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OUTCOMES:
8.2.1. MIXTURES OF THE EARTH .................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 5
Construct word equations and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions ........................................................... [15-16] Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory ..........................................5-6 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and compounds ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................6-8 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of: solids of different sizes, solids and liquids, dissolved solids in liquids, liquids, and gases .................................................................................................8-9 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations ..........................................................................................................................8-9 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists ............................ 9 Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory ................................................. [15] Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered ............................................................................ [15, 60-61]
REACTIVITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ...................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 10
8.2.2.
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties .......................................... 10 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties ................................................................... 10
INTERACTIONS AT THE ATOMIC LEVEL.......................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 11
8.2.3.
Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting ....................................................... 11-12 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms ................................................................................................................. 12 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number ................................................................................................................ 11 Describe the formation of ions in terms of gaining of losing electrons ......................................................................................... [5], 13 Apply the Periodic table to predict ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals ............................................................ [5], 13 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: the formation of ions, and the electron sharing in some molecules ..................... 14 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of attraction of ions of opposite charge ......................................... [6], 13 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other........................................................................ [5], 13 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom or more than one atom ......................................................................... [5], 13 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing electrons ............................................................................ [5], 13 Construct formulae for compounds formed from ions, and atoms sharing electrons ............................................................. 14-15
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE ................................................................................................................. STARTS PAGE 18
8.2.4.
Identify the difference between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles .............................. 18 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference between physical and chemical change ................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Identify light, heat and electricity as common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life .................................................................................................................................................................................................... [16-17], 19 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them .......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
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8.2.5. STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF SUBSTANCES ................................................................................................ STARTS PAGE 20
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures ............................. 20 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network....... 20 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds .......................................................................................................... [13], 20-21 Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons ....................................................................................... 21 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions..................................................................... 20 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula ........................................................................................... 21 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices .................................................................................. 20-21 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of the ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network substances ........................................................................................................................... 20-21
TOPICS:
8.2.1. MIXTURES OF THE EARTH .................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 5
Classification of matter .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Pure and impure substances ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Composition of the Earth ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6 Mixtures in the spheres ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Physical separation of mixtures ................................................................................................................................................................................. 8 Gravimetric Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
REACTIVITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ...................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 10
8.2.2.
Combined and uncombined elements ................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Classification of metals and non-metals ............................................................................................................................................................... 10
INTERACTIONS AT THE ATOMIC LEVEL.......................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 11
8.2.3.
States of matter ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11 Atomic and mass numbers .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11 Electron configurations ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12 Chemical bonding............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 13 Lewis dot diagrams ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14 Writing chemical formulae ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Naming compounds ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Balancing equations ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE ................................................................................................................. STARTS PAGE 18
8.2.4.
Chemical reactions ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Physical and chemical change ................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Energy transfer and chemical change .................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Bond energy ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN SUBSTANCES ................................................................................................ STARTS PAGE 20
8.2.5.
Bonding and properties ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Structure and bonding in substances ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Properties of substances .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 20
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MOLECULES
A molecule is made of two or more atoms joined with covalent bonds (bonds between elements due to the sharing of electrons to obtain a stable octet in the outermost shell). In other terms, molecules consist of the smallest unit of a substance (covalently bonded substance) that can move independently. All covalently-bonded compounds (two or more atoms bonded together) are molecules, even though some exist not as individual molecules but as a lattice, such as SiO2 (silicon dioxide sand) or C (carbon diamond). Other molecules include when the same element is bonded with itself e.g. H 2, O2 or N2. Monatomic molecules are molecules with only one atom include the noble gases, which exist as uncombined elements, and therefore as single elements. Some examples include: He (helium), Ne (neon) and Ar (argon). Diatomic molecules include some elements such as O2 (oxygen), H2 (hydrogen), N2 (nitrogen), and some compounds such as hydrogen iodine HI and hydrogen fluoride HF. Diatomic molecules can also be compounds such as HCl (hydrochloric acid) but not ionic compounds such as NaCl (sodium chloride table salt) Some triatomic molecules include ozone O3, water H2O and sulfur dioxide SO2 Some tetratomic molecules include white phosphorus P4 and ammonia NH3
COMPOUNDS
A compound consists of two or more elements joined chemically. In compounds, the atoms form chemical bonds between the electrons in the outer shell of the atom. Unlike elements, compounds can be chemically broken down into their elemental components. Compounds are chemical bonded with fixed ratios. If they are not chemically bonded they may be a mixture or alloy. For example in HCl, there is one hydrogen atom for every chlorine atom. Ionic compounds are compounds formed between usually a metal and a non-metal, where the metal transfers its excess electrons to the non-metals forming an ionic compound. Ionic compounds are lattices, and the formula used (empirical formula) represents the ratio of atoms in the lattice. Covalent compounds are compounds formed between two or more non-metals, through the sharing of electrons to reach a stable octet in the outer shell of each element. Covalent compounds are molecules. The formula used is a direct proportion to the structure of the molecule.
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IONS
Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na +, Mg2+ or Al3+. Negative ions are formed when non-metal ions gain electrons e.g. Cl, S2 or N3 A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle made up of more than one type of atom, e.g. NH4+, or CO32
The earth has a layered structure consisting of a core, mantle and crust. This composition of the Earth has been established through observations of the earths density and also through seismology. In pa rticular S waves (secondary waves) do not penetrate travel through liquids or gases, while P waves (primary waves) can travel in liquids and gases, and therefore can travel through the outer core, which is liquid.
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THE CORE
The mass of the Earth can be calculated by noting the gravitational influences it exerts on other objects of matter. The volume of the Earth can be estimated because the Earth is roughly spherical in shape and the radius can be easily calculated. This leads to an approximate calculation for the average density at around 5,500 kg/m3. Since it has been calculated that the density of the material closer to the crust is lower in density, it implies that the centre of the Earth has to be constituted of more dense materials. Through studying seismic waves, seismologists have detected that the core is composed of two main sections: A solid inner core that has a radius slightly greater than 1200 km. Through examination of the prevalence of certain elements within other Solar system bodies, has led to determine that the inner core is composed of mostly an ironnickel alloy. Despite being the surface temperature of the Sun (5700 K) the intense pressure results in a solidified core. A liquid outer core whose thickness is almost twice the radius of the inner core. The outer core is responsible for Earths magnetic field, due to the convection of liquid metals around the core.
THE MANTLE
The mantle is the thickest layer and lies underneath the crust, and is around 2900 km thick. It is composed mainly of solid rocks, and is the source for igneous rocks found at the surface. Convection currents in the mantle are responsible for the movement of the plate tectonics, and recycle of rock material. The mantle is relatively homogeneous and is composed mainly of magnesium and silicon oxides and magnesium and iron silicates.
THE CRUST
The crust is a thin and heterogeneous layer of rocks composed of many elements and compounds, found in different rock types including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Predominant elements include oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium while other elements make up less than 1% of the crust. The crust varies in thickness. Oceanic crust which is relatively new (less the 200 million years) is only on average 6 km average, while continental crust is up to 3500 million years old and is up to 70 km thick. The density of continental crust which is 2.7 grams per cubic cm is less than that of oceanic crust, which has a density of around 3.5 grams per cubic cm. Continental crust is composed of granitic rocks and is higher in silicon that oceanic crust which is mainly composed of basaltic rocks.
THE LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere of which includes the crust and upper mantle is composed mostly of rocks and soil, which are mixtures of minerals. The lithosphere contains high amounts of oxygen and silicon. Few elements are found uncombined in the lithosphere, with gold, sulfur and carbon being notable exceptions. Most are present in minerals such as: quartz (silicon and oxygen) feldspars (containing various combinations of sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, silicon and oxygen), calcite (calcium, carbon and oxygen) many other minerals such as pyroxene, biotite, iron oxides and kaolinite (a clay mineral)
THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is composed mostly of uncombined lighter elements such as nitrogen, oxygen and argon with small percentages of compounds such as carbon dioxide, methane and water.
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THE HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere includes the Earths oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and underground water. By far its major constituent is water, with varying quantities of compounds containing chlorine, sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, sulfur, bromine and many other elements. The hydrosphere also has a variable composition e.g. fresh water and sea water
THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere contains a vast array of living things with many chemical characteristics in common. All living things are composed of compounds based on the element carbon. Other elements essential to living things include oxygen, hydrogen nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. These elements are provided from the surrounding lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere in the form of compounds.
ELEMENTAL CYCLES
The continuous flow of elements, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus, in various forms between the biospheres, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere is essential to maintaining life on earth.
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CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is a relatively recent development useful for separating components in small quantities of mixtures. There are several different chromatographic techniques including column chromatography, paper chromatography, thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography. The separation of the components in the mixture occurs because the components absorb, or cling, to the surface of the inert surface with different strengths.
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Determining the quantities (mass) of the substances present in a sample is called gravimetric analysis which is analysis by weight or mass. In gravimetric analysis, the mass of each component needs to be determined. Many industrial situations use gravimetric analysis: to determine if a mineral deposit contains a high percentage of required compound to determine the composition of soil to determine the amount of pollutants in water or air to determine whether a commercial mixture has the required percentage composition comparison of products
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Every element has its own set of unique properties which can be used to distinguish it from other elements. These properties include melting point, boiling point, density, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. Pure substances can be classified by their state of matter, as either a solid, liquid or gas at standard room temperature (25C) and pressure (100 kPa). The properties of these substances as well as their positions in the Periodic table can help determine whether the element is a metal (metallic in nature) or otherwise.
METALS
Metals occupy the left hand-side of the periodic table and have the following properties: All most all solids at room temperature (excluding mercury, which is a liquid) They have a shiny or lustrous appearance Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity Metals are malleable (able to be shaped without breaking) and ductile (able to be drawn into wires).
As a result, metals are used for a wide range of uses ranging from cooking utensils, electrical wires, piping to structures containing alloys (mixtures of metals).
NON-METALS
Non-metals occupy the right hand-side of the periodic and have the following properties: Most are gases at room temperature. Notable exceptions include bromine Br2, which is a liquid and iodine I2 which is a solid. Some non-metals exist as diatomic molecules rather monatomic molecules. Most are poor conductors of heat and electricity, with the exception of carbon in the form of graphite. Non-metals are not malleable or ductile, and are not as strong as compared to metals. They do not have shiny or lustrous appearances.
SEMI-METALS
Semi-metals have properties of both metals and non-metals. This category contains elements that are hard to classify as metals or non-metals.
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In a solid, these particles are packed close together. The particles have a fixed position but can still vibrate independently. In a liquid, these particles can move more freely able to slip past each other. As a result, a liquid still has a consistent volume, but can change its shape to match that of the container which carries it. In a gas, these particles are widely separated and move much more freely than in a liquid. It allows them to spread out to occupy the entire container. Gases are able to change their volume and shape.
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ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
The reactivity of atoms is determined by the way the electrons are arranged in the electron cloud. Electrons possess energy which is sufficient to resist the attraction towards the positive nucleus. The way electrons are arranged around the nucleus is called the electron configuration. For example: Neon has 10 electrons, its electron configuration is 2, 8 Magnesium has 12 electrons, its electron configuration is 2, 8, 2
ENERGY LEVELS
There is a set of discrete energy levels available in an atom, called the first, second, third etc. energy levels. Electrons in the shell closest to the nucleus have the least energy, while the electrons in the shell furthest from the nucleus usually have more energy. The number of shells around a nucleus depends on the number of electrons. Each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons. The first shell can only hold 2, the second shell 8, the third shell 18 and the fourth shell 32. Not all atoms fill up their inner shells before starting to fill up their outer shells. Potassium with 19 electrons has the electron configuration 2, 8, 8, 1 while Calcium has the electron configuration 2, 8, 8, 2
Note the presence of the stable octet (8 electrons) in the outer shell (valence shell) of the noble gases. Shell 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Maximum Number of Electrons 2 8 18 32
ORBITALS
Each electron shell (or energy level) is divided up into orbitals, which occupy different areas of the particular energy level. This allows for more complex electron configurations, which can be useful for explaining why not all atoms fill up their inner shells before filling their valence shell. The order of which the orbitals are filled is given by the diagram on the right. However even then it gets complicated requiring all sorts of rules to determine electron configurations; (and even with these rules, some elements, such as copper and gold, do not follow these rules). Element Name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Atomic Number 5 6 7 8 9 10 Electron Configuration 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Electron Configuration (with orbitals) 1s2 2s2 2p1 1s2 2s2 2p2 1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 2s2 2p5 1s2 2s2 2p6
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CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ionic bonds or share electrons to form covalent bonds, in order for the atom to reach a more stable configuration, i.e. stable octet in the valence shell of the atoms. Noble gases possess these stable configurations and therefore do not react to form compounds.
IONIC BONDING
Ions are formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another of a different element, where one atom donates there excess electrons to the other. Atoms that have lost or gained electrons are called ions and they carry an electric charge. Metals form positively charged ions, called cations and non-metals form negatively charged ions, called anions The electrostatic attraction between a cation and an anion is called an ionic bond, which results in the formation of an ionic compound. In order for an ionic compound to form, one atom needs to have an excess of electrons required to reach a stable configuration, while another atom needs to have a deficiency of electrons required to reach a stable configuration. As a result ionic bonding almost always involved metals bonded with non-metals. Ionic compounds are crystalline solids, unless dissolved in water as an aqueous solution, where the ionic bonds are broken, because the ions have a tendency to bond towards the different atoms of the water molecules.
COVALENT BONDING
Atoms can also gain stable electron configurations through the sharing of electrons. his type of chemical bond formed by sharing electrons is called a covalent bond and occurs only between two non-metals (which both have a deficiency of electrons required to reach a stable electron configuration) Non-metals can share electrons to form covalent compounds, or in the case where one atom of an element shares with another atom of the other element forms diatomic molecules and so on. Covalent bonding is stronger than ionic bonding (although the forces between individual molecules are very weak).
METALLIC BONDING
The bonding between metals, e.g. iron (Fe), gold (Au) and calcium (Ca), is called metallic bonding. All metals are solid at 25C except mercury (Hg), which is liquid. The result of this is that valence electrons are delocalised resulting in a metals being able to conduct electricity.
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Another way of showing the bonding arrangement in molecules is to draw the structural formulae where a dash is used to represent a bonding pair of electrons:
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WRITING FORMULA
The following rules should be used: All electrons must be accounted for as there can be no loose or unpaired electrons. The sum of positive and negative valencies of ionic compounds is zero. Steps involved: Determine an elements valency How many electrons are going to be lost or gained
NAMING COMPOUNDS
In the early days of chemistry, there was no system for naming of compounds. Chemists used common names like bicarbonate of soda, quicklime, milk of magnesia, Epsom salts and laughing gas to describe compounds. As the number of named compounds increased it was obvious that if such common names were used, confusion would result. In 1787, in order to solve the problem a scientist named Lavoisier established the principles for a systematic naming process. There are however, some familiar compounds that are always referred to by their common name for example H2O is always referred to as water, rather than di-hydrogen monoxide.
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BALANCING EQUATIONS
No atoms can be created or destroyed. They are just rearranged. You cannot change the valencies therefore you cannot change the formula.
Steps: 1. Write the formulae for reactants and products. 2. Make the number of atoms for reactants equal the number of atoms for products by placing whole numbers in front of the formula.
GENERAL EQUATIONS
1. Oxidation (Corrosion): METAL + OXYGEN METAL OXIDE Examples: i. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide 2Mg + O2 2MgO ii. Iron (II) + Oxygen Iron Oxide 2Fe + O2 2FeO 2. Metals with acids: METAL + ACID SALT + HYDROGEN GAS This type of reaction involves active metals such as Na, K, Hg, Ca etc. Unreactive metals such as Au (gold) do not react with hydrochloric acid (HCl), no matter how concentrated the acid is. Copper reacts with HNO3 (nitric acid). Examples: i. Sodium + Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride + Hydrogen Gas 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(s) + H2 (g) ii. Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen Gas Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(s) + H2 (g) 3. Acids with carbonates: ACID + CARBONATE SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE Examples: i. Hydrochloric Acid + Zinc Carbonate Zinc Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide 2HCl(g) + ZnCO3 (s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) ii. Sulfuric Acid + Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulfate + Water + Carbon Dioxide H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) 4. Neutralisation (acids with alkalis or bases): ACID + BASE (ALKALI) SALT + WATER Neutralisation is an exothermic reaction, which raises the temperature of the solution. Examples: i. Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride + Water NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ii. Calcium Hydroxide + Nitric Acid Calcium Nitrate + Water Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
CORROSION (RUSTING)
Corrosion refers to the reaction of a metal with gases in the air. There are many methods to prevent corrosion such as galvanizing, chromium plating and tin plating.
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COMBUSTION
Combustion is any chemical reaction in which heat (and usually light) is produced, sometimes called burning, for example: 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s) + heat + white light. Combustion reactions involve the burning of a usually organic substance with oxygen. Combustion of organic substances almost always produces CO2 and H2O. Rapid combustion produces flame and high temperatures e.g. fire Slow combustion produces low temperatures and no flames. Combustion reactions are an essential part of our lives: the burning of fossil fuels such as coal are all combustion reactions which are vital for cooking food, warming houses and driving vehicles.
OTHER REACTIONS
COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS
Word equation: A + B AB Often two or more substances usually elements combine together, to form a single substance. These are called direct combination reactions or synthesis reactions, and it has only one product, for example: i. ii. Iron (II) + Sulfur Iron (II) Sulfide + energy Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s) Sodium + Chloride Sodium Chloride + energy 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl + energy
DECOMPOSITION
Word equation: AB A + B Decomposition involves the reaction of a single substance by which it breaks down into two or more simple substances. Decomposition reactions have only one reactant, and are caused by either light or heat. Decomposition caused by heat is called thermal decomposition, for example: i. ii. Calcium Carbonate + heat energy Calcium Oxide+ Carbon Dioxide CaCO3 (s) + heat CaO(s) + CO2 (g) Copper Carbonate + heat energy Copper Oxide + Carbon Dioxide CuCO3 (s) + heat CuO(s) + CO2 (g)
Some decomposition reactions can also be caused by light, for example: i. ii. Silver Chloride + light energy Silver + Chlorine AgCl2(s) + light Ag(s) + Cl2 (g) Silver Bromide + light energy Silver + Bromine AgBr2(s) + light Ag(s) + Br2 (l)
PRECIPITATION
Word Equation: AB + CD AD + CB Certain solutions when mixed react to product a suspension in a liquid, an insoluble product, which is a compound, and is called the precipitate, for example i. Silver Nitrate + Sodium Chloride Silver Chloride + Sodium Nitrat e AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
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Equations also include state symbols (s) solid, (l) liquid, (aq) aqueous and (g) gas written as subscripts after the equation.
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
Water can be electrolysed as follows: 1. A voltameter was filled with water that has been acidified with a little acid, since water is a poor conductor of electricity. Then current was allowed to flow. 2. The negative terminal collects the hydrogen, while the positive terminal collects oxygen. 3. The amount of acid is the same concentration in the beginning and at the end, so therefore does not take part. 4. Water is decomposed before any additional chemical change occurs. Reaction in cathode: 2H2O (l) + 2e H2 (g) + 2OH (aq) Reaction in anode: 2H2O(l) O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e These two processes clearly indicate the difference between physical and chemical changes: Electrolysis produces two new substances: hydrogen and oxygen Boiling does not produce any new substance (change of state only, from liquid to gas) Electrolysis is difficult to reverse, (need to mix gases and ignite them with a high temperature spark) whereas boiling can be exactly reversed through cooling. Electrolysis requires much more energy than boiling
P a g e | 19 In terms of particles: Boiling does not alter the actual particles (molecules) it just separates them from one another. Electrolysis breaks the particles up (water molecules) are broken up to form hydrogen and oxygen molecules.
BOND ENERGY
Decomposing a compound into atoms requires a large input of energy because it is necessary to overcome the strong chemical bonds holding the atoms together in compounds. There are strong electrostatic attractions holding ions together in ionic compounds. There are strong covalent bonds holding atoms together in covalent molecules and covalent lattices.
20 | P a g e The stronger the chemical bonding is in a compound, the more energy that is required to break the compound into its atoms. Alternatively, the stronger the chemical bonding is in a compound, the more energy that is realised when it is formed from its atoms.
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PROPERTIES OF METALS
Metals, with exception of mercury, are solids at room temperature. Most have relatively high boiling points and are fairly hard. They are all good conductors of electricity. A metal consists of an orderly three-dimensional array of positive ions held together by a mobile sea of delocalised electrons. The valence electrons break away from their atoms, leaving behind positive ions. These free electrons, called delocalised because they no longer belong to particular atoms, move randomly through the lattice and by being shared by numerous positive ions, and provide the chemical bonding that holds the crystal together. Its the ability of these delocalised electrons to move freely that causes metals to be good conductors of electricity. Metals can be bent, rolled into sheets (they are malleable) and drawn into rods and wires (they are ductile). When the orderly array of positive ions is sheared, the mobile electrons are able to adjust to the new arrangement of positive ions and again glue the metal atoms together.
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OUTCOMES:
8.3.1. USAGE OF METALS AND ALLOYS ....................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 24
Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including contemporary uses, as uncombined elements or as alloys .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 24-27 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how these relate to properties ......... 27 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore ................................................................................................. 28 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years ago ................................... 28
REACTIVITY OF METALS ..................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 29
8.3.2.
Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen ................................................................... 29 Describe and justify the criteria to place metals in order of activity based on their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 29-30 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons ............................................................................. 29 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the uses of metals ............................................................................................................................ 30 Outline the relationship between relative activities of metals and their position in the Periodic table ................................ 30 Identify the importance of the first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of metals ............................... 32
PERIODIC TRENDS................................................................................................................................................. STARTS PAGE 31
8.3.3.
Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure ................................................................ 31 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction ...................................................................................................................... 31 Explain the relation between position in the Periodic Table and: electrical conductivity, ionisation energy, atomic radius, melting point, boiling point, combining power (valency), electronegativity and reactivity .................. 32-33
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ STARTS PAGE 33
8.3.4.
Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of Carbon-12 (Avogadros number) ......................................... 35 Compare mass samples changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen ................................................. [33-34] Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this an understanding of the mole concept ................................................................................................................................................................ 35-36 Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept ....................................................... 34-36 Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae .............................................................................................. 21, [36]
EXTRACTION OF METALS .................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 36
8.3.5.
Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits of natural resources ....... [28] Describe the relationship between commercial price of common metals, their actual abundances and relative costs of production ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... [28] Explain why ores are non-renewable resources ................................................................................................................................. [28], 38 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in extraction of copper from one of its ores ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium................................................................................................................................................. 38
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TOPICS:
8.3.1. USAGE OF METALS AND ALLOYS ....................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 23
Historic uses of metals .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23 Contemporary uses of metals .................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Alloys and their uses ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26 Sources of metals ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
REACTIVITY OF METALS ..................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 28
8.3.2.
Reactions with metals ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Reactivity and the Periodic Table ............................................................................................................................................................................ 29 Reactivity and uses of metals..................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
PERIODIC TRENDS................................................................................................................................................. STARTS PAGE 30
8.3.3.
History of the atomic model ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Periodic Table development ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Periodic Table trends .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
CHEMICAL ANAYLSIS ............................................................................................................................................ STARTS PAGE 32
8.3.4.
Atomic theory ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 The mole concept ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 34 Moles and chemical equation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Empirical formula ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
EXTRACTION OF METALS .................................................................................................................................... STARTS PAGE 37
8.3.5.
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COPPER
Copper is a salmon-pink metal that is present naturally as sulfide minerals, such as chalcopyrite CuFeS2 and chalcocite Cu2S. Copper metal can be extracted from these minerals using the process of smelting. Being fairly unreactive, meant that it was easily extracted, and therefore was one of the first metals to be used by humans. It has the following properties: Copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor It is malleable (able to be hammered into sheets) and ductile (able to drawn into wires) It is fairly unreactive and slow to corrosion. It also readily forma alloys.
Copper because of its good conductivity of electricity is used as electrical cables and wiring. It is also used in radiators, refrigeration systems and water pipes. It forms alloys including brass and bronze, which are used for fittings, fixtures and casting respectively. Use Electrical Wiring Saucepan Bases Water Pipes and Fittings Ornaments Properties of Copper Used High electrical conductivity and ductility High heat conductivity and malleability High malleability and resistance to corrosion Lustre and malleability
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IRON
Iron is a silvery metal that is fairly reactive and is rarely found uncombined in the lithosphere. It is present in ores including magnetite Fe3O4, hematite Fe2O3, siderite FeCO3 and limonite 2Fe2O3.3H2O. It has the following properties: Iron is soft and malleable. It is a good thermal and electrical conductor. It is fairly reactive and readily forms alloys.
Iron is not used by itself, as it corrodes easily. Instead, it is used as an alloy steel, which is used in bridges, buildings, cars, machinery and appliances, including kitchen appliances.
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is a silvery metal that is lightweight and is present naturally in minerals such as magnesite MgCO3 and dolomite MgCO3.CaCO3. Magnesium being highly reactive is not found free in nature, and was only prepared in 1808 by Humphrey Davy who decomposed MgCO3 using electrolysis. The properties of magnesium include: Magnesium has a low density and has high strength. Magnesium has a high reactivity and is often used as a sacrificial anode where because it corrodes more readily than another, it can be used to protect a less active metal. It reacts with oxygen to produce a bright white light Properties of Magnesium Used High reactivity with oxygen, producing a bright white light on combustion. Low density and high strength. High reactivity of sulfur, combining with the sulfur in steel to produce MgSO4 High reactivity, used to reduce titanium salts into titanium metal at high temperatures. High reactivity, acts as a sacrificial anode to protect iron and steel structures
Use Fireworks Aircrafts and cars, as an alloy Steelmaking Production of titanium Corrosion protection
LEAD
Lead is a soft blue-grey metal that is not found free in nature usually, but rather exists in minerals such as galena PbS and cerussite PbCO3. Lead was produced in the uncombined form around 5500 years ago, by reduction of galena. Nowadays, due to the health of lead poisoning, lead has been replaced by other metals in many applications. It has the following properties: Lead has a low melting point and a high density. Lead is soft and malleable. Lead also has a relatively good conductively. Lead has the ability to absorb ionizing radiation. Properties of Lead Used Malleability, resistance to corrosion due to formation of a stable oxide on the surface Low melting point of lead alloys, good electrical conductivity of lead and tin. Good electrical conductivity, malleability and low chemical reactivity in sulfuric acid Ability to absorb ionising radiation High density, malleability, softness, resistance to corrosion
Use Sheet lead for roofing Solder Electrodes in car batteries Shielding against radiation Fishing sinkers
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ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earths crust and possesses some remarkable properties: Aluminium has a low density and is relatively soft when pure. It is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor. It is malleable and ductile. It is highly reflective and is used in telescope reflectors and food packaging. Aluminium can be strengthened by the addition of small amounts of other metals such as titanium to produce many alloys that have a low density and are strong so they can be used in spacecraft, aircraft and boat construction. Aluminium was not used until the beginning of the twentieth century because it was extremely difficult and expensive to extract from its ore, bauxite (Al2O3.3H2O). Since the development of a new, commercially viable method of extracting aluminium was developed in 1886, the use of aluminium increased rapidly. Due to its low density and its resistance to corrosion, aluminium has displaced steel in many commercial and industrial situations. For example, roofing, window frames, appliance trim and decorative furniture, saucepans, frying pans, drink cans and cooking foil.
TITANIUM
Titanium was discovered in 1791 but it was not until 1910 that the pure metal was isolated, due to its high reactivity. It is the ninth most abundant element in the Earths crust, present in minerals such as rutile TiO2 and ilmenite FeTiO3. It has the following properties: Titanium has great strength. It has a high melting point, which means it melts at high temperatures. It has a low density. It is a lustrous solid that is resistant to corrosion, and is therefore used in the marine environments. It also has a low reactivity, and readily forms alloys.
Alloys of titanium are very strong, are used in situations where lightweight but strong materials as well as resistance to high temperatures are required, so it is used in jet engine components, aircraft, spacecraft and missiles. Due to its low reactivity it is used for pipes and lining for vats where acids are used. Titanium alloys are also biocompatible and are used for surgical implants such as artificial knee and hip joints.
GOLD
Gold is a shiny yellow-coloured metal that is found uncombined in the lithosphere. It was one of the first metals, and is still used today. However, because of it is expensive; other metals have replaced gold in some areas where gold was used, particularly metals such as copper. Gold because of its shiny gold appearance is used in jewellery. It is an excellent heat and thermal conductor (better conductor than copper) is used in electrical connections.
OTHER METALS
Chromium has a shiny silver appearance and is resistant to corrosion. It also readily forms alloys. It is used as an additive to steel alloys for example in stainless steel. Cobalt is a magnetic metal that readily forms alloys. It is used in alloys to manufacture permanent magnets. Nickel is also a magnetic metal that readily forms alloys. It is used as an additive to steel alloys, as well as in other alloys which include: Invar (an alloy of iron and nickel), which is used for scientific instruments. Nichrome (an alloy of nickel and chromium), which is used in electrical heating elements. Alloys with copper, which are used for coins. Zinc is fairly reactive but forms a protective oxide layer which protects the metal from further corrosion. It readily forms alloys.
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STEEL
Steel is an example of an alloy consisting of mainly iron, carbon and other elements such as manganese, chromium, vanadium and tungsten in smaller amounts. These elements differ in atomic size, and as a result break the orderly array of the iron atoms, which prevents them from easily sliding over each other, which makes the substance stronger. Physical properties including hardness, ductility and tensile strength of the alloy can be modified by adding different quantities of other elements, which result in different types of steels, which are used for different purposes: Carbon steel, which is only contains carbon and iron, is the most common form of steel, accounting for 90%. Stainless steel contains a minimum of 10% chromium in addition to iron and carbon. Nickel is often added as well. These additional elements make the alloy more resistant to corrosion. Depending on the quantities of these elements, some stainless steels may be magnetic.
In the 17th century, the first efficient methods of producing steel were developed, and since then its use has increased. As the cost of production decreased, steel became used more often, with uses ranging from building structures to cars. However, since the refining of aluminium has become easier, it has replaced steel in many uses.
BRASS
Brass is an example of an alloy consisting of varying proportions of copper and zinc. It has the following properties: The relatively low melting point of brass (900-940C) makes it a relatively easy material to shape into casts. Brass has also a higher malleability than both copper and zinc. If small amounts of aluminium or tin are added, a stronger alloy that is also more resistant to corrosion is the result. Combining brass with small amounts of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese can make the brass more resistant to wear.
Brass has many usages including: Decoration, because of its shiny gold-coloured appearance. Applications where low friction is required, such as locks, gears, bearings, valves or ammunition. Applications in the plumbing and electrical industry. Musical instruments, particularly brass instruments and bells, due to its acoustic properties.
SOLDER
Solder is an example of an alloy consisting of varying proportions of tin and lead. Solder has a melting point that is relatively low (ranging from 90-450C, but more commonly 180-190C), allowing it to be melted. There are two main types of solder: Electricians solder has more tin, and sets faster, and is used in electrical connections. Plumbers solder has less tin, which allows time while it is setting to be work ed to allow adjustments of the pipes, and is used for plumbing.
Nowadays the lead component of solder has been replaced with copper due to health concerns of lead poisoning.
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SOURCES OF METALS
Most metals are reactive and therefore are not found in the Earths crust, as elements, but rather present combined with other elements as compounds. Examples of uncombined elements include gold, platinum and silver. The reactivity of a given metal with substances in the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere determines the likelihood of finding the metal in the Earths crust in the uncombined elemental form. Most metals are reactive and are therefore usually found combined with other elements in naturally occurring compounds called minerals. Highly reactive metals such as potassium and sodium are never found as the free element but unreactive metals such as gold are much more likely to be found as the free element. Minerals are naturally occurring substances, usually compounds, with a definite composition or a range of compositions and crystal structures. They usually contain metals in the form of oxides, carbonates, silicates, sulfides and sulfates. Silicates are the most common class of minerals, but it is very difficult to extract metals from these compounds.
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The reaction of metals with acids (with the exception of some reactions, such as copper with nitric acid) results in electrons being transfer from the metal to the acid. In all these reactions, a positively-charged metal ion and hydrogen gas is formed, since the hydrogen ions in the aqueous solution accept the electrons from the metal. What is happening is this: metal metal ion + electron(s) hydrogen ions + electron(s) hydrogen gas Examples: 1. Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2 (g) 2. Iron + Sulfuric Acid Iron (II) Sulfate + Hydrogen Fe(s) + H2SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
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TYPES OF EQUATIONS
A balanced equation (or a neutral species equation) contains balanced quantities of each type of atom, with no ions. A complete ionic equation contains all the ions, while a net ionic equation does not contain any ions which do not partake in the chemical reaction, which are called spectator ions. For example in the reaction between zinc and hydrogen, the net ionic equation is: Zn + 2H+ Zn2+ + H2 A half equation is where one particular element is focused, and the electron transfer, and formation of ions. For example: Zn Zn2+ + 2e and 2H+ + 2e H2
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ATOMIC RADIUS
Atomic radius is the size of the atom and is dependent on the number of shells and the magnitude of charge of the nucleus. Atomic radius decreases across the period, from left to right. This is because the increased positive charge pulls the outermost electrons (same energy level) closer to the nucleus. Atomic radius increases down the group, from top to bottom. This is because there are additional shells.
IONISATION ENERGY
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom of an element in a gaseous state. The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the first electron Second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the second electron. It is always greater than the first ionisation energy as it requires more energy to remove an electron from a positive ion due to the extra electrostatic attraction. Third ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the third electron, and so on. The third ionisation is always greater than the second ionisation energy as it is even more positively charged. Ionisation energies provide strong evidence for periodic law. This is because ionisation energy is a direct result of the increasing atomic number. The first ionisation energy increases across each period with a minimum at the alkali metals (Group I) and a maximum at the noble gases (Group VIII). This is due to each successive element have one additional proton resulting in an increase of attractive force. For second ionisation energy, the minimum is at the alkaline earth metals (Group II) and increases to the noble gases (Group VIII), with the maximum being the alkali metals (Group I) and so on. Ionisation energy decreases down the group, as outer electrons are further away from the nucleus, as the atomic radius increases. With Group I and Group II metals, the reactivity of the metal is related to the first ionisation energy. With transitions metals the relationship is not as simple.
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ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the ability of an element to attract electrons to form compounds. Non-metals, with the exception of the noble gases, require electrons to complete a stable octet in their valence shell, and so have a higher electronegativity than metals. As a result, electronegativity increases across a period (excluding the noble gases), and decreases down a group.
METALLIC NATURE
Metallic nature is related to its ability to lose electrons, and is related also to electrical conductivity. Metallic nature decreases across the period from the metals to the non-metals, and increases down a group.
VALENCY
Valency is the number of electrons in the outer shell (called the valence shell). With the exception of transition metals for which there is no trend, valency is constant for each group, and increases across a period. Some elements have variable valencies.
REACTIVITY
The most reactive metals, such as francium and radium are found towards the bottom left corner of the Periodic Table. These elements are very electropositive, due to the low ionisation energy, and the large atomic radius of these atoms. The most reactive non-metals (excluding the noble gases), such as oxygen and fluorine are found in the top right corner of Periodic Table. These elements are very electronegative, due to the almost stable octets present in these elements.
This theory led to the use of symbols which represented elements, formulae for molecules and compounds and equations for chemical reactions. Using his model, Dalton reasoned that in a chemical reaction, atoms simply were rearranged into new substances, with no net loss or gain of atoms.
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ATOMIC WEIGHT
Since the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of another element, the atoms of different atoms will have different masses. However, since atoms are too small to measure individually, so as a result, only relative mass can be measured through their reactions with other elements. Originally hydrogen was used as the standard, being assigned a mass of 1, since it had one proton. However, since using hydrogen as a standard, meant that some weights did not result in nice whole numbers. Carbon 12 was adopted as the standard in 1961, such that a single atom of Carbon 12 had a relative atomic mass of 12. The relative atomic mass (atomic weight) of an element is the average mass of the atoms present in the naturally occurring element relative to the mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope, taken as exactly 12. However, certain elements may have atoms that contain different numbers of neutrons (called isotopes), which affects the relative atomic masses.
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MOLAR MASS
The mole concept can be related to the atomic weight of an element. A mole of any substance has a mass equal to its relative atomic masses, relative molecular mass or relative formula mass expressed in grams. It is called the molar mass. Calculating number of particles or moles (given either): number of particles n= NA where n is the number of moles and NA is Avogadros constant: 6.022 1023. Calculating mass or number of moles: m n= M where n is the number of moles and m is the mass in grams (must be in grams), and M is molar mass which can be calculated from a Periodic table of weights.
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LIMITING REAGENT
In some chemical reactions, one reactant gets depleted before the any of the other reactants. This is called the limiting reagent because it limits the process of the reaction. Calculating the amount of limiting reagent: 1. Write the balanced equation. 2. Determine the mole ratio 3. Convert any existing known information such as mass provided into moles, to find how many moles of the other substances will be required or produced. 4. Calculate how many moles will be required to complete the reaction, (This is done by multiplying the lowest mole quantity through the mole ratio). 5. Subtraction from the number of moles supplied for each element. 6. Convert back to grams.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
The empirical formula is the composition of the compound expressed in the simplest ratio. The molecular formula is the formula that represents the molecules in the covalent molecular substance. Gravimetric analysis has allowed chemists to determine by percentage composition of each element in a compound. From this, the number of moles of each element and the mole ratio present. The empirical formula can then be calculated using this information.
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EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Vast amounts of energy are required to isolate pure aluminium oxide, alumina from bauxite and then aluminium from alumina. After mining bauxite must be separated from its impurities and converted into aluminium oxide (alumina). This process involves several steps. The bauxite is first heated in hydroxide solution (sodium hydroxide) under pressure: Al(OH)3 (s) + OH(aq) [Al(OH)4](aq) Aluminium oxide is soluble in sodium hydroxide, whereas the impurities are not. So as a result, most of the impurities settle out as an insoluble red mud, which is pumped to disposal ponds. The highly concentrated hot solution of sodium aluminate is then filtered, cooled and seeded with crystals of pure aluminium hydroxide. The precipitation reaction that occurs is the reverse process of the solution process: [Al(OH)4](aq) Al(OH)3 (aq) + OH(aq) The aluminium hydroxide is then filtered off and decomposed by heating to produce aluminium oxide: 2Al(OH)3 (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3H2O(g) The next stage is the electrolysis of molten Al2O3. However the high melting point of Al2O3 at 2045C makes it prohibitively expensive but is reduced by a mixture containing approximately 80% cryolite which allows a molten phase to be maintained at 950C to 1000C. The mixture is electrolysed using a graphite anode (positive) and an iron tank cathode (negative). The overall equation for the electrolysis is as follows; 2Al2O3 (l) + 3C(s) 4Al(l) + 3CO2 (g) The molten aluminium is periodically removed from the cell and cast into ingots. Huge electrical currents are needed to convert the aluminium oxide to the aluminium and to keep the electrolyte molten. This makes the extraction process expensive.
RECYCLING OF METALS
Mineral resources are non-renewable and are limited in quantity. Mineral resources are being extended in several ways: New ore bodies are being discovered Improving technology is increasing our ability to access some ores. Our ability to extract metals from lower-grade ores is improving. An increasing important option in extending our metal resources, and reducing energy use, is to recycle metals from objects that no longer serve the original purpose. Many metals, particularly iron, steel, copper, and aluminium are recycled. Once the metal has been sorted and treated, it is ready to be re-melted and re-formed. As the cost of metals continue to increase due to decreasing supplies and increasing demand, the cost-effectiveness of recycling will also rise.
ALUMINIUM RECYCLING
The recycling of aluminium from drink cans, car engines and body trim, boats and appliances is well established in Australia and many other countries. More than 60% of the aluminium cans produced in Australia are recycled. The recycling of aluminium is very cost-effective compared to extracting the metal from bauxite. The refining of bauxite to produce alumina (Al2O3) uses about 15000 MJ of energy per tonne of alumina produced. Smelting this alumina requires an additional 50000 MJ per tonne. Thus the total energy for producing is 65000 MJ per tonne. Melting recycling aluminium requires less than 5% of the energy needed to produce the same amount of aluminium from its ore. Recycling not only conserves our reserves of aluminium ore but also greatly reduces the amount of electricity needed to produce aluminium.