CELL CYCLE + Cell Division: reproduction of cells + Cell Cycle: life of a cell from the time it is first formed

from a dividing parent cell to its own division into two daughter cells I. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL + Genome: a cells endowment of DNA + Chromosome: structures where DNA molecules are packed + Chromatin: entire complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes + Somatic cells: human body cells except the reproductive cells; have 46 chromosomes + Gametes: reproductive cells; have 23 chromosomes (in humans) II. DISTRIBUTION OF CHOROMOSOMES + Each chromosome is in the form of a long, thin chromatin fiber. + Sister chromatids: joined copies of the original chromosomes; contain identical DNA molecules; are initially attached all along their lengths by protein complexes called cohesins (sister chromatid cohesion) + Centromere: in sister chromatids, a region containing specific DNA sequences where the chromatid is attached most closely to its sister + The centromere gives the condensed, duplicated chromosome a narrow waist. +The part of a chromatid on either side is called an arm. + Mitosis: the division of the genetic material in the nucleus + Cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm III. PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE + Mitotic (M) phase: includes mitosis and cytokinesis, is usually the shortest part of the cell cycle + Interphase: accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle + During interphase, a cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. + G1 phase (first gap), S phase (synthesis), and G2 phase (second gap) constitute the interphase. + A cell that will divide grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. + Chromosomes only divide during the S phase. + G2 phase: a nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus; the nucleus contains one or more nucleolus; two centrosomes formed by the duplication of a single centrosome (contains two centrioles; responsible for microtubule organization); duplicated chromosomes (from S phase) are not yet condensed + Prophase: chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled, chromosomes condense; nucleoli disappear; each duplicated chromosome appear as two sister chromatids joined at the centromere; mitotic spindle begins to form; radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from centromeres are called asters; centrosomes move away from each other, propelled by lengthening microtubules + Prometaphase: nuclear envelope fragments, microtubules can now invade the nuclear area; chromosomes become even more condensed; each of the two chromatids has a kinetochore; some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores (kinetochore microtubules) which jerk the chromosomes back and forth; nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those at the opposite of the spindle + Metaphase: centrosomes are now at opposite cellular poles; chromosomes convene at the metaphase plate (equidistant plane between the spindles two poles), the centromeres lie at this plate; the kinetochores of each sister chromatid are attached to the kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles

+ Anaphase: shortest of all the phases; begins when the cohesins are cleaved, which allows the two sister chromatids to part to become a full-fledged chromosome; the liberated daughter chromosomes move at opposite ends of the cell as there kinetochore microtubules shorten; the cell elongates as the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen; at the end of the anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equivalent collections of chromosomes + Telophase: two daughter nuclei form in the cell; the nuclear envelopes form from the parent cells nuclear envelope and endomembrane system; nucleoli reappear; chromosomes become less condensed; spindle microtubules are depolymerized; mitosis is completed + Cytokinesis: appearance of two daughter cells IV. THE MITOTIC SPINDLE + consists of fibers made of microtubules and associated proteins + assembly starts at the centrosome + Kinetochore: a structure of proteins associated with specific sections of choromosomal DNA at each centromere V. CYTOKINESIS + occurs by a process known as cleavage (in animal cells) + Cleavage furrow: a shallow groove in the cell surface at the old metaphase plate + Cell plate: formed by coalescing Golgi apparatus vesicles VI. BINARY FISSION + refers to the process of a prokaryotic cell growing double its size and then splitting into two + Origin of replication: specific place on the chromosome where the DNA replicates VII. CELL CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM + a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle + Checkpoint: a control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle + G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important. If a cell receives a go-ahead from the checkpoint, interphase and mitosis commence, else, it will switch into a nondividing state (G0 phase). + Protein kinases: enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them; give go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints + Cyclin: a protein that gets its name from cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell; when kinases (cyclindependent kinases/Cdks) are attached to it, they activate. + Maturation/M-phase-promoting factor (MPF): triggers the cell passage from G2 to M phase + Growth factor: a protein released by the certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide + Platelet-derived Growth Factor (PDGF): made by platelets, required for the division of cultured fibroblasts + Density-dependent inhibition: a phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing + Anchorage dependence: division depends on attachment to a substratum + Transformation: process that converts normal cells to cancer cells + Metastasis: spreading of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site

MEIOSIS I. SETS OF CHROMOSOMES IN HUMAN CELLS + Life cycle: generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism + Karyotype: arrangement of images of chromosome starting from with the longest arms.

+ Homologous chromosomes/Homologs: two chromosomes composing a pair that has the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern + X and Y chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. + The other chromosomes are called autosomes. + Diploid cell: any cell with two chromosome sets; has a diploid number of chromosomes (2n). + Haploid cells: a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes (n) II. STAGES OF MEIOSIS + Meiosis is preceded by duplication of chromosomes followed by two consecutive cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II. + Prophase I: chromosomes begin to condense; homologs loosely pair along their lengths, aligned gene by gene; paired homologs become physically connected to each other along their lengths by a zipper-like protein structure (synaptonemal complex), this state is called synapsis; crossing over, a genetic rearrangement between non-sister chromatids, begins during pairing and synaptonemal complex formation; each homolog has one or more X-shaped region/s called chiasma(ta), this exists where a crossover occurred; other events as in mitosis prophase

+ Metaphase I: pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome in each pair facing each pole; both chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules, same as the other homolog + Anaphase I: breakdown of proteins allow homologs to separate; homologs move toward opposite poles; sister chromatid cohesion persists at the centromere + Telophase I and cytokinesis: each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes; cytokinesis simultaneously occurs, forming two haploid daughter cells + Prophase II: chromosomes are still composed of two chromatids; spindle fiber forms + Metaphase II: two sister chromatids of each chromosome are not genetically identical; kinetochores are attached to microtubules; chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate + Anaphase II: chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles + Telophase II and cytokinesis: one parent cell produces four genetically distinct haploid cells

PLANTS + Plant cells contain the central vacuole (which pushes the nucleus to the side), plastids (large, double-membrane organelles, e.g. chloroplast), and are surrounded by the cell wall. All of these parts are only present in plant cells. + Morphology: study of form, shape, and external structure of plants + Anatomy: study of internal structures I. PLANT CELLS + Parenchyma cells: have relatively thin and flexible primary cell walls; intercellular spaces are prominent between parenchyma cells; are storage and secretory cells; usually living (nucleus is present); parenchymatous cells that store chloroplasts are called chlorenchyma cells, aid in aeration are called aerenchyma cells + Collenchyma cells: have unevenly thick primary cell walls; provide flexible support, are elongated; maybe classified as: angular collenchyma cells, which are thick at corners; lamellar collenchyma cells, which are thick at one or two sides; intercellular spaces are absent between cells; usually living + Sclerenchyma cells: have evenly thick primary and secondary cell walls; provide support; often dead; are classified into: sclereids, which are short cell that are variable in shape; fibers, which are long, tapered cells; are lignified (lignin) for structural and mechanical support II. PLANT TISSUES AND TISSUE SYSTEMS + Tissue is a group of cells that forms a structural and functioning unit. It is classified into: simple tissue, which is composed of only one kind of cell, and complex tissue, which is composed of more than one kind of cell. + Tissue systems are functional units connecting all of the plants organs. + Dermal tissues/tissue system: provides an outer covering for the plant body; composed of parenchyma + Epidermis: a complex tissue composed primarily of relatively unspecialized living cells; parenchymatous; the outermost tissue; usually transparent to let light through the interior of the plant; cutinized (cutin is the substance secreted, layer is called cuticle) in stems and plants; wax restricts water loss and excess transpiration. Dispersed in it are the stomatal apparatuses (stoma are tiny pores between guard cells) and trichomes (epidermal outgrowths that have various functions) + Periderm: forms the protective outer bark of older stems and roots; a complex tissue made up of: phellem/cork cells, which are multiseriate, dead at maturity and are suberized (waterproof suberin), phellogen/cork cambium, which divide to form the phellem and the phelloderm, and phelloderm/cork parenchyma cells, which functions as storage cells. + Vascular tissues/tissue system: transports needed materials throughout the plant + Xylem: conducts water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves; provides structural support. It is a complex tissue composed of: tracheids (the chief water conducting cells in gymnosperms and seedless vascular plants; maybe annular, helical, scalariform, reticulated, pitted), which are long, tapering cells that pass water through pits; vessel elements (the water conducting cells in flowering plants), which are hollow and wider than tracheids and have perforations at their or completely dissolved wall ends; xylem parenchyma cells, which act as storages; and, xylem fibers, which provide support + Phloem: conducts food materials formed in photosynthesis, provides structural support. It is a complex tissues composed of : phloem parenchyma cells, phloem fibers, sieve-tube elements (in angiosperms, sieve cells in gymnosperms), which are long, thin, living, and enucleated

cells stacked end on end to form long sieve tubes (the end walls have sieve plates through which cytoplasm extend); and, companion cells (albuminous cells in gymnosperms), which assist sieve-tube elements through plasmodesmata. + Ground tissue system/tissues: tissues other than dermal or vascular. The tissues formed are called the cortex and pith. + Meristems: locations where cell division occurs in plants. They are not differentiated. + Primary growth: result of activity from apical meristems; increase in plant length. Meristematic cells are small and boxy because of continuous division. + Three primary meristems: protoderm, which is a young, undifferentiated tissue that develops into epidermis, procambium, which develops into the xylem and phloem, and, ground meristem, which develops into ground tissues. + Secondary growth: result of activity from lateral meristems, increase in plant girth + Two lateral meristems: vascular cambium, which adds cells to the wood (secondary xylem) and to the inner bark (secondary phloem), and, cork cambium, which divide to form the cork cells and cork parenchyma cells III. ROOTS + usually subterraneous + generally grow downward, in the direction of gravity + anchor a plant firmly down the ground + absorb water and dissolved minerals + function for storage + Taproot system: consists of one main root with many smaller lateral roots coming out of it. Taproots are characteristic of many gymnosperms and eudicots. + Fibrous root system: has several to many roots of the same size that develop from the end of the stem with smaller lateral roots branching off these roots. Fibrous roots are characteristic of monocots. + Adventitious organs occur in unusual locations, e.g. roots that develop on a stem. + Root cap: protective covering of a root tip that covers the apical meristem and secretes lubricating polysaccharides that reduce friction as the root passes through the soil + Root hairs: short-lived, unicellular extensions of epidermal cells near the growing root tip that raise the absorptive capacity of the root. They form continually at the zone of maturation. + Root epidermis does not secrete cuticle, combining with the presence of root hairs, absorption of water increases. + Cortex is made up of parenchyma cells with large intercellular spaces. These cells also store starch grains (amyloplasts). The intercellular spaces provide a pathway for water uptake and aeration. + Quiescent center: a region near the root cap where there is less cell division + Endodermis is a uniseriate layer after the cortex in a root. This controls the amounts and kinds of water and dissolved minerals that enter the xylem in the roots center. Each endodermal cell has a special bandlike region called a Casparian strip. This strip is suberized (suberin), which makes it waterproof. + Symplast: a continuum of living cytoplasm, which is connected from one cell to another through plasmodesmata. + Apoplast: consists of interconnected porous cell walls, along which water and mineral ions move freely. Most of the water and minerals have travelled in the root through the apoplast until they reach the endodermis. There, passive and active diffusion will occur. + Stele: a cylinder of primary vascular tissue + Periderm: a uniseriate layer that is the outermost boundary of the stele; remains meristematic and gives rise to lateral roots; this arises from secondary growth due to the pericycle becoming the phellogen.

+ The xylem, the centermost tissue of the stele, has several extensions called xylem arms/poles. There are several types of xylem maturation. The most common are the endarch pattern, where the protoxylem (smaller xylem) is nearer the center of the stele, and the exarch pattern, where the metaxylem (bigger xylem) is nearer the center and is common in roots. + The phloem is located in patches in between the xylem poles. + The vascular cambium is sandwiched between the xylem and phloem. + Pith: parenchymatous ground tissue in the center of the stele present in some plants Root part Monocot Eudicot Present Absent Pith Absent Present V/C. cambia Xylem poles Polyarch Di/Tri/Tetrarch + Prop roots: adventitious roots that grow from branches or vertical stem that grows down to the soil for support + Buttress roots: swollen bases that hold tress upright + Pneumatophores: breathing roots that facilitate gas exchange and provide support + Aerial roots: anchor plants to the bark or branch of another plant. Velamen, a spongy, multiseriate epidermis, is produced in epiphytic plants to cover the roots. The tip is photosynthetic. + Contractile roots: grow into the soil and then contract. + Root nodes in legumes: facilitates in nitrogen fixation + Storage roots: store sugars + mycorrhiza: a mutually beneficial association between a fungus and a root that helps the plant absorb essential minerals from the soil. + Secondary growth: primary xylem secondary xylem vascular cambium secondary phloem periderm; the epidermis up until the primary phloem will shed. IV. STEMS + usually cylindrical and upright + link the roots to the leaves + provide support for leaves and reproductive structures + provide internal transport + produce new tissue + Herbaceous stems: soft, nonwoody, and photosynthetic stems + Woody stems: with extensive hard tissues of wood and bark + Terminal buds: buds at the tip of the stem protected by bud scales, modified leaves, when they are dormant. When the terminal bud is active, the fallen bud scales leave bud scale scars. + Axillary buds: lateral buds found in leaf axils, the upper angles between a leaf and the stem + Node: area where the leaf is attached + Internode: area between two successive nodes + Leaf scars: shows where a fallen leaf was attached to the stem. In it are bundle scars, where the vascular tissues connected from the stems to the leaves are seen. + Lenticels: sites of loosely arranged cells that allow gas exchange to occur. + In herbaceous eudicot stems, vascular bundles (fascicles) are arranged in broken rings. The presence of a phloem fiber cap strengthens the stem. The xylem are thick walled. The pith is present. + In monocot stems, vascular bundles are scattered. These bundles are enclosed by the sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. They sport a face-like pattern where the forehead is the phloem, the eyes, nose, and cheeks are the xylem (vessels, tracheids, and parenchyma, respectively), and the mouth is an air space called the protoxylem lacuna. They do not possess lateral meristems.

+ In woody eudicot stems, vascular tissues are arranged in a continuous ring. Secondary growth happens here. Secondary xylem is called wood. Secondary phloem is called the inner bark. The phellogen comes from parenchyma in the cortex. + Sapwood: younger, lighter-colored wood nearer the bark + Heartwood: older wood in the center + Vine: a plant with a long, thin, often climbing stem + Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem that often serves as a storage organ and a means of sexual reproduction + Tuber: the thickened end of a rhizome that is fleshy and enlarged for food storage + Bulb: a rounded, fleshy underground bud that consists of a short stem with fleshy leaves + Corm: a short, thickened underground stem specialized for food storage and asexual reproduction + Stolon: an aerial horizontal stem with long internodes; often forms buds that develop into separate plants V. LEAVES + Blade/lamina: the broad, flat portion of a leaf + Petiole: the stalk that attaches the blade to the stem + Stipules: leaflike outgrowths at the base of the petiole + Leaves can be classified as simple (single blade) or compound (having a blade divided into many leaflets). + Compound leaves are further classified into pinnately compound (leaflets are borne on an axis that is a continuation of the petiole) or palmately compound (leaflets arise from a common point at the end of the petiole). + Rachis: midrib of a leaf + Petiolule: a stalk of a leaflet + The arrangements of leaves can be classified into alternate (one leaf per node), opposite (two leaves per node), or whorled (three or more leaves per node). + Leaf venation can be classified into parallel (veins strands of vascular tissuerun approximately parallel to one another along the leafs axis) or netted/reticulate (smaller veins branch of larger veins; can be furthered classified into palmately or pinnately). + Leaves have two epidermises (upper and lower). They lack chloroplasts. Trichomes cover the epidermises to reduces water loss. + Stoma(ta): minute opening on the epidermis for gas exchange. These are flanked by two specialized epidermal guard cells (2) and are surrounded by accessory cells (4). + Mesophyll: photosynthetic ground tissue; can be classified further into palisade (columnar cells stacked closely together, main sites of photosynthesis), spongy (more loosely and more irregularly arranged, allows diffusion of gases), or lobed. + Bundle sheath extensions: support columns that extends from the upper epidermis to the vascular bundles to the lower epidermis. + Bulliform cells: thin-walled cells on both sides of the midvein; involved in the rolling of leaves during drought Leaf part Monocot Eudicot Usually parallel Usually netted Venation Absent Present Petiole + Adaxial surface: surface of the leaf facing the stem + Abaxial surface: surface of the leaf away from the stem + Transpiration: loss of water vapor (plugged stomates and humid air decrease transpiration, light, high temperature, and dry air increase transpiration) + Guttation: loss of liquid water through hydathodes (openings at the margin of leaves) + Spines: modified leaves that are hard and pointed + Bracts: petal-like leaves associated with flower clusters + Tendrils: help keep vines attached to the structure where it is growing + Carnivorous leaves: eats insects + Reproductive leaves: leaves that have plantlets at the margin