1 Producie biodiesel n Romnia

Cantitatea produs
n tone/an:
Nr.
crt
Parametrii
tehnologici
2008 2010
1. Producie biodiesel 400.000
2. Cantitate cerut
n ar
60.000
3. Cantitate exportat 340.000
4. Consum anual
de motorin
3.000.000
5. Cota minim
de biodiesel impus
Romniei ca aditiv
2% 5,75%
6. Cantitate minim
de biodiesel utilizat
ca aditiv
60.000 180.000

nc din acest an, 2008, capacitatea anual de
producie a biodieselului asigur cu 220.000 t mai
mult (400.000 180.000) dect consumul estimat pe
anul 2010. Se preconizeaz o cretere accentuat a
culturilor de plante oleaginoase (tabelul 4.2).

Tabelul 4.2 Producia, n Romnia, de plante
oleaginoase

Producie anual, n tone: Nr.
crt
Culturi
de plante
2008 2018
1. Rapi 400.000 800.000
2. Floarea
soarelui
400.000 1.000.000
3. Soia 100.000 500.000

Datorit faptului c de la 1 iulie 2007, UE a obligat
toate rile membre s distribuie la staiile de
carburani motorin avnd n compoziie cel puin 2%
biodiesel ca aditiv, n ara noastr au nceput s apar
o serie de companii care produc biocarburani, n
general biodiesel, din materiale biologice, cum ar fi
rapia i soia (tabelul 4.3).
n prezent, biodieselul utilizat ca aditiv de ctre
OMV i Petrom nu este produs n capaciti proprii,
ci este cumprat. Companiile productoare de
biodieselul nu-i pun problema c vor rmne cu
stocuri mari pentru c cererea la export crete an de
an. Nu-i pun nici problema materiei prime deoarece
aceasta poate fi achiziionat i din import.
OMV a ateptat apariia unei tehnologii bazat pe
hidrogen; se va produce prin hidrogenare un combus-
tibil similar biodieselului. Prin Future Energy Found,
care are o valoare de 100 de milioane euro, OMV
finaneaz proiecte prin care s se utilizeze resurse
regenerabile de energie cum ar fi: (1) Biocarburani;
(3) Biogaz; (3) Energie geotermal; (4) Proiecte
de eficien energetic.

5. CONINUT DE ENERGIE
I BALAN ENERGETIC

Analiza comparat privind energia unui biocarburant
poate fi fcut n baza a dou criterii principale:
Coninutul de energie ntr-un litru de
biocarburant comparativ cu cel al
carburantului neregenerabil pe care-l
nlocuiete;
Energia combustibilului consumat
pentru fabricare, comparativ cu energia
carburantului rezultat.
Cu privire la coninutul de energie ntr-un litru de
biocarburant comparativ cu cel al carburan-
tului convenional se d un exemplu n care un litru
de biodiesel (BD) conine 86% energie fa de
motorin (M) de 100% (figura 5.1). Totui, se atrage
atenia c valoarea energiei coninut n biodiesel
depinde i de natura plantei din care a fost obinut.
Balana energetic realizeaz o comparaie ntre
energia combustibilului folosit-consumat pentru a
produce biocarburant comparativ cu energia
biodieselului dezvoltat-rezultat. Un exemplu,
pentru consumul unei uniti de energie a combus-
tibilului fosil utilizat (CE) egal cu 1 unitatea, a
rezultat 2,5 uniti de energie dezvoltat (ED) de
biodiesel (figura 5.2). i aici se face remarca c
trebuie s se in seama de natura combustibilului
fosil utilizat.
Unii carburani regenerabili sunt criticai pentru c la
producerea lor se consum tot atta energie ct
rezult.

Modificarea chimic-distilarea uleiurilor din plante
pentru obinerea biodieselului consum mai puin
energie dect distilarea etanolului; aceasta are totui
unele inconveniente ca de exemplu, producie mai
mic i costuri ridicate.

Fig. 5.1. Coninutul
de energie ntr-un litru
de carburant [1]
Fig. 5.2. Balana energetic
ntre combustibilul fosil
consumat i biodieselul
rezultat [1]
M BD
100%
86%
CE ED
2,5
1


74
Tabelul 4.3 Companii productoare de biodiesel n Romnia

Investiii
Supraf.
teren
Producie
Nr. crt Companie de biodiesel Localitate
mil. euro ha
tone/zi
tone/an
Natura culturii
1. MARTIFER
Firm portughez
Pus n funciune 2005
Lehliu-Gar
(Clrai)
30 340
100.000
Rapi
2. Grupul RACOVA
COM AGRO-PAN
Vaslui 18 14.000 170
30.000
Rapi
3. Grupul RACOVA
Fabr. nou 2008
Vaslui 500
120.000
Rapi
4. ULTEX
Companie german
ndrei Contracte
Petromidia
Rafo-Oneti
Soia
5. INTER AGRO
9 fabrici integrate
Zimnicea 50 12.000
rapi
50.000
85 biodiesel
255 bioetanol
Rapi
6. PROFILAND Galai 200
60.000

7. MAN DAFORA
Media
Atel
jud.Sibiu
100 400
120.000

8. ROMPETROM proiect 200
60.000

9. OMV proiect 180 700
200.000

6. CARACTERUL ECOLOGIC
N PRODUCEREA I FOLOSIREA
BIODIESELULUI

Aciuni nocive produse
Carburanii neregenerabili obinui din petrol folosii
de autovehicule produc:
emisii de hidrocarburi (HC)-gaze de eapament,
au un fum vizibil urt mirositor care mpreun cu
nanoparticulele materiale din praf (PM) este
ridicat n aer i formeaz un amestec duntor
organismelor vii.
amestecul nociv fum-praf din aer
constrnge omul s respire acest amestec
ce are implicaii asupra sntii;
se aaz pe plante, pe copaci, acoperind
totul de jur mprejur, distrugnd vegetaia
gazele de eapament produc un zgomot slab
(huruial)
n urma arderii combustibililor fosili n motoarele cu
ardere intern se produc emisii de CO
2
i SO
2
.
bioxidul de carbon este principalul gaz vinovat de
efectul de ser i ridic temperatura pmntului n
fiecare moment.
dioxidul de sulf provoac reacii n atmosfer, ce
produc acid sulfuric, principala component a
ploilor acide.

Stresul Diesel
Expunerea oamenilor la gazele de eapament, de o
anumit concentraie, emise de autovehicule cu
motoare diesel provoac stres cerebral
Nanoparticulele de amestec, gaze + praf pot ptrunde
n creier, se depun pe esuturi i provoac stresul
oxidant. Fenomenul este similar celui remarcat la
pacienii cu Alzheimer sau Parkinson [2].
Caracterul ecologic al biodieselului
La ora actual, n procesul de folosire, se consider c
biocarburanii lichizi sunt carburani curai, n mod
special bioetanolul alcoolul. Dar, la unele procese
de producere a lor se semnaleaz emisii de gaze
nocive (metan, oxid de carbon) cu efect de ser.
Un autovehicul, care folosete un biodiesel,
comparativ cu un autovehicul cu motor diesel pe
motorin, manifest multe fenomene benefice
asupra omului i mediului.
Reduce emisia de bioxid de carbon compa-
rativ cu motorina cu circa 40%;
Gazele de eapament nu conin sulf, deci
arderea biodieselului nu creaz dioxidul de
sulf (figura 6.1).


75
Se reduc emisiile de hidrocarburi (HC) i de
nanoparticule de praf (NP) i deci i a
amestecului HC+NP.
Biodieselul comparativ cu motorina
este biodegradabil, se degradeaz n
proporie de 95% cu 20% mai mult fa de
motorin (75%);

Fig. 6.1. Emisiile comparate de CO
2
i SO
2
[5]
M = motorin;
BD = biodiesel

risc redus de contaminare a solului;
toxicitate redus n cazul ingerrii de ctre
oameni i a polurii apelor;
pericol mai redus de aprindere i explozie
n transport sau n timpul depozitrii datorit
punctului de inflamabilitate mai ridicat,
de 2,7 ori (150-160C fa de 55-60C n
cazul motorinei).
Gazele de eapament de la motor cu biodiesel
[5].
sunt invizibile;
au un foarte slab miros, n special de la
biodieselul din alge care este superfluid;
zgomot foarte redus la motor, fa de
huruiala suprtoare a motorului pe
motorin.

7. CRITICI I SOLUII ALTERNATIVE

Critici
Unii cercettori aduc argumente pro sau contra
producerii biocarburanilor n general i a biodiesel-
ului n special din material vegetal alimentar, mai ales
pe termen mediu i lung, lsnd s se neleag c pe
termen scurt este o soluie acceptabil n funcie de
disponibilitile suprafeelor de teren.
Febra biocarburanilor ar putea reduce securitatea
alimentar, prin creterea suprafeelor pentru culturil
de biodiesel n detrimentul celor de gru i de
porumb, ridicnd preurile la alimente; acest lucru este
ajutat i de subveniile mari acordate de stat pentru
culturile de rapi i soia.
La aceste elemente se mai adaug i faptul c, oricum
s-ar face calculele, biocarburanii nu sunt un panaceu
pentru reducerea efectului de ser.
n procesul de obinere a biocarburanilor ecologici,
materia prim (uleiul) este rafinat prin procedee
care presupun emiterea n atmosfer a CO
2
; pe de o
parte se fac despduriri i se limiteaz suprafaa
cerealelor alimentare, iar pe de alt parte se elibereaz
n atmosfer noxele pe care iniial se ncearc s fie
eliminate.
n Romnia, n ultimii doi ani (2006 i 2007),
suprafeele nsmnate cu rapi s-au triplat i, n
paralel, industria biodieselului se dezvolt fr
precedent; programele arat c suprafeele de culturi
energetice se vor multiplica i de 5 ori n timp ce
suprafeele terenurilor alimentare vor stagna sau se
vor diminua.
Soluii alternative
Exist multe alte ci ce pot asigura beneficii pentru
societate.
Producerea de biocarburani din materiale vegetale
nealimentare (vezi schema structural 3.1).
Carburanii obinui din culturi vegetale ar putea fi
buni pentru planet dup nc una sau dou
descoperiri senzaionale pentru cultur-recoltare i
pentru prelucrare (producere ulei i mai ales
distilare).
Necesitatea identificrii i producerii unor carburani
de generaie nou, care s nlocuiasc treptat
combustibilii tradiionali.
ndreptarea ateniei spre alte soluii tehnice-energetice
nepoluante ca de exemplu, autovehicule electrice,
motoare alimentate cu hidrogen, motoare pe baz de
gaz natural, propulsie prin motor termic + motor
electric .a.
n ce privete folosirea carburantului ecologic, orien-
tarea trebuie s fie fcut spre culturile de alge i de
microorganisme. Algele sunt familii de plante
inferioare acvatice care pot fi recoltate n fiecare zi, n
timp ce rapia i soia se recolteaz o dat pe an.
O soluie vizionar ar fi nlocuirea micrii autovehi-
culelor bazat pe energia generat de o explozie pe o
alt form de energie propulsie, ce trebuie
inventat.

8. CONCLUZII

Sfritul petrolului este aproape i din acest motiv
omenirea trebuie s se preocupe pentru:
nlocuirea carburanilor tradiionali obinui din
petrol;
identificarea altor materiale dect cele vegetale
ca surse de biocarburani, de exemplu din
deeuri, precum componentele de computere
(cercetare romno-turc);
descoperirea altor sisteme tehnice de generare
a energiei pentru propulsia autovehiculelor.
M | BD
CO
2
SO
2
M | BD
60%
100% 100%
0%


76
Creterea continu a preurilor de carburani din
petrol, dependena de import i emisiile n atmosfer
de gaze toxice sunt argumente eseniale de susinere a
interesului pentru biocarburani.
Un exemplu, n Romnia, n primele cinci luni ale
anului 2008, preul carburanilor din petrol, la pomp,
a fost scumpit de 9 ori, producnd o cretere de
aproape 18%. [3]
Pe termen scurt, producerea i utilizarea biocarbu-
ranilor din culturi vegetale este benefic, cu toate
neajunsurile ce sunt semnalate.
Tentaia carburanilor vegetali a atins i nisipurile
bogate n petrol din Orientul Mijlociu, unde
Emiratele Arabe Unite au lansat o iniiativ de 250
de milioane de dolari pentru energia regenerabil
care are n vedere i biocarburanii. Este un semn c
pn i eicii i dau seama acum c vremea petrolului
nu va dura la nesfrit.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

[1]. Bourne, Jr., Joel K., Visuri versi. Combustibilii din culturi
vegetale ar putea fi buni pentru planet dup nc una sau
dou descoperiri senzaionale. Articol, Naional Geographic,
Romnia, Februarie 2008, ISSN 1583-6541
[2]. Drghia, Petre, Stresul Diesel, Ziarul, 12 martie 2008,
Publicaie auditat de BRAT.
[3]. Ionacu, Daniel, Energie: Petrom aprinde preul benzinei,
Jurnal Naional, 24 mai 2008.
[4]. Ionescu, Alexandru, Ei fac motorin din rapi-cum se
fabric biodieselul romnesc, Libertatea, 06 mai 2008.
[5]. Ivnescu, Maria, Biodiesel made n Romania, revista Auti
Magazin, nr. 2, ianuarie 2008.
[6]. Megre, Vladimir, Anastasia, Editura Dianua, Trgu Neam,
1997, ISBN (10) 973-87792-0-0.
[7]. Rotaru, Liviana, Noua revoluie agrar Lanurile de motorin
ne iau grul de la gur, Evenimentul Zilei, 10 mai 2008.

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77

INNOVATIVE TRIBOMETERS AND SCRATCH TESTERS

Marc Bellantonio

TRIBOtechnic, Clichy France, e-mail: marc.bellantonio@tribotechnic.com

ABSTRACT
TRIBOtechnic equipment is the culmination of 18 years of market experience and 30
years of tribological testing. TRIOBOtehnic instruments have exclusively patented
features for Research and Development or measuring Quality Control. They are
conform to industry standards, they are user friendly and economical to maintain.
Among TRIBOtechnic instruments very important are scratch test instruments for
adherence characterization and scratch resistance for thin coatings and bulk
materials and tribometer for coefficient of friction measurement.

KEYWORDS: innovative tribometers, scratch testers, adherence, thin coatings,
coefficient of friction

1. TRIBOTECHNIC EXPERIENCE

TRIBOtechnic equipment is the culmination of 18
years of market experience and 30 years of
tribological testing. Equipped with the latest
technological advances, TRIOBOtehnic
instruments have, the French company says,
exclusively patented features for Research and
Development or measuring Quality Control. These
instruments conform to industry standards, are user
friendly and economical to maintain. New
technological advances have allowed
TRIBOtechnic to provide its customers with the
highest quality and performance, at a reasonable
cost.

2. THE SCRATCH TEST METHOD

Scratch test instrument for adherence
characterization and scratch resistance
for thin coatings and bulk materials

The Scratch test method consists of scratching on
the surface, with a diamond tip on wich is applied a
constant or progressive load.
As the scratching is done, the sample moves under
the video system, to examine the different kind of
damage done by the tip and to correlate it with the
load applied. Pictures can be digitized and
positioned precisely on emission acoustic, friction
force and loading graphs. This standard method
allows for comparasion of different coatings,
substrates, thickness of coatings, preparations of
surface and scratch resistance of bulk materials.

Scratch tester Millennium highlights:
Three instruments, 50 N, 100 N and 200 N;
Precise localization of digitized pictures with
acoustic emission, friction force and loading
graphs;
Test report forms including: scratch pictures
correlated to applied load and synthesis;
Do it yourself calibration kit;
Anti-collision system between sample, tip and
objective;
Tracability and wear check for tips;
Versital: maximum loads interchangeable.

Fig. 1. Scratch tester Millennium


78
Some applications must be precised:
Wear resistant coatings
PVD, CVD: TiN, TiC, DLC, etc.
Glass, metal and ceramic bulk materials.

3. TRIBOMETER FOR
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
MEASUREMENT

An original and patented deflection arm permits the
measurement of the coefficient of friction.
At the end of the test, user measures the disc wear track
profile with specific rugosimeter and the diameter of
the worn flat surface on the ball, by microscope.

Fig. 2. Pin-on Disc and Oscillating TRIBOtester

Some applications must be precised:
Coatings, bulk material, ceramics, metals,
polymers, lubricants and oil additives, etc.
Tribotester highlights:
Minimum load: 1 N;
Maximum load 62 N;
Pin-on-Disc and Oscillating movment on
same instrument;
Universal sample holder to fasten all
shape of samples;
Enclosure to control humidity and
temperature;
Variable speed;
Container for lubricated friction;
Interactive and user friendly software
allows user to avoid costly errors;
Do it yourself calibration kit;
Programmed calculation of wear rate and
contact pressure.

4. CONCLUSIONS

TRIBOtechnic has many innovative instruments
equipped with the latest technological advances,
they are conform to industry standards, are user
friendly and economical to maintain.
As an important experience, TRIBOtechnic is one
of the active partners in TRIBOSTAND project
labelised
EUREKA in ENIWEP umbrella. Theme of this
research project is: standardisation of tribologicals
and scratch tests for coatings.

REFERENCES

[1]. www.tribotechnic.com

79

TRIBOLOGICAL SOLUTION TO REDUCE
THE WEAR RATE IN THE DIE AND THE CYLINDER
FOR CERAMIC MVFF

I. Sarlea
1
, M. Tanase
2
, R. Negriu
1
, Cr.Besleaga
3

1
2
S.C. FONTAX-IM SRL,
3

ABSTRACT
A simple physically based model for the adhesive wear of steel material is
presented on the mechanics and mechanisms associated with Bingham flow ceramic
mixture. The model is based on the assumption that any contact point between
cylinder and ceramic mixture is sliding. This model is used to decrease the wear of
mechanical system (cylinder and metallic die) to manufacture a ceramic muff. The
solution technique to increase the durability of cylinder and die for ceramic muffs
can also be used to solve arbitrary study cases.

KEYWORDS: adhesive wear, Bingham flow, ceramic mixture, tribological
layer, wear model.

1. INTRODUCTION

Friction and rubbing of materials are among
the most common phenomena in mechanics,
present whenever two bodies come into contact. It
is well known, however, that phenomena of contact
and friction of solid bodies are among the most
complex and difficult to model of all mechanical
events, primarily due to the complex structure of
engineering surfaces, the severe elastic-plastic
deformation, damage, heat generation, the presence
of contaminants, lubrication and even chemical
reactions on these contact surfaces.

Fig.1. Picture of ceramic muff

In the manufacturing processes to form the
ceramic muff (Fig.1), the ceramic mixture is pressed
in the gap of die and the cylinder (Fig. 2).
The flow of ceramic mixture is considered as a
Bingham flow. The solid abrasive particles are fine
dispersed in plastic paste, but are pressed to the wall
of cylinder and die.

Fig. 2. Picture of cylinder and die

The durability of the mechanical system to form
the ceramic muff is limited by the wear of cylinder
and the die. The aims of this paper are the application
of the effect of ceramic mixture flow in the gap
between cylinder and die and the definition a wear
model for the wall. A practical solution is proposed.


80
2. FLOW MODEL
OF CERAMIC MIXTURE

The ceramic mixture is considered as a
Bingham fluid and can be evaluated by the
apparent dynamic viscosity and the flow limited
strength
0
.
Figure 3 shows the geometry of gap and the
boundary conditions of the ceramic mixture flow.

Fig.3. Geometry gap for the flow model of ceramic
mixture

The ceramic mixture flows as a "stagnant
nucleus" in the central zone of annular gap and as a
Poiseuille flow in the vicinity of the inner or outer
wall [6]. The rhelogical properties of the ceramic
mixture ( and
o
), the exterior pressure gradient
(dp/dz) and the geometry of gap (R
e
and R
l
) can
define the geometry of the "stagnant nucleus" (R
a

and R
b
).
The mechanical conditions to flow of the
ceramic mixture in the gap are:

dr
d
dz
dp
=
if r | | | | ( ) a R R R R
e b a i
, , (1)

a b
R R dz
dp
=
0
2
if r | | ( ) b R R
b a
,

The constant velocity (u
o
) of ceramic mixture
characterizes the inside of stagnant nucleus. In the
vicinity of walls, the ceramic mixture flows and the
shear stress can be defined by the Newton fluid
law:

dr
du
+ =
0
(2)

We adopt the following dimensionless
geometrical and kinematics parameters:

e
R r / =
,
e i
R R/ = ,
e a a
R R / = ,
e b b
R R / = ,
|
.
|
\
|
=
dz
dp
R u u
e
2
0
/ 4

and

|
.
|
\
|
=
dz
dp
R u U
e
2
0 0
/ 4

The flow boundary conditions are:
u = 0 if r = R
i
and r = R
e
u = u
0
if r | |
b a
R R , (3)
and the velocity can be defined as:

( ) | | | |
( ) | | | |
| |
+ + +
+ + +
=
b a
b
b
a i
i a
i
i a i a
if u
if u b b
if u
u

,
1 ,
1
1
1 2
, 2
0
2
0
2
(4)

The geometry of the stagnant nucleus (a, b)
and the velocity u
0
are determined by the mechanical
equilibrium (eq. 1b) and the velocity profile
continuity and smoothness condition:

0 =
=
a
d
u d

and
0 =
=
b
d
u d

(5)

In these boundary conditions, we can write:

0
T
m a
= ;
0
T
m b
+ =
(6)

( )
0
0 1 2 T u
m
= (7)

Where
m
= (1+
i
)/2 is the medium radius of
the gap and T
0
=
0
/ R
e
(dp / dz).
The flow rate of ceramic mixture is determined
by the gap velocity profile:

Q = Q
i-a
+ Q
a-b
+ Q
b-e =
Ra
Ri
a i
rdr u 2

+
Rb
Ra
b a
rdr u 2

Re
2
Rb
e b
rdr u

(8)

where Q
i-a
, Q
a-b
, Q
b-e
, u
i-a
, u
a-b
, u
b-e
are the ceramic
flow rate and the velocities for the field a, a-b, b-e,
respectively (Fig.3).


81
Dimensionless flow rate,

dz dp R
Q
Q
e
/
8
4
=
, is

( )
i a
Q + =
3
2
( )
3
i a
( )( )
3
1 1
3
2
b b
+ +
( )
2 2 2
0
1
3
2
i i a a b b
u + + +
(9)

The stagnant nucleus of ceramic mixture in
the gap must respect the conditions:

i
<1
T
0
< (1-
i
)/2 (10)

The limit case for the wear of the cylinder
and the die is considered when the radii of stagnant
nucleus are a =i and b = 1. In this situation, the
pressure distribution in the z flow direction can be
evaluated.
In the conical annular gap (zone 1),
distribution of the contact pressure is:

P
al
(z
a
) =
( )
( )
(
+
i el
a i el
z

tan
ln
tan
2
(11)

where pa1 = pl/o, is the angle of the conical
gap,e1= Re1/Re3 and za = z / Re3.
For the cylinder annular gap (zone 2 and 3), the
contact pressure has the expressions:

P
a2
(z
a
) =
) (
) ( 2
1 1
2
1
a a
i e
a a
z p
z z
+

(12)

P
a3
(z
a
) =
) (
1
) ( 2
2 2
2
a a
i
a a
z p
z z
+
(13)

where z
a1
= z
1
/ R
e3
, z
a2
= z
2
/ R
e3
,
e2
= R
e2
/R
e3
.

Fig.4. Axial dimensionless pressure in the gap
Figure 4 shows the axial dimensionless pressure
distribution in the conical and cylindrical gap of
mechanical systems to manufacturing the ceramic
muff (metallic cylinder and die). The flow rate of the
ceramic mixture in axial direction (Q) is constant and
the axial velocity can be evaluated.

3. WEAR MODEL FOR CYLINDER
AND DIE

In the thermo mechanical wear model [2, 5], it
is very important the input thermal flux

N
t
(z
a
) = p
a
(z
a
)u
a
(z
a
) (17)

This parameter is shown in the Figure 5.

Fig.5. Thermal wear parameter of cylinder

In order to obtain the wear distribution in the
axial direction of the cylinder and die, we consider a
simple model of Archard and Kraghelski [1, 3, 5].
In this adhesive wear model, the elementary
wear thickness (dh
w
) can be evaluated. While the
ceramic mixture is moving, as a stagnant nucleus,
the elementary friction sliding length (dz) occurs:

dh
w
= k dz
HB
p
(18)

where k is the Archard`s wear coefficient and HB
the hardness parameter.
While the ceramic mixture flows in the
direction z, the wear thickness is:

h
w
=
dz
HB
p
k
z
0
(19)

To obtain the wear distribution in the length
direction of the cylinder and the die, it is considered
that the Archards coefficient is constant.
In this case, the integral (19) can be explained in
the following forms:


82
-in the conical annular gap:

h
wal
(z
a
,
0a
) =
2
0a
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

2
0
2
tan
2 tan
ln
tan
tan
i el a
i el
a i el i el
e
z
+
+ +

(20)

-in the cylindrical annular gap:

h
wa2
(z
a
,
0a
) =
0a
( )( ) ( )
( )
+
(
(
+
i e
a a
a a a a
z z
z z z p

2
2
1
1 1
h
wal
(z
a1
,
0a
)
(21)
and
h
wa3
(z
a
,
0a
) =
0a

( )( ) ( )
( )
+
(
(
+
i
a a
a a a a
z z
z z z p
1
2
2
2 2
h
wa2
(z
a2
,
0a
)
(22)

where:
0a
= k
0
/ HB and h
wa
= h
w
/ R
3.

These equations are valuable for
manufacturing every ceramic muff. But, the wear
mechanism of the cylinder or the die is
continuously and after a number of ceramic muffs,
the quality decreases. The wall thickness of
ceramic muffs will be non uniform.
Figure 6 shows the theoretically relative wear of
cylinder after manufacturing a single ceramic muff.

Fig.6. Relative wear of cylinder

The theoretically curves shown in Figure 6
are evaluated by four relative strengths of ceramic
mixture. These ceramic mixtures are used for
manufacturing the muffs, which are pictured in the
Figure 1. The lubricant ingredient modified the
strength of ceramic mixture.
The hydrostatic pressure observes the
differences of these ceramic mixtures necessary to
fill the gap between the die and cylinder.

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The manufacturing of the ceramic muff was
monitored by measuring the pressure in the volume
pump and by measuring cylinder diameter after every lot
of 100 muffs. The cylinder was measured in five axial
direction points. The durability of the cylinder was
appreciated when the thickness of ceramic muff wall has
maximum 40 % radial variation to the initial thickness.

Fig.7. Oil pressure pump

In order to define the effect of lubrication
ingredient in the ceramic mixture about cylinder,
3200 ceramic muffs were used.
The ceramic mixtures, used in situ, have the
divers lubricant ingredient (percentage and type) and
are named Cm o5, 1, 15 and 2o.
The pressure in the pump and the relative
pressure are shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8.
From Figure 7 and Figure 4, predictions of the
pressure at for a certain ceramic mixture can be
obtained. If we consider the ceramic mixture Cm1
as an essential material for muff, the relative oil
pressure in the pump is proportional to relative shear
strength of ceramic mixture (Figure 8).

Fig.8. Relative oil pressure

83

Figure 9 shows the cylinder wear for these
four ceramic mixtures. The wear depends strongly
on the pressure, which is proportional to tangential
limit strength of ceramic mixture.
To increase durability of cylinder and the die
we propose two tribological solutions:
1) to reduce the strength of ceramic mixture
by the lubricant ingredient;
2) to increase the wear rate of cylinder
surface by the differential coating in the
axial direction.
Consequently, the durability was increased by
four times with lubricant ingredients and five times
with the ceramic coating. The ceramic coating has
variable thickness in the axial direction of the
cylinder.

Fig.9. Radial cylinder wear

5. CONCLUSIONS

A simple framework for a physically- based
model for flow ceramic mixture in mechanical
system to manufacturing muff and the sliding wear
are presented based on the cumulative effect of the
adhesive wear.
The model relies on the straightforward
notion that any portion of ceramic mixture is
removed as stagnant nucleus.
The limitations inherent in such a model are
that it does not take into account additional thermal
mechanisms.
The calculations show that any pressure
fluctuation increases the wear of cylinder. While in
his study case the relative pressure depends only on
limit shear strength of ceramic mixture, surface
damage may have major influence on other
parameters.
The tribological solutions to minimize of the
ear of cylinder are used for the manufacturing
ceramic muff and it is possible to use it on other
similar cases.

REFERENCES

1. Archard, J.F., Friction and wear of materials, John Wiley,
New York 1965.
2. Bond-Yen Ting, Winer, W.O., Friction-Induced Thermal
Influences in Elastic Contact between Spherical Asperities, Trans
.ASME J. Tribol., 111 (1989) 315-322
3. Kraghelski, I.V., Dobicin, M.H., Kombalov, B.C.,
Osnovirascetov na trenie i iznos, Moskva Masinostroenie
1977.
4. Samuels, B., Richards, M.N., The transition between mild and
severe wear for boundary-lubricated steels, Trans. ASME J.
Tribol., 113 (1991) 65-72.
5. Tudor, A., Non-Linear cumulative Model of Adhesive Wear
Proceedings Int.Cong. on Tribology ''EUROTRIB'93'',
Budapest,sept.1993, vol.5, p.502-508.
6. Tudor, A., Nasui, G.V., The tribology and rheology analysis
of additivated grease against solid (part I and part II). U.P.B. Sci.
Bull., Series D, Vol. 62, No. 2, 2000, p.51-60.

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TEHNOLOGIA INOVATIVA Revista Construcia de maini nr. 1 2 2008

85

DES ASPECTS CONCERNANT LECOULEMENT
DES FLUIDES NON-NEWTONIENS
DANS LES REGIONS AVEC DES DISCONTINUITES,
APPLICABLES POUR LES RESEAUX DES TUYAUX

Alexandru V. Radulescu
1
, Dominique Bonneau
2
, Mohammed Hajjam
2
,

1
Universit POLITEHNICA de Bucarest, Roumanie, e-mail : sandu@meca.omtr.pub.ro
2
Universit de Poitiers, France, e-mail : mohamed.hajjam@univ-poitiers.fr

RESUME
Le processus d'coulement des fluides non-newtoniens sera tudi l'aide des
quations de Navier-Stokes, rsolues par la mthode des lments finis. Le modle
rhologique valable pour les fluides est le modle viscoplastique de Bingham. Pour
les rseaux des tuyaux, les rgions dintrts sont ceux avec des discontinuits: le
rtrcissement de section, lenfourcher des tuyaux etc. Dans ces cas, on peut
dterminer la distribution de vitesses, la perte de charge et la forme du noyau
stagnant.

MOTS CLEFS : processus d'coulement fluides non-newtoniens, quations de
Navier-Stokes, mthode des lments finis, rseaux des tuyaux

PRINCIPAUX SYMBOLES UTILISES

B - la largeur de la plaque;
D - le tenseur des dformations
spcifiques;
D
*
- le paramtre caractristique du
deuxime invariant du tenseur des
dformations spcifiques;
D
II
- le deuxime invariant du tenseur des
dformations spcifiques;
L - la longueur;
Q - le dbit;
Q
LQ
h p
=
8
3
- le dbit adimensionn;
T - le tenseur des contraintes tangentielles;
T
II
- le deuxime invariant du tenseur des
contraintes tangentielles;
T
L
h p
0
0
2
=

- le paramtre adimensionn
caractristique pour
lcoulement Poiseuille;
h - lpaisseur du film;
h
a
, h
b
- lpaisseur infrieure et suprieure
du noyau stagnant;
p - la pression;
p =
p
p
- la pression adimensionn;
p
i
, p
e
- la pression lentre et la sortie;
p - la diffrence de pression;
p
ch
- la perte de charge;
u ,v ,w - les composants de la vitesse;
u
uL
h p
=
8
2
- la vitesse adimensionne
pour lcoulement Poiseuille;
x ,y ,z - les coordonns pour un systme
cartsien;
x
x
L
= - la coordonn adimensionne (Ox);
y
y
h
= - la coordonn adimensionne (Oy);
- la viscosit dynamique;
0
- le seuil de tension;


86
1. INTRODUCTION

En parallle avec la rsolution des
problmes classiques de lubrification, le processus
dcoulement des fluides dans les zones avec des
discontinuits a commenc tre tudi une fois
avec le dveloppement de la mthode dlments
finis.
Dans une premire tape, les problmes
rsolus ont t spcifiques pour les fluides
newtoniens, les rsultats thoriques tant valids,
de point de vue exprimentale, par la visualisation
de lcoulement. Aprs la mise au point de cette
mthode de recherche, on a commenc analyser le
comportement des fluides non-newtoniens
visqueuses (modle rhologique loi de puissance,
[5]) ou viscolastiques (modle rhologique de
Maxwell, [8], [2]). Comme application, on a tudi
le cas dune discontinuit de type changement
brusque de section (figure 1), pour rduire la perte
de charge pendant le transport du fluide dans un
tuyau, [3], [4], [9].
Si dans le cas des fluides non-newtoniens
visqueuses ou viscolastiques la littrature est assez
riche comme tudes de cas, pour les fluides non-
newtoniens viscoplastiques la situation est
compltement diffrente. Lexistence du noyau
stagnant dans la masse de lubrifiant prsente des
difficults pour la rsolution du problme de
lcoulement dans les zones avec des
discontinuits. Il existe quelques essais pour des
cas pareil, [10], [6], [1], parmi lesquelles on trouve
le mme cas que celui prsent dans la figure 1,
mais pour un fluide viscoplastiques, modle
rhologique de Bingham (figure 2).

Figure 1. La visualisation du processus
dcoulement dans une rtrcissement brusque de
section (modle rhologique de Maxwell), [4]

Noyau stagnant

Figure 2. La forme du noyau stagnant pour une
rtrcissement brusque de section (modle
rhologique de Bingham), [1]

Le but de cet article est de mettre en vidence le
profil de vitesse et le noyau stagnant pour un fluide
viscoplastique, modle de Bingham, et aussi la
distribution de pression pour un coulement dans
les rgions avec de divers types de discontinuits:
rtrcissement brusque de section et lenfourcher
des tuyaux, en T ou en croix.

2. LES EQUATIONS
NAVIER-STOKES POUR UN FLUIDE
NON- NEWTONIEN, MODELE DE
BINGHAM

Pour le cas des fluides non-newtoniens
viscoplastiques, lquation constitutive sera
dtermine en tenant compte de lexistence du seuil
de tension
0
. Si lon dfinit en conformit avec le
critre de plasticit de Huber von Mises, [7],
lquation constitutive tridimensionnelle du modle
de Bingham deviendra:

T
D
D pour D
T D
II
II
= +
|
\
|
.
|
=
2 0
0
0
0

pour
(1)

Les quations Navier-Stokes ont t
dduis dans lhypothse du modle de Bingham,
valables pour le systme des axes de coordonnes
prsent dans la figure 3.


87

Figure 3. Le systme des axes de coordonnes

O
x
y
z
h
L
B
A
C D
p
i
p
e

Figure 4. La gomtrie de linterstice tudi

La forme des quations Navier-Stokes est:

- pour le domaine de l'coulement viscoplastique ( D 0):

+ +
|
\
|
.
|
(
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
=
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
+
p
x x D
u
x y D
u
y
v
x z D
u
z
w
x
p
y x D
u
y
v
x
2 0
0 0 0
0
* * *
*
y D
v
y z D
v
z
w
y
p
z x D
u
z
w
x y D
v
z
w
y z D
2 0
2
0 0
0 0 0

+
|
\
|
.
|
(
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
=
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
+ +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
+ +
* *
* * *
|
\
|
.
|
(
=
w
z
0
(2)
- pour le domaine de stagnation plastique ( D = 0):
D
= 0 (3),
o : D
u
x
v
y
w
z
u
y
v
x
v
z
w
y
w
x
u
z
*
=
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| + +
|
\
|
.
| + +
|
\
|
.
| + +
|
\
|
.
| 2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
(4)

La rsolution analytique des quations de
mouvement pour un fluide de Bingham est possible
seulement pour des coulements simples,
unidimensionnelles et sans discontinuits (le
mouvement Couette ou Poiseuille).
Pour des cas plus compliqus, bi ou
tridimensionnelles, les solutions analytiques ne sont
plus possibles et il faut utiliser les mthodes
numriques, comme la mthode des lments finis.
Prof. dr. Dominique Bonneau, de Laboratoire de
Mcanique du Solide de lUniversit de Poitiers, a
mis au point le programme en lments finis
ELFI, qui permet la rsolution des quations
Navier-Stokes pour un fluide de Bingham, pour
nimporte quelle gomtrie de linterstice.
Dans une premire tape, le programme
sera valid pour un coulement simple, avec une
solution analytique, qui caractrise le mouvement
dun fluide dans un tuyau: lcoulement Poiseuille.


88

3. LA VALIDATION
DU PROGRAMME EN ELEMENTS
FINIS POUR LECOULEMENT
POISEUILLE

Dans le cas de lcoulement Poiseuille, on va
prsenter dabord la solution analytique, valable
pour le mouvement entre deux plaques parallles
larges (B L) (figure 4), avec lhypothse dun
processus laminaire et isotherme. Si on intgre
lquation de mouvement en supposant que la
variation de la pression est linaire par rapport la
coordonn longitudinale x, la distribution de vitesse
devient:

( ) | )
| |
( ) ( )
| |
( |
u
p
L
y yh pour y h
p
L
h pour y h h
p
L
y h h h y h h
a a
a a b
b b b
=

2
2 0
2
2
2
2
2 2
,
,
, pour
(5),
o h
a
et h
b
seront calculs avec les relations:
h h
L
p
h h
L
p
a b
= +
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
|
1
2
2 1
2
2
0 0

; (6)
Aussi, le dbit de lubrifiant peut tre calcul avec la
relation:

Q
h p
L
L
h p
L
h p
=
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
(
(
3
0 0
3
12
1 3 4

(7)

En introduisant les notations adimensionelles:

u
uL
h p
Q
LQ
h p
y
y
h
x
x
L
T
L
h p
= = = = =
8 8 2
2 3 0
0

; ; ; ; ; p =
p
p
(8),
la distribution de vitesse pour un fluide de Bingham
(rel. 5) devient:

( )
| |
( )
( )( )
u
y y T y
T
T y
T T
y y T y
T
=
+

|
.
|

+
(
+
+ |
\
4 1 0
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
4 1
1
2
1
2
0
0
0
2
0 0
0
0
,
,
,
(9)

et le dbit:

( ) Q T
T
= +
|
\
|
.
|
2
3
1 1
2
0
2
0
(10)

En ce qui concerne les notations adimensionelles
(8), il faut observer que lexistence du mouvement
impose comme ncessaire la condition:

T
0
1 (11)

De point de vue numrique, pour la
rsolution du systme (2) il faut imposer les
conditions au limite:
- sur la frontire
OA
y ( ) = 0 :
u v = = 0 0 ;

- sur la frontire
CD
y ( ) = 1 :
u v = = 0 0 ;

- sur la frontire
AC
x l ( ) = :
p = 0 (12)

Avec ces conditions au limite, on obtient le champ
de vitesse suivant pour le fluide non-newtonien,
modle de Bingham (figure 5).

0.3085
ECHELLE MAILLAGE
0.5536
ECHELLE DEPL DEPLACEMENTS
O
y
x

Figure 5. Le champ de vitesse pour lcoulement
Poiseuille entre deux plaques parallles larges
(T
0
= 0,5)

0.00 0.40 0.80 1.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
T0 = 0
T
0
= 0,25
T
0
= 0,5
T
0
= 0,75
T
0
= 1
u
y

Figure 6. Le profile de vitesse
longitudinale dans la section mdiane


89
Si on analyse comparativement les champs de vitesse
obtenues pour les deux cas, on observe la diffrence
entre les deux types de fluides. Aussi, en reprsentant
les profiles de vitesse longitudinales u dans la
section mdiane (figure 6), on constate une
correspondance parfaite entre le profile thorique (rl.
9) et le profile numrique, donc le programme en
lment finis est valid pour un coulement
Poiseuille.
En ce qui concerne la forme du noyau
stagnant, caractristique pour un coulement
Poiseuille dun fluide de Bingham, et aussi la
distribution de pression, elles sont reprsentes
dans les figures 7 et 8.

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
Longueur adimensionelle
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
L
a
r
g
e
u
r

a
d
i
m
e
n
s
io
n
e
l
l
e
Noyau stagnant

Figure 7. La forme du noyau stagnant (T
0
= 0,5)

Figure 8. La distribution de pression (T
0
= 0,5)

4. LECOULEMENT DES FLUIDES
NON-NEWTONIENS
DANS LES REGIONS
AVEC DES DISCONTINUITES

Aprs la validation du programme du
calcul en lment finis pour un coulement
Poiseuille, on peut tudier lcoulement dans les
rgions avec des discontinuits: le rtrcissement
brusque de section et lenfourcher des tuyaux, en
T ou en croix. Pour ces cas ci, on va mettre en
vidence le champ de vitesse, le noyau stagnant et a
distribution de pression pour un fluide
viscoplastique, modle de Bingham.

4.1. Lcoulement dans une
discontinuit de type rtrcissement de
section

La gomtrie de linterstice tudi et aussi
le maillage propos sont prsents dans la figure 9.

A O
B C
D E
F
G

Figure 9. La gomtrie de linterstice

Figure 10. Le champ de vitesse (T
0
= 0,55)

Les conditions au limites sont:
- sur les frontires
OA
,
AB
,
BC
,
DE
,
EF

et
FG
:
u
v
=
=
0
0

- sur la frontire
GO
: v = 0 (13)
- sur la frontire
DC
: v = 0; p = 0.

Le champ de vitesse, le noyau stagnant et
la distribution de pression sont mises en vidence
dans les figures 10, 11.a et 11.b.


90

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
L
a
r
g
e
u
r

a
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
l
l
e
Noyau stagnant

a) La forme du noyau stagnant

b) La distribution de pression

Figure 11. Le cas du rtrcissement
brusque de section (T
0
= 0,55)

4.2 Lcoulement dans une discontinuit
de type enfourcher des tuyaux en T

le maillage propos sont prsents dans la figure
12.
Les conditions au limites sont:
- sur les frontires
OA
,
AB
,
CD
,
EF
et
FG
:

u
v
=
=
0
0

- sur la frontire
GO
: v = 0
- sur les frontires
BC
et
DE
: u = 0; p = 0
(14)

A O
B C
D E
F G


Figure 13.Le champ de vitesse (T
0
= 0,43)

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
-2.00
-1.50
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
L
a
r
g
e
u
r
a
d
im
e
n
s
io
n
e
lle
Noyau stagnant


91



Figure 14. Le cas de lenfourcher des tuyaux
en T (T
0
= 0,43)

4.3. Lcoulement dans une
discontinuit de type enfourcher des
tuyaux en croix

le maillage propos sont prsents dans la figure
15. Les conditions au limites sont:

- sur les frontires
OA
,
AB
,
CD
,
DE
,
FG
,
GH
,
IJ

et
JK
:
u v = = 0 0 ;
- sur la frontire
OK
: v = 0
- sur les frontires
BC
et
HI
: u = 0; p = 0
- sur la frontire
EF
: v = 0; p = 0 (14)


O A
B C
D E
F G
H I
J K


Figure 16. Le champ de vitesse (T
0
= 0,49)
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
-2.00
-1.50
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
L
a
r
g
e
u
r

a
d
i
m
e
n
s
io
n
e
ll
e


92


Figure 17. Le cas de lenfourcher des tuyaux, en
croix (T
0
= 0,49)

5. CONCLUSIONS

1. On confirme lexistence du noyau stagnant dans
la rgion centrale du mouvement, dans les zones
sans discontinuits;

2. On constate une perte de charge p
ch
entre
lentre et la sortie de la discontinuit (figure 18 ).

3. Les rsultats obtenues sont trs importantes pour
la projection optimale des rseaux de tuyaux, avec
des pertes de charge minimales.

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Le parametre adimensionelle To
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
L
a

p
e
r
t
e

d
e

c
h
a
r
g
e

a
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
l
l
e
Rtrcissement brusque de section
Enfourchure des tuyaux en T
Enfourchure des tuyaux en croix

Figure 18. La perte de charge adimensionelle
p
p
p
ch
ch
= pour des divers types de
discontinuits

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

[1] Abdali, S.S. et al. "Entry and exit flows of Bingham
fluids", Journal of Rheology, Vol. 36, No.1, febr.1992, pp.389-
407
[2] Azaiez, J. et al. "Numerical simulation of viscoelastic
flows trough a planar contraction", Journal of Non-Newtonian
Fluid Mechanics, No. 62, 1996, pp.35-54
[3] Baloch, A. et al. "On vortex development in viscoelastic
expansion and contraction flows", Journal of Non-Newtonian
Fluid Mechanics, No. 65, 1996, pp. 133-149.
[4] Boger, D.V. et al. "Experimental removal of the re-
entrant corner singularity in tubular entry flows", Journal
of Rheology, Vol. 38, No.2, apr.1994, pp.333-349.
[5] Dolleans, P. "Etude exprimentale d'coulements de
fluides viscolastiques dans une conduite prsentant une
distribution priodique des brusques variations de section",
Thse de doctorat,Universit de Poitiers,10.07.1996
[6] Nguyen, X.T. "Etude de l'coulement d'un fluide de
Bingham dans un contact hydrodynamic - modlisation de la
zone de sparation du film", Thse de doctorat, Universit de
Poitiers, 25.09.1990.
[7] Piau, J.M. "Fluide non - newtonien", Technique de
l'Ingnieur, A 710, Paris, 1983.
[8] Purnode, B. et al. "Flow of polymer solutions trough
contractions. Part I: Flows of polyacrylamide solutions trough
planar contractions", Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, No. 65, 1996, pp.111-118.
[9] Sasmal, G.P. "A finite volume approach for calculation of
viscoelastic flow trough an abrupt
axisymmetric contraction", Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, No.56, 1995, pp.87-93.
[10] Wilson, S.D.R. et al. "The channel entry problem for a
yield stress fluid", Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics,
No. 65, 1996, pp.165-176.

Quick Info
Important events

Brokerage & Partnering event Technology
Transfer and Innovation in the field of
Environment, Renewable Energy, Security and
Defence Bucharest, Romania, 9 October 2008
The event is organized by RO 4 Enterprise Europe
Network, during the Research Fair www.mct.ro,
INVENTIKA www.expoinventika.ro and TIB
International Fair http://www.tib.ro/
The event functions as an "interface between
R&D-the economic sector" allowing new
technologies, patents, to be offered and experience
in financing, production, marketing, to be
requested, bringing partners together.
More
http://www.innovationrelay.net/calendar/viewdetail
s.cfm?EventID=1752&type=future;
office@ipacv.ro
Aquatech Water Technology & Innovation
Partnering Event, 2 October 08, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands
The exhibition: from 30 September 03 October.
More www.aquatechtrade.com

93

INNOVATION AUDITS
CONCEPT, EXPERIENCES AND OPTIONS FOR TTI
CENTERS IN ROMANIA

Michael Guth
ZENIT GmbH (Zentrum fur Innovation und Technik in NRW), Germany, e-mail: mg@zenit.de

ABSTRACT
Innovation Audits (rather than Technology Audits) present as main interest points:
Background, the IRC Innovation Audit Concept, Example from the German / Dutch /
Belgian Border, Lessons and finally - Options for Romanian TTI entities.
The innovation performance of Romanian firms still is weak. Considering as an
Innovation Gap is the Risk to become an inhibitor for transformation and growth.
The same situation was and is known in many other EU MS (also in Germany).
One (amongst many other) concepts to increase the innovation performance is the
innovation audit.

KEYWORDS: innovation, audit concept, TTI centers

1. INTRODUCTION

What is Innovation?
Innovation is more than just the sucessful application
of research findings, it represents the result of
complex interactions between persons, organisations
and their environment.
Today we speak about Innovation Audits Rather than
of Technology Audits, what we did in the past.

What do we mean by Audit
According to Wikipedia an audit is an evaluation of
a person, organization, system, process, project or
product. Audits are performed to ascertain the validity
and reliability of information, and also provide an
assessment of a system's internal control.
For ZENIT firm the aspect of voluntariness is also key!

2. BACKGROUND.
IMPLICATIONS OF VOLUNTARINESS

Firms must be convinced. Specialists must actually
sell the Innovation Audits offer, but it provides
room for commercial actions of publicly (or partly
publicly) financed TTI entities. They can be combined
with public support.

3. THE IRC INNOVATION AUDIT
CONCEPT

The IRC Innovation Audit Concept is a tool that:
- identifies priorities for which actions should be
taken first;
- supports incremental improvement actions;
- provides guidance for improving common
issues;
- delivers case studies helping to coach activities.
The Innovation Audit is not a panacea, not even a
single tool, rather a tool box with a certain structure.


94
The Innovation Audit can be implemented in very
complex manner (many indicators, multi dimensional
approach, highly sophisiticated powerpoints), but it
must not forget the clients.
It is important to keep it smart and simple, but not
considering a toy for Technology Transfer Innovation
entities.

4. EXAMPLE FROM THE GERMAN /
DUTCH / BELGIAN BORDER

Innovate Strategically (Interreg project) has as main
points:
Improvement of the innovativeness of the
Euregio Maas-Rhein;
Financial and methodological support for
firms in order to exploit their innovation
potentials;
Scientifically based evaluation approach
(complexity) Maastricht Economic Research
Institute on Innovation and Technology
(MERIT).
The project structure is:
The audit process is presented in the next figure.

As an example it was consider an Analysis Workshop.
Main aspects are represented by the identification of

95
Key Influence Factors.
Strengths: Where are we really good?
What are our core competencies
Weaknesses: What do we wish to avoid?
Opportunities: Which opportunities remain
unexploited?
Risks: What do our competitors do?
Future: How many employees do we have in
five years?
ZENIT GmbH identify key factors through a simple
scoring system with red dots.

5. LESSONS

General Observations are compacted in next idea:
Innovation Audit is NOT a simple company visit
A series of meetings! (2 3)
Acquisition is an issue. It is a combination with
Funding Programmes (as an example: Interreg
reduces costs - 1.000 EUR instead of 6.000 EUR).
But the audit can also focus on the firms capability
to exploit other funding schemes. It makes the audit
more attractive from the firms point of view.

Operative lessons can be taken:
Sessions need to be well prepared (2 - 3 days);
Conduct the workshop session with 2
consultants;
Total effort appr. 8 days;
The whole process should be implemented
within 3-4 weeks (do not make it too long);
Do not pretend to be the EXPERT in all
technology issues. Become THE process
expert. Dig for the knowledge which is in the
firm;
Consultants must be trustable and competent.
6. CONCLUSIONS.
OPTIONS FOR ROMANIAN TTI
ENTITIES

It is important to conclude some idea about
options for Romanian TTI entities:
The Innovation Audit represents an interesting
tool for enriching the service portfolio;
Consider the funding issue: both ways!
For financing the Innovation Audit, but also as
a result of the Innovation Audit;
Trust is key. Do not try to start a cooperation
with a firm in the frame of Innovation Audit
(high risk to fail and to lose resources for
acquisition);
Start with services which require less
involvement of the firm (information provision,
funding support) and develop a business
relation ;
Become a business partner for your clients;
Market success stories!
Make use of a best practice tool to increase
innovation in your region and to up grade your
service offer.

ZENIT offers hands on trainings for TTI entities:
Practical training from practitioners for the
practice;
Including acquisition strategies and options for
financing.

REFERENCES

[1]. http://www.zenit.de/e/

ABOUT ZENIT
Since 1984, ZENIT objectives as a consulting firm
have been to secure the future, growth and success of
their clients, the majority of which are small and
medium-sized enterprises. ZENIT is supported in
these tasks by the Federal State of North Rhine-
Westphalia and the European Commission.
Careful tailoring of a product to customer demand as
well as the systematic marketing of products and
services are key elements of any business strategy.
ZENIT offers a wide spectrum of services in this area,
ranging from preparatory market research to operative
marketing planning. This includes, in addition to the
development of practice-oriented distribution
concepts, establishing a suitable marketing mix,
integrating new product ideas into the overall strategy
as well as examining the efficiency of the tools
deployed. The ZENIT service offer includes
comprehensive internationalisation strategies,
transnational co-operation mediation and assistance in
the planning of complex Internet strategies.

96
Technology changes markets, markets influence
technologies and products. In this area of conflict,
ZENIT regards itself as a source of know-how and
competent consulting and mediation services. The
spectrum of consulting services ranges from IT,
including Linux and e-commerce, to acquisition of
grants and subsidies for innovative technology
projects. ZENIT also has many years experience in
the areas of production technology and production
planning as well as in product development.

The structuring and organisation of entrepreneurial
processes forms the basis of integrated business
management. In this context, decision-makers turn to
ZENIT for advice on problem segmentation as well as
on how to redirect their businesses in terms of new
and complex strategies. The core element is always
the optimisation of all relevant business processes.
This includes environmental and quality management
and competent assistance in organisational issues just
as well as consulting in the areas of innovation and
knowledge management or e-commerce.

Economically feasible and marketable innovations
ought not to fail as a result of a lack of finance. This
was and still is a key element of ZENIT's philosophy.
Proceeding systematically, we identify national and
international sources of finance for technology-
oriented start-up enterprises, research and
development, product developments, modernisation of
production facilities or investment in environmental
protection and energy saving - and if need be we also
obtain these funds on behalf of our clients. In this area
of such key importance for a firm's development,
ZENIT performs a dual function. On the one hand it
plays a "sovereign" role as project co-ordinator and
evaluator for the regional NRW government in
technology support programmes. On the other hand
ZENIT acts as consultant and mediator for enterprises
in need of unbiased and competent navigation through
the growing jungle of funding possibilities at national,
regional and EU level as well as from other
international organisations. In the search for personal,
share and risk capital, ZENIT can offer support and
mediate contacts to brokers as well as to private and
institutional investors.

Economic integration in Europe is making rapid
progress. For small and medium-sized enterprises, this
means both opportunities as well as risks. ZENIT has
been an official contact point for all European issues
since the mid 1980's. ZENIT's European experts assist
enterprises in their process of internationalisation and
mediate business contacts for various forms of
entrepreneurial co-operation. This particularly applies
for the Member States of the European Union and the
accession countries. ZENIT helps enterprises to
master the challenge which Europe represents by
means comprehensive information and advice, e.g. on
EU funding possibilities - in particular EU technology
funding - as well as the development and
implementation of EU projects, calling upon the well-
established and renowned contacts which have
evolved, for example, within the framework of EU
networks. Thus ZENIT has received financial support
from the European Commission since 1987 as Euro
Info Centre and since 1993 as VALUE and
INNOVATION Relay Centre.

Increasingly intense competition, the globalisation of
the economy as well as growing dynamism in the area
of innovation are core topics in political discussion in
terms of technology and the economy. However
evident and frequently mentioned these developments
may be, they should still nevertheless not be equated
with a loss of significance of regional and local
activities. It is far more the case that the globalisation
of the economy goes hand in hand with the increasing
significance of the regions (Silicon Valley, Lyon as a
technology region, Cologne as a centre of the media
industry). What is more: There is every reason to
believe that the success of an innovation results from
the interplay between global and local processes. The
competitiveness of a region itself depends to an
increasing degree on its capacity for innovation.
Successful regions understand how to link
intelligently local and regional protagonists such as
enterprises, universities, research institutions,
associations, politics and administration in order to
bundle the know-how distributed amongst individuals
and to propagate and transfer it into new products,
processes and services. ZENIT GmbH offers
consulting and support services for regional and local
protagonists in their innovation activities. If required,
we can help formulate, implement and assist in
finding sources of finance both for tailor-made,
demand-led innovation projects as well as for regional
innovation strategies. We also help regions to set up
inter-regional and above all international co-operation
agreements.
(http://www.zenit.de/e/)

97

RESEARCHES CONSIDERING NEW TRENDS
IN PRODUCT LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

Irina Rdulescu

S.C. ICTCM S.A. Bucharest
e-mail: iradulescu7@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Product life cycle (PLC) is referring to the life of a product in the market, considering
business and commercial costs and sales measures. Product Lifecycle Management
analyses managing descriptions and properties of a product, through its development
and useful life, mainly from a business/engineering point of view. There are presented the
five stages products lifecycle and their characteristics, important concept of Product
Lifecycle Management and new trends in PLM, emphasizing PLM good practice
examples in this domain. Conclusions point some of concrete benefits of PLM
software application.

KEYWORDS: Product life cycle (PLC), Product Lifecycle Management (PLM),
solution, software

1. INTRODUCTION

First step in Product Lifecycle Management
involves the knowledge of primary notions. Starting
with product notion, there are many interpretations
about it.
In business, a product is a good or service which
can be bought and sold. In marketing reference, a
product is anything that can be offered to a market
that might satisfy a want or need [1]. In
manufacturing domain, products are purchased as raw
materials and sold as finished goods.
Considering Product Life Cycle, it refers to the
succession of stages a product goes through.
Product Life Cycle Management is the
succession of strategies used by management as a
product goes through its life cycle.
Analyzing those two notions it may be defined a
specific difference.
Product life cycle (PLC) is to do with the life of a
product in the market, with respect to
business/commercial costs and sales measures; whereas
Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is more to do
with managing descriptions and properties of a product
through its development and useful life, mainly from a
business/engineering point of view, [10].
A typical Product Life Cycle is presented in
figure 1.

Fig. 1. A typical Product Life Cycle, [1]

The diagram presents five stages products
lifecycle and their characteristics [2], [3]:
1. New product development stage - very
expensive, no sales revenue, losses;
2. Market introduction stage high cost, low
sales volume, no/little competition;
3. Growth stage reduced costs, due to
economies of scale, sales volume
significantly increased, profitability, public
awareness, increased competition, prices to
maximize market share;

98
4. Mature stage - costs are very low and well
established in market, sales volume peaks,
increase in competitive offerings, prices tend
to drop (due to the proliferation of
competing products), brand differentiation,
feature diversification, very profitable;
5. Decline or Stability stage - costs become
counter-optimal, sales volume decline or
stabilize, prices, profitability diminish, and
profit becomes more a challenge of
production/distribution efficiency than
increased sales.

2. ABOUT PRODUCT LIFECYCLE
MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Product lifecycle management, sometimes
"product life cycle management", represents an all-
encompassing vision for managing all data relating to
the design, production, support and ultimate disposal
of manufactured goods.
PLM concepts were first introduced where
safety and control have been extremely important,
notably the aerospace, medical device, military and
nuclear industries. These industries originated the
discipline of configuration management (CM), which
evolved into electronic data management systems
(EDMS), which then further evolved to product data
management (PDM), [10].
In the last 5 years, manufacturers of
instrumentation, industrial machinery, consumer
electronics, packaged goods and other complex
engineered products have discovered the benefits of
PLM solutions and are adopting efficient PLM
software in increasing numbers.
PLM solutions
PLM can be thought of as both (a) a repository for all
information that affects a product, and (b) a
communication process between product
stakeholders: principally marketing, engineering,
manufacturing and field service.
The PLM system is the first place where all
product information from marketing and design
comes together, and where it leaves in a form suitable
for production and support.
A few analysts use "PLM" as an umbrella term
that includes engineering CAD (for "information
authoring"). But product information creation tools
include word processors; spreadsheet and graphics
programs; requirements analysis and market
assessment tools; field trouble reports; and even
emails or other correspondence.
In our view, a PLM tool focuses exclusively on
managing data that covers the breadth of a product's
lifecycle, without regard to how that data is
developed, [10].

The essential elements of PLM:
Manages design and process documents
Constructs and controls bill of material (product
structure) records
Offers an electronic file repository
Includes built-in and custom part and document
metadata ("attributes")
Identifies materials content for environmental
compliance
Permits item-focused task assignments
Enables workflow and process management for
approving changes
Controls multi-user secured access, including
"electronic signature"
Exports data for downstream ERP systems.

Product lifecycle management is the process of
managing product-related design, production and
maintenance information. PLM may also serve as the
central repository for secondary information, such as
vendor application notes, catalogs, customer
feedback, marketing plans, archived project
schedules, and other information acquired over the
product's life.
The PLM process manages:
Products and parts, including those which
are used for tooling, inspection, calibration,
training, operation and maintenance
Documents that define the performance,
functional and physical attributes of an item.
Ancillary documents that are used for
training, operation and maintenance of an
item
Electronic computer files that support the
product's design, development, production
and subsequent post-production phases
Material content, including reporting on
legally-proscribed or hazardous substances
and the identification of part recycling and
disposal methods.
Organizations that adopt PLM report that
revenues increase, while per-unit product
cost and administrative overhead is reduced.

3. NEW TRENDS IN PRODUCT
LIFECYCLE MANAGEMENT

The product life cycle goes through many
phases and involves many professional disciplines
and requires many skills, tools and processes. That is
the reason why many firms intend to improve their
management concerning product lifecycle.
One of the modern examples is Cocreate
firm, which offers its Cocreate Software, releasing the
2007 Cocreate Onespace Suite.


99
It is about a dynamic modelling-based approach to
3D product development, which characteristics are:
speed, flexibility and responsiveness to change. The
2007 release of Cocreate moves 3D beyond design
and into streamlining business processes with a third-
generation approach to product lifecycle management
(PLM). Also it adds to the breadth of the Cocreate
platform with new design modules, new partnerships,
and new depth of capabilities [6].
Another important purpose is to make its suite accessible
to small and medium-sized enterprises. Effective data
management has been a challenge for all sizes of
companies, and Cocreate Onespace Model Manager can
be deployed in just 15 minutes, as the company claims.
Another idea to improve data management is
coming from Siemens PLM Software, a division of
Siemens Automation and Drives. It is releasing
Version 3 of Teamcenter Express software with new
features including comprehensive integration with
Microsoft Office applications and improved view and
markup capabilities in the web client.
The new capabilities enable more complete
design-through-manufacturing data management for
small- to mid-size manufacturers through expanded
integration with the user's desktop [7].

Fig. 2. Teamcenter Express software example, [7]

Teamcenter Express is a complete, easy-to-use and
easy-to-deploy collaborative product data
management (cPDM) system that delivers a
preconfigured yet extensible environment.
With Version 3, Teamcenter Express delivers
improved integration with the user's desktop through
comprehensive integration with Microsoft Office
2007 - including Word, Excel and Outlook -
enhanced web view and markup, attribute mapping
for document import, enhanced printing and
expanded certifications. These enhancements enable
more users to contribute to and work with data in the
Teamcenter Express cPDM database. As an example
of productive utilization is International Watch Co
(IWC) of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, which is
implementing Teamcenter Express to realize its
vision for integrated PLM. Firm intension is to have
an integrated PLM system across the entire company,
including departments such as marketing, product
management, design, R&D and the supply chain.
Once Teamcenter Express is fully
implemented, it is going to allow us to have correct
information throughout the supply chain and the
product lifecycle, [7].
Another example of product lifecycle
management improvement is given by Dassault
Systems, which has good performances in simulation
domain, increasingly vital process in developing
innovative products quickly.
The firm is introducing Simulia SLM, a new
product suite that will have a positive impact on the
way that organizations perform and manage their
simulation processes, [8].

Fig. 3. Software aids simulation collaboration, [8]

Simulia SLM accelerates the product development
lifecycle by providing timely access to the right
information through secure storage, search, and
retrieval functions that are specific to simulation
processes and data.
Simulia SLM maximizes the value of company-
generated intellectual property (IP) through the
capture, re-use, and deployment of simulation best
practices. It also provides tools for control and
sharing simulation data for collaborative product
development, [8]. Concerning the benefits, simulation
assets are shorter product lifecycles, stricter
regulations; also the new release delivers capabilities
to manage all data associated with simulations,
integrate and control the execution of simulation
applications, carry out operations such as query and
version control, administer access privileges, and
perform and review simulations in a distributed,
collaborative environment. A practical demo is
represented by a simulation Lifecycle Management
White Paper and Webinar, which are available on the
Simulia website, [8].


100
4. CONCLUSIONS

PLM software can help people improve their
understanding of how products are designed, built
and serviced. It is important that most users
appreciate centralized access to all product-related
information; so they feel more productive and
efficient. Benefits are quite concrete and they can be
categorized as:
Increase sales revenue and reduce design time;
PLM avoids wasted design effort through
immediate, managed access to all design data,
elimination of lost or damaged files, consistent,
data-rich bills of materials with real-time cost roll-
ups, reapplication of existing items in new designs.
Companies have reported time-to market
reductions of up to 75%; this may allow launching
the product several months early.
Accelerate release and change cycles and reduce
product unit costs
It is an important impact of PLM the substantial
efficiency gained when processing product releases
and changes.
By design, a PLM system contains all product
information in a secure central location; allows
multiple users simultaneous access to the data;
provides templates for change types, including pre-
defined review workflows, approving departments
and interested observers; identifies all disposition
tasks and rolls up cost impacts automatically; and
utilizes email for a fast connection, [10].
Some examples show that a major European auto
manufacturer reports an average ECO cycle time
reduced from 45 days to 5 days, after reengineering
their process and deploying a PLM solution.
Similarly, a medical device manufacturer reduced
average change processing time from over a month
to less than a week. A large US industrial
equipment manufacturer saw a 29% decrease in
change processing time.
Purchase fewer parts in larger volumes
Part re-use is difficult in larger organizations with
significant numbers of parts. PLM encourages item
exploration, which avoids sourcing new parts that
are functionally similar to items already in
inventory.
Increase production experience
Earlier product introductions ensure longer
production runs; increased production experience
results in more rapid, on-going cost reductions.
Reduce production rework and scrap
Changes are reviewed by all affected parties; on-
line review and approval is faster and more
comprehensive than paper-based change process;
bills of materials are consistent and can include
documentation on production and inspection
processes.

Reduce administrative and clerical overhead, by
simplifying regulatory and contractual compliance
It is easier to document the process when it is based
on commercial-grade documentation and system
configuration reports.
Mitigate and, if required, report on a product's
environmental impact
Government regulations both restrict the types of
materials contained in products and specify more
stringent environmental-impact reporting.
There are made efforts, particularly in the electronics
and automotive industries, to increase the use of
environmentally-friendly materials, and supply chain
partners, often require detailed materials reporting via
a Materials Declaration, [10].

REFERENCES

[1]. Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Brown, L., and Adam, S. (2006)
Marketing, 7th Ed. Pearson Education Australia/Prentice Hall.
[2]. Box, J. (1983) Extending product lifetime: Prospects and
opportunities, European Journal of Marketing, vol 17, 1983, pp 34-
49.
[3]. Day, G. (1981) The product life cycle: Analysis and
applications issues, Journal of Marketing, vol 45, Autumn 1981, pp
60-67.
[4]. Levitt, T. (1965) Exploit the product life cycle, Harvard
Business Review, vol 43, November-December 1965, pp 81-94.
[5]. Gabriel Steinhardt (2007). "Extending Product Life Cycle
Stages" (PDF). 2.0. Blackblot. Retrieved on 2008.
[6].www.cocreate.com
[7].http://www.engineerlive.com/european-design-engineer
[8]. http://www.simulia.com
[9]. http://www.siemens.com
[10]. http://www.product-lifecycle-management.com/

101

MANAGEMENT OF INNOVATION
THROUGH SOCIAL SOFTWARE
AND
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

Elena Pallares Beamonte
1
, Domnica Cotet
2
, Maria Dumitrache
2

1
Institute of Technology, Aragon, Spain,

2
ICTCM CITAf Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: cie1@ictcm.ro

ABSTRACT
The MISS Management of Innovation through Social Software and Collaborative
Learning project was initiated by ITA (Aragon Institute of Technology-Spain) and
is financed within Lifelong Learning Programme Leonardo da Vinci.
The general aim of the project is to develop the contents of an Innovation
Management course through NTIC and the didactic resources that provides the
collaborative learning.

KEYWORDS: Innovation, Management , Training, Social Software management,

1. INTRODUCTION
Innovation is the driving of social and
economic changes, and the essential engine to
reinforce European competitiveness. Although now
days, Innovation is taken into consideration in
business strategy and political programmes of all
European countries. Evolution of innovation is
inadequate in more of them, as the European
technological Innovation reports reflect (European
Innovation Scoreboard 2005-2006 and 2007).
In this context, the need to disseminate,
training and sensitize Innovation comes up in all
vocational training levels as an inherent process to
the development and business competitiveness and
the minimum notion to promote I+D.
The MISS Management of Innovation
through Social Software and Collaborative
Learning project was initiated by ITA (Aragon
Institute of Technology-Spain) and is financed
within Lifelong Learning Programme
Leonardo da Vinci.
The general aim of the project is to
develop the contents of an Innovation Management
course through NTIC and the didactic resources that
provides the collaborative learning.
MISS association count in four partners:
ITA (Aragon Institute of Technology-Spain),
Berufsfrderunginstitut Steiermark (Vocational
Promotion Institute Syria-Oesterreich), Technology
and Business Incubator Centre-CITAf (Romania)
and Business & Development Center-BD (Poland).
2. PROJECT BACKGROUND

The European Union renews the Lisbon
strategy with an ambitious reform schedule which
focuses action on two main tasks: to produce a
stronger and lasting growth and creating more and
better jobs.
Among the new measures are prioritised
"knowledge, which includes research and
development (R & D), innovation and education as
growth factors and essential driver of productivity
growth."
Gross Domestic Product
The percentage of GDP spent on R & D partners in
these countries are far from the goals of Europe:
- Austria: 2.26
- Spain: 1.07
- Poland: 0.56
- Romania: 0.39
MISS project is based on the results obtained by
ITA in three separate actions:
An online course on "Technological
Development, Innovation and
Competitiveness", developed by this
institution for the Service of Development
Cooperation of the Government of Aragon
intended the developing countries of Latin
America;
Forinnov@: training and employment in
innovation management and finally;
in the activity as Agency and Training
Innovation Centre.

102
General objectives

Support participants in training and further
training activities, in the acquisition and
the use of knowledge, skills and
qualifications to facilitate personal
development, employability and
participation in the European Labour
Market
Developing relevant and innovative e-
learning contents
To improve the quality and to increase the
volume of co-operation between
institutions or organisations providing
learning opportunities, enterprises, social
partners and other relevant bodies
throughout Europe
Facilitate the development of innovative
practices in the field of vocational
education and training other than at tertiary
level, and their transfer, including from
one participating country to others.
Support the development of innovative
ICT-based content, services, pedagogies,
and practice for lifelong learning.

Target Group
Workers and company: technicians,
engineers, heads of departments of R & D
and innovation, managers, entrepreneurs
and self-employed;
Teachers, public organizations technicians
and all professional bodies that make up
the system of;
Innovation to extend their skills and
improve their skills in managing
innovation;
Due to the thematic and horizontal cross,
the public of the proposed training is
comprehensive and focused on training.

The core objectives are:
Encourage the professionals participation
to develop Innovation knowledge through
a methodological and innovative system
(Computer Supported Collaborative
Learning).
Promote this knowledge transfer in
Innovation through a pilot training action
at European level.
Give students, small and medium
companies professionals, skills in
Innovation management knowledge,
techniques and tools to contribute to
professional carrying out and
competitiveness.

Transfer the acquired knowledge through a
Transfer report with the results of this
training action.
Encourage the methodologies and
Innovation techniques application in the
countries that belongs to the partnership.
Make easier to instructors and mentors the
acquisition of a methodology in
collaborative learning strategies that makes
stronger the project continuity.

3. WORKING GROUPS AND
EVALUATION SYSTEM

WORKING GROUPS
Steering and Quality Committees on: BFI
Monitoring pedagogical and didactic group:
CITAF
Technical and IT group: ITA
Dissemination and valorisation Group: BDC.

EVALUATION SYSTEM
Two modes of evaluation:

a) Evaluation Pilot Training
The action and pilot training will be assessed and
measured through:
Number of individual contributions in each
of the pilots conducted training
Indicators: students, satisfaction evaluation ,
Average evaluation of students and faculty
from each of the quality indicators proposed:
teaching materials, quality of tutoring
system, knowledge and competence of the
teaching team, adaptability of each of the
case studies.
Number of experiences in innovation
projects and proposals generated by students
Number of companies in the dissemination
of the project
Number of contacts of the project partners
with professional and business experts
Number TIT: indicator transfer

b) Evaluation Global Project:
BFI : responsible Quality and creation procedures.

Technological methodology: Social Software and
C-learning.

Whats the Social Software? Why?

It is a powerful tool for sharing knowledge
It facilitates the movement and control of
the information they need to upgrade
steadily.

103
The collaborative learning is a suitable
methodology for vocational training, since
each worker has a range of expertise based
on their own particular experience in
nonformal learning lines or regulated,
shared spaces for discussion by real or
virtual.
For these reasons, is expected to move
closer to the business of professional
training, on-line under new methods, and
tools ICT for the promotion of R + D + I.
Break the digital breach in many
businesses and professional workers are
not fully implemented and facilitates
access to the Society of Information
sectors with access difficulties.

4. SOCIAL SOFTWARE

Examples:
Wikis Wikipedia
Weblogs
tags and social bookmarks : Del.icio.us,
Flickr
Folcsonoma
Social Library Online
Others: Facebook, Youtube, Flickr, Google
Groups, myspace, http://plone.org/

Others examples Social Software
Social Network Services (friendster,
LinkedIn, openBC )
Social Guides (CafeSpot, Tagzania,
WikiTravel )
Social Bookmarking (del.icio.us, furl,
BlinkList )
Social Citation (CiteULike)
Social Libraries (Music, Books )
Social Shopping (thethingsiwant.com, )
Social Media Sharing (Photos, Videos )

Social Software

Transfer

Tutor

Coach

factual
knowledge ,
know-that

procedural
knowledge ,
"know-how"

social
practice,
"knowing-in-
action"
Trans fer of
propositional
knowledge

Presentation of
pre -
determined
problems
Action in real
(complex
and social)
situations
to know, to
remember
to do, to practice

to cope, to
master
Production of
corre answers

Selection of
corre method and
its use

Realisation of
adequate
actions
strategies

Verbal
knowledge ,
Memoris ation

Skill, Ability

Social
Responsibilty

to teach, to
explain
to observe , to
help, to
demonstrate

to cooperate ,
to support

Teaching I

Teaching II

Teaching III

New Trends in Teacher Education - Peter
Baumgartner/Danube-University Krems

5. CONCLUSIONS

The project partnership count in technological
partners, training centres specialized in lifelong
training and a business centre that offers support to
companies in general.
Partners share a common aim that is offer services
to businesses, in general and specifically
occupational and vocational training.
It is important for this project the big
experience of the partnership in transnational
cooperation, e-learning training and the common
interest for innovation and technology transfer.
On the other hand, this project means a
challenge for all the partners to work with new
learning-teaching methodologies. Miss project
introduces partners in the Computer Supported
Collaborative Learning.
The project results are:
Innovation Management course
Innovation Transfer compendium
E-learning platform didactic guides
Innovation culture dissemination
Dissemination seminars in each country:
Oesterreich, Romania, Poland and Spain.

The methodoly (collaborative learning) to
elaborate contents makes easier that project results
are multicultural and multilinguistics contents
where the main working lines area gathered; ideas,
management systems, cultural, business and social
contributions as well as political ideas from each
participant country related to culture and Innovation
management.
After the pilot training action takes place, a
transfer report will be elaborated that will allow to
know the experience of a multicultural training
project in Innovation management.
The impact envisaged means the incorporation
and encouraging of innovation in the technology
transfer process, cooperation of Science,
technology, business and society system and the
creation of regional, national and international
networks. In the long term, the impact will mean
the increasing of indicators of I+D in each
participant country.

104
The transfer through a learning and innovator
system influences in the long term in the vocational
training; development a more adapted and active
learning and team work.

REFERENCES

[1]. Baumgartner P. Social Software - New Trends in Teacher
Education 1
st
Thematic Network Conference Wolfsberg
(Austria), October 6
th
8
th
, 2006.
[2]. Eike Wenzel, Customising of Tommorows Media,
1
st
Thematic Network Conference Wolfsberg (Austria),
October 6
th
8
th
, 2006.
[3]. Agnis Andns, ICT Fostering individual approaches and
equalizing opportunities in advanced education at schools,
1
st
Thematic Network Conference Wolfsberg (Austria), October
6
th
8
th
, 2006.
[4].Gerhard Schwed, Open-Source Software in education
(examples and experiences) , 1
st
Thematic Network
Conference Wolfsberg (Austria), October 6
th
8
th
, 2006.

Quick Info

Important events

9
th
RENEXPO

2008, International Trade Fair
and Conference for Renewable Energy &
Energy Efficient Building and Renovation, 9 12
October 2008, Trade Fair Center Augsburg,
Germany
During the last years RENEXPO

has become an
international well known meeting place for global
players. This trade fair attracts top class speakers
and the leading companies from the entire
renewable energy industry worldwide, every year. 9
renewable energy topics will be shown in 3 trade
fair halls:

Energy Services Geothermal Energy IHE Wood
Energy interGreenBuilding
Cogeneration Solar Technolgoy Heat Pump World
Hydropower Wind Energy

We identify Romania as an European country with
a strong growing renewable energy sector. We want
to bring our mature expertise together with your
increasing interest and innovation at the
RENEXPO 2008.
Avail of our special offer for Romania until 08
th
of August.
Exhibition possibilities:
IBEF International Business Exchange
Forum participant: The forum provides a
platform for international as well as national
companies and business people, who are
searching for international contacts and
opportunities in new markets. At the IBEF

common stand export-orientated companies can
present their products and services and
participate in an international knowledge
transfer at the same time.

As exhibitor in one of the 3 exhibition halls:
Hall 1: IHE

Wood Energy, Cogeneration/
Biogas
Hall 2: interGreenBuilding

Hall 3: Energy Services, Geothermal Energy,
Solar Technologies, Heat Pump World,
Hydropower, Wind Energy. Order your non-
binding quotation before the 31
st
of July and
receive a 10% discount. Please declare if you
are interested as IBEF

participant or as separate
exhibitor.
Free Presentations - Exhibitors Forum:
Exhibitors have the possibility to give a lecture
at the exhibitors forum. Spaces are limited. 40
presentations during the four trade fair days at
the Exhibitors Forum will inform the visitors
about the latest product innovations and their
application.
More www.energy-server.com

International Trade Fair for Renewable Energy
and Energy Efficiency RENEXPO

South-East
Europe 2008, 19- 21.11.2008, Palace Hall,
Bucharest, Romania

RENEXPO

South-East Europe 2008 brings together
for the first time multipliers and actors from the
south-eastern European area at a central event.
Expected are around 50 exhibitors including
manufacturers, planers, energy providers, experts
from research and development, associations,
media, ministries and authorities who will present
to the estimated 1,500 visitors the entire band width
of renewable energy and energy efficiency.
Parallel to the trade fair conferences will be held
covering topics such as bio fuels, waste to energy,
geothermal energy, energy efficiency, financing and
funding as well as hydropower. Approximately 400
experts from politics, economy, associations and
media will be provided with information on legal
and financing questions, technology and
applications, the newest research results as well as
future market development and implementing
strategies. IPA, RO 4Enterprise Europe Network
will organize an brokerage event.
More www.energie-server.de www.renexpo.ro

105

GENERAREA SINERGIILOR POZITIVE
IN INTREPRINDERILE INDUSTRIALE
PRIN ARMONIZAREA BINOMULUI
CULTURA ORGANIZATIONALA-STRATEGIA FIRMEI

Ioan Piturescu, Domnica Cotet, Maria Dumitrache, Irina Radulescu

ICTCM CITAf Bucharest, ROMANIA, e-mail: pituresc@ictcm.ro

REZUMAT
Competitivitatea firmelor depinde n primul rnd de calitatea strategiei i de
suportul acesteia (cultura organizaiei). n armonie, cele dou constituie sursa
major de sinergii pozitive ce propulseaz firma de la eec spre succes,
competitivitate, iar pentru cei mai merituoi spre excelen. Lucrarea propune idea
de schimbare a strii de spirit a managerilor i personalului, prin prezentarea
trendului evolutiv n care firmele se pot ncadra prin perseveren i bun credin.

ABSTRACT
Firms competitiveness depends on strategy quality and on its support the
organization culture. Both are in harmony and they reprezent the major source of
positive synergies which leads the firm from failure to succes, competitiveness and
even excellency. The paper proposes the idea to change the corporate fieling of
managers and staff, by prezenting the evoluting trend to border the firms, by
perseverance and good faith.

CUVINTE CHEIE: management, strategia firmei, cultura organizationala, sinergie

KEYWORDS: Management , firm strategy, organizational culture, synergie

1. INTRODUCERE

Aderarea Romniei la Uniunea European
determin ntreprinderile industriale romneti s intre
n concuren direct cu firme puternice din punct de
vedere tehnic, tehnologic financiar , al reelelor de
distribuie, al renumelui care-l au pe pia.
Contieni de vulnerabilitatea
ntreprinderilor pe care le conduc, managerii romni
fac eforturi pentru creterea nivelului de
competitivitate al produselor, adaptarii acestora la
structura solicitat pe piaa unic european.
Apariia unor oportunitai ca de exemplu :
creterea cererii n cazul unor produse,
accesul la noi piee de desfacere,
posibilitatea de asociere cu firme
puternice,
sporirea anselor i a vitezei de procurare a
materiilor prime sau componentelor,
ansa contractrii unor noi clieni sau
furnizori,
precum i informaiile furnizate de firmele
de specialitate,
creeaz condiiile necesare pentru creterea
eficienei economice a ntreprinderilor.

Provocrile integrrii n UE constituie
ocazii receptate cu profund interes de ctre
managerii din ntreprinderi, pentru a prefigura
viitorul firmelor n care acioneaz.
Factorii de decizie de la nivel macroeconomic au
doar un rol de catalizator. Viitorul firmelor
romneti se decide, la nivelul fiecrei ntreprinderi
n parte.
Eficiena economic a firmei depinde n
primul rnd de activitatea desfaurat de ctre
specialitii i managerii acesteia. Succesul,
supravieuirea sau eecul firmei este hotrt, n
ultim instan, de calitatea managementului
unitaii.
Managerii pot s duc firma la dezastru, aa
cum s-a ntmplat cu numeroase unitai industriale
romneti sau o pot orienta spre culmile
competitivitaii, spre excelen.

106
Se realizeaz un demers inedit n problema att de
controversat a cilor de atingere a excelenei
ntreprinderilor industriale.
Bazat pe experiena practic n industrie, pe
activitatea ndelungata n domeniul proiectrii,
trainingului i consultanei n managementul
industrial, lucrarea de fa prezint activitile
ntreprinse n cadrul proiectului CEEX, cu
acronimul : SINARMEX, ce ofer oglinda
activitaii unor ntreprinderi industriale romneti
confruntate cu lunga i dureroasa tranziie.
Eantionul de ntreprinderi analizat precum i
perioada lung de timp n care s-au efectuat
cercetrile, au permis obinerea unor concluzii
realiste n privina comportamentului agenilor
economici din industrie.
Reuita armonizrii strategie-cultur permite
acumularea de sinergii capabile s propulseze firma
spre culmile excelenei.
Proiectul dezvolt in mod pertinent criteriile
care pot fi urmate pentru a urca treptele excelenei,
chiar de ctre firmele aflate n dificultate.
Expunerea teoretic este susinut de numeroase
exemple comentate de reuit a unor ntreprinderi
industriale. Experiena de manager al unei instituii
de training i consultan, precum i cea din
proiectare, au permis autorilor realizarea unei
viziuni unitare, de sistem, asupra activitii
ntreprinderilor industriale.
Managerii romni din domeniul industrial
vor avea n acest mod ocazia de a cunoate,
experimenta i valorifica n practic ideile originale
dar pragmatice ale lucrrii.
Consultarea materialului expus n proiect
poate facilita efortul cotidian de cretere a
competitivitaii ntreprinderilor n confruntarea cu
firmele concurente din ar, din Uniunea European
i de la nivel global.
Activitile ntreprinse n cadrul proiectului
pot fi considerate ca o pregtire necesar pentru
concentrarea eforturilor ntreprinderilor industriale
spre supravieuire, atingerea competitivitii i n
final a idealului rvnit al excelenei.
Pentru a beneficia de avantajele oferite de
aderarea rii noastre la UE, dar i pentru a preveni
pericolele inerente unei transformri radicale de
situaie, firmele sunt chemate s se concentreze pe
efortul de adaptare la nou.

2. LOCUL ABORDRII
CORELATIVE STRATEGIE-
CULTUR N MANAGEMENTUL
FIRMEI
Creterea flexibilitii ntreprinderii, dublat de

amplificarea devotamentului, competenei, i
atitudinii receptive fa de nou a managerilor, pot
permite firmelor romneti s concureze n condiii
de eficien pe piaa unic european.
Pentru a beneficia de oportunitaile acestei mari
piee i pentru a se aventura n confruntarea cu
competitorii la nivel global, managerii romni au
nevoie de un salt calitativ n domeniul
comportamentului i competenei profesionale.
Este unanim aprecierea conform creia prin
strategie se asigur schimbarea la nivelul
organizaiei, dar rolul managerilor este unul decisiv:
ei fundamenteaz i elaboreaz strategia i, dup
aprobarea sa de ctre acionari, o aplic.
Cea mai important modalitate de schimbare
managerial i, n acelai timp, opiune strategic
este reengineering-ul (reproiectarea) sistemului de
management, ce presupune o modificare
fundamental, radical i profund a proceselor de
munc i, mai cu seam, a celor de management.
Operaionalizarea strategiei i, implicit, a
sistemului de management reproiectat reclam o
nou cultur organizaional i managerial.
Aceasta trebuie tratat n dubla ipostaz:
ca o condiie a succesului strategic al
managementului firmei i
ca determinant al performanelor
manageriale i economice obinute.
Din aceast perspectiv, optimizarea raportului
strategie-cultur devine soluia numrul unu pentru
dobndirea statului de firm de excelen.
Fig. 1. Filosofia abordrii corelative
cultur-strategie


107
Dimensiunea pieei europene unice, oblig
firmele s ia n considerare principiul: acioneaz
local, gndeste global. Tranziia se apropie de
final. Economia globalizat bate la u. Perioada lui
merge i aa se apropie de sfarsit. Noile exigene
privind calitatea, realizarea unor costuri de
producie competitive, necesitatea diferenierii
produselor n funcie de preferinele zonale ale
consumatorilor, impun realizarea unor strategii
pertinente care s poat fi implementate i
dezvoltate cu succes. Reuita conceperii i
implementrii strategiei este condiionat de
adecvarea acesteia la mediul extern i la mediul
intern al firmei.
Culegerea i interpretarea corect a
semnalelor ce provin din mediul extern este
esenial pentru orientarea efortului ntreprinderii.
Efortul insui, puterea firmei, eficiena economic a
acesteia, sunt determinate ns de calitatea mediului
intern, de capacitatea firmei de a se adapta i
mobiliza adecvat n funcie de cerinele mediului
extern.
Adaptibilitatea i flexibilitatea firmei depind
de numeroi factori:
procesul tehnologic,
echipamentele,
dimensiunea firmei,
posibilitile de atragere a unor
surse de finanare,
structura organizatoric,
competenele resursei umane etc.

3. ABORDAREA CORELATIV
STRATEGIE-CULTUR

Cultura organizaional, climatul, determin
capacitatea real a firmei de a reaciona adecvat i
prompt la schimbrile mediului n vederea
asigurrii competitivitaii firmei.
Dac misiunea firmei ofer direcia de
aciune, strategia ofer planul i modul de nfptuire
al acestuia. Cultura organizaiei asigur baza de
susinere a strategiei i furnizeaz detaliile care
permit conceperea cu succes i implementarea
eficace a acesteia.
Armonizarea celor doua elemente:
strategia ntreprinderii i cultura sa organizaional
constituie cheia de bolt a reuitei unei companii.
Binomul strategie-cultur decide n final soarta
unitii.Dac cele dou componente ale binomului
se afl n conflict, compania eueaz n mod
lamentabil. Dac exist o armonizare permanent i
de nalt nivel, n timp, ntreprinderea are toate
ansele de a deveni excelent.
Elementele de legtur dintre strategia firmei
industriale i cultura organizaional vizeaz:

a. Gradul de cunoatere i de apreciere i de
acceptare a celor dou dimensiuni manageriale
b. Gradul de implicare n realizarea obiectivelor
strategice (in aplicarea strategiei)
c. Gradul de satisfacere a intereselor economice
ale stakeholders-ilor interni i externi i de
obinere de performane.
Din combinarea acestora i, n general, din
combinarea celor doi parametri manageriali pot
rezulta modele de ntreprinderi industriale orientate
spre performane, spre excelena n management i
n afaceri sau spre supravieuire ori evitarea
eecului.
Este unanim recunoscut faptul c o firm
devine performant i se poate nscrie pe traseul
spre excelen n afaceri numai n msura n care
dispune de un management performant.
Managementul este principalul factor de ameliorare
i dezvoltare a performanelor economice,
financiare, comerciale etc., iar performanele sale,
generale i specifice, sunt evideniate de figura 2.
In cadrul proiectului a fost realizata o
metodologie de clasificare a firmelor industriale in
functie de nivelul de armonizare cultura strategie.
Diagnosticarea viabilitatii manageriale si
economice a firmelor industriale , analiza pietei si a
mediului ambiant national si international in care
acestea actioneaza au permis conturarea unor
semnificative puncte forte si slabe, oportunitati si
provocari, concentrate intr-o analiza SWOT.
O astfel de analiza a luat in considerare
variabilele endogene si exogene ce caracterizeaza
firmele industriale din punct de vedere al binomului
cultura strategie.
Au fost analizate 126 de intreprinderi din care:
- 26 intreprinderi mari si foarte mari
- 100 intreprinderi mici si mijlocii.
Discuiile, interviurile, testele, observaiile
instantanee, s-au efectuat de la directorul general al
ntreprinderii pn la muncitorii necalificai.
Daca luam in considerare rezultatele
diagnosticarii puncte forte si puncte slabe si
variabilele care au stat la baza acesteia, generate de
dimensiunile stategica si culturala ale
managementului intreprinderilor industriale, pot fi
evidentiate cinci trepte pe care firmele industriale le
pot parcurge in drumul spre excelenta in
management si in afaceri.

108


109
4. CONCLUZII

Ghidul strategic, realizat in cadrul
proiectului, vizand modul de asigurare a unei
sinergii pozitive in firmele din Romania, trateaz
modalitile n care intreprinderile industriale
romneti pot deveni execelente, deci competitive,
profitabile, lideri de pia. Se ofer viziune de
sistem i contientizare pentru a facilita coreciile
necesare. Aceste corecii i detalii despart succesul
de eec.
Numeroasele strategii recomandate ca fiind
infailibile pot fi utilizate drept ghid dar nu pot fi
copiate. Detaliiile separ media de elit.
Adaptarea unui anumit mod de gndire i
aciune are mult mai mare importan dect
urmrirea unor rutine, efectuarea unor pai acceptai
mecanic. Spiritul n care privim activitatea este
factorul care determin calitatea managementului.
Referirile la excelena durabil a
ntreprinderilor industriale doresc s arate c,
problema se afl n atenia unora dintre managerii
romni.
Problema acumulrii sinergiilor n vederea
atingerii excelenei este pentru prima dat
prezentat n acest fel n literatura de specialitate.
Excelena firmelor i dezvoltarea durabil
sunt subiecte la mod. Mult i comentate, de ctre
marele public, de specialitii din industrie, dar i n
cercurile academice, cele dou sintagme capt
coninut i neles n funcie de context i de
interpretarea subiectiv a celor ce abordeaz
problema.
Durabil, desemneaz calitatea de a ine
mult timp (durabilitatea) de a rezista- durabilitas,
n latin- indicnd trinicia.
Asociat cu termenul dezvoltare obinem
dezvoltare durabil, sintagm ce exprim
meninerea sistemului- n general mediul ambiant-
ntr-o stare nepoluat, fr deteriorri.
Subliniem c sensul sintagmei dezvoltare
durabil a ntreprinderii poate fi mai larg, deci poate
viza ntreaga via a organizaiei considerate, nu
doar preocuprile acesteia privind prezervarea
mediului ambiant.
n mod similar, dezvoltarea durabil a
economiei naionale i a economiei mondiale
presupune multiple aspecte, nu doar cele-
importante, desigur- care vizeaz mediul.
n studiile realizate a fost utilizat termenul
excelen pentru a desemna ntreprinderile, firmele,
care au obinut sau pot obine un succes remarcabil,
exemplar.
Deci aceste firme constituie un model
demn de urmat pentru alte companii din cadrul
industriei, al ntregii economii al unei ri, un ideal
ce poate fi atins prin perseveren, abilitate, bun
credin i competen.

Se utilizeaz sintagma excelen durabil
pentru a desemna o firm care se menine ntr-o
situaie exemplar- succes, profit- o perioad de
timp ndelungat i care se adapteaz corect i
eficient la exigenele mediului socio-economic.
Menionm c, nu cunoatem ntreprinderi
industriale romneti care s se bucure de o
excelen durabil, dar am analizat cteva
ntreprinderi industriale care se preocup sistematic
de atingere acesteia.
Studiul realizat se doreste o contributie la
orientarea altor cuttori ai excelenei durabile:
specialiti din industrie, manageri (aflai pe diferite
niveluri ierarhice) decideni de nivel nalt,
coordonatori ai dezvoltrii socio-economice,
politicieni.
Pe baza analizelor efectuate, studiul
concluzioneaza ca: esenta atingerii excelentei
intreprinderilor industriale sta in nivelul atins de
armonizarea culturii organizationale a unitatii cu
strategia firmei.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

[1]. Drucker, F., Peter, Inovaia i Sistemul
Antreprenorial (Innvation and Entreprenenship), Editura
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1993.
[2]. Osborne David i Gaebler Ted, Reinventing
Government. How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is
Transforming the Public Sector, Addison Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc., S.U.A, Massachusetts, 1992.
[3]. Stoica, Marcel and collaborators, Evaluarea i
Gestionarea Riscului Financiar Bancar, ( Risk Evaluation
and Risk Management in the Finance-Banking System.)
Editura Tipart, Bucureti, 2004.
[4]. Vasilescu, Ion, and collaboratores, Eficiena i
Evaluarea Investiiilor, (Investment Efficiency and
Evaluation), Editura EfiCon Press, Bucureti, 2004.


110

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= his number Reynolds

= is his number Prandtl.

Creterea flexibilitii ntreprinderii, dublat de

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