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The Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) is pail of lhe U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege and is lhe slialegic-IeveI sludy agenl foi issues ieIaled
lo nalionaI secuiily and niIilaiy slialegy vilh enphasis on
geoslialegic anaIysis.
The nission of SSI is lo use independenl anaIysis lo conducl
slialegic sludies lhal deveIop poIicy ieconnendalions on:
- Slialegy, pIanning, and poIicy foi joinl and conlined
enpIoynenl of niIilaiy foices,
- RegionaI slialegic appiaisaIs,
- The naluie of Iand vaifaie,
- Malleis affecling lhe Ainys fuluie,
- The concepls, phiIosophy, and lheoiy of slialegy, and,
- Olhei issues of inpoilance lo lhe Ieadeiship of lhe Ainy.
Sludies pioduced ly civiIian and niIilaiy anaIysls concein
lopics having slialegic inpIicalions foi lhe Ainy, lhe Depailnenl of
Defense, and lhe Iaigei nalionaI secuiily connunily.
In addilion lo ils sludies, SSI pulIishes speciaI iepoils on lopics
of speciaI oi innediale inleiesl. These incIude ediled pioceedings
of confeiences and lopicaIIy-oiienled ioundlalIes, expanded liip
iepoils, and quick-ieaclion iesponses lo senioi Ainy Ieadeis.
The Inslilule piovides a vaIualIe anaIylicaI capaliIily vilhin lhe
Ainy lo addiess slialegic and olhei issues in suppoil of Ainy
pailicipalion in nalionaI secuiily poIicy foinuIalion.
i
iii
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.75 E<62<J?6 #/6K<76/
$-1/= (<G/7
E.-2G LMNO
The vievs expiessed in lhis iepoil aie lhose of lhe aulhoi and
do nol necessaiiIy ieecl lhe ofhciaI poIicy oi posilion of lhe
Depailnenl of lhe Ainy, lhe Depailnenl of Defense, oi lhe U.S.
Coveinnenl. Aulhois of Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) and
U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege (USAWC) Iiess pulIicalions enjoy fuII
acadenic fieedon, piovided lhey do nol discIose cIassihed
infoinalion, jeopaidize opeialions secuiily, oi nisiepiesenl
ofhciaI U.S. poIicy. Such acadenic fieedon enpoveis lhen lo
offei nev and sonelines conlioveisiaI peispeclives in lhe inlei-
esl of fuilheiing delale on key issues. This iepoil is cIeaied foi
pulIic ieIease, disliilulion is unIiniled.
*****
This pulIicalion is suljecl lo TilIe 17, Uniled Slales Code,
Seclions 1O1 and 1O5. Il is in lhe pulIic donain and nay nol le
copyiighled.
*****
Connenls peilaining lo lhis iepoil aie inviled and shouId
le foivaided lo: Diiecloi, Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S.
Ainy Wai CoIIege Iiess, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, 47 Ashluin
Diive, CaiIisIe, IA 17O13-5O1O.
*****
This nanusciipl vas funded ly lhe U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege LxleinaI Reseaich Associales Iiogian. Infoinalion on
lhis piogian is avaiIalIe on oui velsile, uuu.S|ra|cgicS|udics
|ns|i|u|c.arnq.ni|, al lhe Oppoilunilies lal.
*****
AII Slialegic Sludies Inslilule (SSI) and U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege (USAWC) Iiess pulIicalions nay le dovnIoaded fiee
of chaige fion lhe SSI velsile. Haid copies of lhis iepoil nay
aIso le ollained fiee of chaige vhiIe suppIies Iasl ly pIacing
an oidei on lhe SSI velsile. SSI pulIicalions nay le quoled
oi iepiinled in pail oi in fuII vilh peinission and appiopiiale
ciedil given lo lhe U.S. Ainy Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S.
Ainy Wai CoIIege Iiess, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, CaiIisIe, IA.
Conlacl SSI ly visiling oui velsile al lhe foIIoving addiess:
uuu.S|ra|cgicS|udics|ns|i|u|c.arnq.ni|.
*****
The Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and U.S. Ainy Wai
CoIIege Iiess pulIishes a nonlhIy enaiI nevsIellei lo updale
lhe nalionaI secuiily connunily on lhe ieseaich of oui anaIysls,
iecenl and foilhconing pulIicalions, and upconing confei-
ences sponsoied ly lhe Inslilule. Lach nevsIellei aIso piovides
a slialegic connenlaiy ly one of oui ieseaich anaIysls. If you
aie inleiesled in ieceiving lhis nevsIellei, pIease sulsciile on lhe
SSI velsile al uuu.S|ra|cgicS|udics|ns|i|u|c.arnq.ni|/ncus|c||cr.
ISN 1-58487-6O6-9
iv
v
D@#%;@#*
The Noilh Caucasus has leen a souice of inslaliIily
foi Russia evei since lhe Russian Lnpiie lioughl lhe
iegion undei ils conlioI in lhe couise of lhe Iale-18lh
and lhe hisl haIf of lhe 19lh cenluiies. CeneiaI AIexei
YeinoIov, a lop Russian connandei in Noilh Cauca-
sus, used inhunaneIy haish nelhods lo conquei lhe
iegion and ielain il undei lhe Ronanov ciovns con-
lioI. Hundieds of lhousands veie elhnicaIIy cIeansed,
and nany civiIians nuideied.
In lhe Russian CiviI Wai (1918-21), vhich look pIace
iighl aflei WoiId Wai I, lhe Noilh Caucasus lecane a
viclin of lolh lhe lsaiisl While Ainy and lhe connu-
nisl Red Ainy, vho pIundeied lhe iegion and iefused
lo give ils peopIes lhe iighls lhey hoped lo iegain aflei
lhe vai vas ovei. A IillIe ovei 2 decades aflei lhal, lhe
Noilh Caucasus nalions faced neiciIess depoilalions
as a iesuIl of inaginaiy ciines lhey aIIegedIy con-
nilled againsl lhe Soviel Union duiing WoiId Wai
II. Hundieds of lhousands of Chechens and Ingush
veie elhnicaIIy cIeansed and foicilIy ieIocaled lo Ka-
zakhslans fiozen sleppes, CenliaI Asian deseils, and
eIsevheie. In lhe 199Os, Chechen denands foi inde-
pendence Ied lo lvo devaslaling vais, vhich iesuIled
in lens of lhousands of casuaIlies, deslioyed cilies and
viIIages, and hundieds of lhousands of iefugees.
Today, lhe iegion ieninds one of a sinneiing
cauIdion, and lhe issues lhal caused so nuch vioIence
in lhe pasl have nol leen iesoIved. Russia has lasicaIIy
gianled Chechnya a de faclo independence, conpIe-
nenled ly huge fedeiaI nonelaiy sulsidies, in oidei
lo pievenl il fion liying lo cIain de juie independence
again. This slialegy has so fai leen successfuI. Hov-
evei, lhe fiagiIe slaliIily in Chechnya is nov lased
on lhe deplh of lhe KienIins pockels, lhe vhins of
lhe cuiienl Chechen Ieadei, Ranzan Kadyiov, and on
appeasing lhe IocaI popuIalion vilh fedeiaI noney.
Hov Iong lhis laigain lelveen lhe KienIin, Kadyiov,
and lhe Chechen peopIe viII Iasl ienains lo le seen.
Llhnic Russians, liied of lhe cionyisn and iigidily
of lheii pulIic inslilulions, valch vilh jeaIousy hov
nuch noney lhe Noilh Caucasian aIiens keep gel-
ling fion lhe fedeiaI ludgel. The nalionaIisls naich
undei lhe sIogan Lnough feeding lhe Caucasus,
ciealing a deep hssuie lelveen cilizens of lhe sane
counliy. MeanvhiIe, lhe nalions of lhe Noilh Cauca-
sus Iack a syslen lhal vouId aIIov peopIe lo fieeIy
puisue lheii peisonaI aspiialions. Due lo poveily,
high unenpIoynenl, and highei liilh iales in lhe
Noilh Caucasus lhan in lhe iesl of Russia, lhe piolIen
is IikeIy lo gel voise.
If lhe silualion gels oul of conlioI, lhe consequenc-
es aie haid lo piedicl. The Noilh Caucasus shaies loi-
deis vilh siniIaiIy unslalIe Soulh Caucasus, and has
cIose lies lo lhe MiddIe Lasl and Afghanislan, vilh
ianihcalions lolh in leins of leiioiisn and diug liaf-
hcking. Theiefoie, il is a shaied inleiesl of lhe Unil-
ed Slales, Luiope, and Russia lo nake suie lhal lhe
Noilh Caucasus ienains slalIe and does nol lecone
a lieeding giound foi leiioiisl aclivily lolh vilhin
Russia and alioad.


DOUCLAS C. LOVLLACL, }R.
Diiecloi
Slialegic Sludies Inslilule and
U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege Iiess
vi
vii
$P@)" "B% $)"B@#
AiieI Cohen is a iecognized aulhoiily on inlei-
nalionaI secuiily and eneigy poIicy, and lhe iuIe of
Iav. He is a Ieading expeil in Russia/Luiasia, Laslein
Luiope, and lhe MiddIe Lasl, and seives as a Senioi
Reseaich IeIIov in Russian and Luiasian Sludies and
InleinalionaI Lneigy IoIicy al The Heiilage Iounda-
lion. Di. Cohen fiequenlIy leslihes lefoie connillees
of lhe U.S. Congiess, incIuding lhe Senale and House
Ioieign ReIalions Connillees, lhe House Ained Sei-
vices Connillee, lhe House }udiciaiy Connillee, and
lhe HeIsinki Connission. Di. Cohen ieguIaiIy Iecluies
al lhe iequesl of U.S. Coveinnenl inslilulions: lhe
U.S. Depailnenl of Slale, lhe }oinl Chiefs of Slaff, lhe
Tiaining and Docliine and SpeciaI Ioices Connands
of lhe U.S. ained seivices, lhe CenliaI InleIIigence
Agency, and lhe Defense InleIIigence Agency. He aIso
conducls While House liiehngs and diiecls high-IeveI
confeiences on inleinalionaI secuiily, eneigy, lhe iuIe
of Iav, ciine and coiiuplion, and a vaiiely of olhei
issues. Di. Cohen consuIls foi Ioilune 5OO conpanies
and inleinalionaI Iav hins. He seived as a Senioi
ConsuIlanl foi uison MaisleIIeis Lneiging Maikels
piaclice, a gIolaI pulIic affaiis hin, and foi Lneig-
ing Maikels Connunicalions, a loulique slialegic
connunicalions consuIlancy. He has piepaied expeil
leslinonies and/oi leslihed in high-piohIe cases liied
ly Ieading Washinglon Iav hins, and viole expeil
opinions foi inveslois vho aie invoIved in nuIli-liI-
Iion doIIai suils againsl iIIegaI expiopiialions in lhe
counliies of Laslein Luiope and Luiasia. Di. Cohen
vas a IoIicy Advisei vilh lhe NalionaI Inslilule foi
IulIic IoIicys Cenlei foi Deleiience AnaIysis and has
consuIled foi U.S. Agency foi InleinalionaI DeveIop-
nenl, lhe WoiId ank, lhe Ienlagon, lhe U.S. Senale,
and Radio Lileily-Radio Iiee Luiope. Di. Cohen is
a nenlei of lhe LdiloiiaI oaid of Ccn|ra| Asia and
|nc Caucasus (SlockhoIn) and is on lhe oaid of Advi-
sois of lhe Inslilule foi AnaIysis of CIolaI Secuiily,
Lndovnenl foi MiddIe Lasl Tiulh, and }eiusaIen
Cenlei foi IulIic Affaiis. He is aIso a nenlei of lhe
CounciI of Ioieign ReIalions, lhe InleinalionaI Insli-
lule foi Slialegic Sludies (London), and lhe Aneiican
CounciI on Ceinany. Di. Cohen has pulIished six
looks and nonogiaphs, 3O look chapleis, and ovei
5OO ailicIes in piofessionaI and popuIai nedia. He ap-
peaied on CNN, NC, CS, IOX, C-SIAN, C-TV,
AI }azeeia LngIish, and aII Russian and Ukiainian na-
lionaI TV nelvoiks. He vas a connenlaloi on a Voice
of Aneiica veekIy iadio and TV shov foi 8 yeais.
CuiienlIy, he is a Conliiluling Ldiloi lo Tnc Na|icna|
|n|crcs| and a lIoggei foi lhe Voice of Aneiica. Ioi 8
yeais, he viole connenlaiy coIunns foi Uni|cd Prcss
|n|crna|icna|, Midd|c |as| Tincs, and has exlensiveIy
viillen as a guesl coIunnisl foi Tnc Ncu Ycr| Tincs,
|n|crna|icna| Hcra|d Triounc, Cnris|ian Scicncc Mcni|cr,
Tnc lasning|cn Pcs|, Tnc la|| S|rcc| ]curna|, Tnc lasn-
ing|cn Tincs, |urasiaNc|, and Na|icna| Rcticu On|inc.
In Luiope, his anaIyses have appeaied in Kcnncr-
san|, |ztcs|iqa, Hurriqc|, lhe popuIai Russian velsile,
|zncncdc|nq Znurna|, and nany olheis.
viii
ix
!)EE$#A
This nonogiaph exanines lhe undeiIying issues
lehind lhe conlinuing Iov-IeveI IsIanisl insuigency
novenenl in lhe Russian Noilh Caucasus. Il legins
ly anaIyzing lhe hisloiy of ieIalions lelveen lhe Rus-
sian and lhe Noilh Caucasus nalions, focusing specih-
caIIy on lhe piocess of suljugaling lhe iegion ly lhe
Russian Lnpiie. Since lhe 18lh cenluiy, Russia has
used liulaI foice lo expand leiiiloiiaIIy lo lhe Cauca-
sus. The nisliealnenl of lhe Noilh Caucasus conlin-
ued aflei WoiId Wai I and especiaIIy duiing and aflei
WoiId Wai II, vhen enliie Noilh Caucasus nalions
faced peiseculion and foicilIe depoilalions lo ienole
pails of lhe Soviel Union~in vhich up lo 3O peicenl
of lhe exiIes peiished. Thus, lhe Russians pIanled lhe
seeds of iesenlnenl and halied lovaid lhen lhal pei-
sisl lo lhe piesenl line.
These liagic evenls Iie al lhe heail of lhe giudges
lhe Chechens, lhe Ingush, lhe Ciicassians, and olhei
Noilh Caucasus nalions feeI againsl lhe Russians.
Righl aflei lhe faII of connunisn in Laslein Luiope
and lhe lieakup of lhe Soviel Union, lhese giudges
cane lo lhe suiface. Chechnya liied lo lieak fiee fion
vhal lhe Chechens consideied occupalion of lheii
Iands ly lhe inhdeI Russians. Ils allenpl vas sup-
piessed in lvo vais so as lo pieseive lhe leiiiloiiaI
inlegiily of lhe Russian Iedeialion.
The Iiisl Chechen Wai Iasled fion 1994 lo 1996
and ieveaIed a slailIing Iack of conlal ieadiness of
lhe Russian niIilaiy. Hovevei, Russia Ieained niIi-
laiy Iessons fion lhe lolched 1994-96 canpaign and
handiIy von lhe Second Chechen Wai of 1999-2OOO.
olh Chechen vais iesuIled in lens of lhousands of
casuaIlies (lolh niIilaiy and civiIian) and hundieds of
lhousands of iefugees.
Aflei lhe vais, Moscov used vasl funds lo ieluiId
Chechnya naleiiaIIy, lul lhe giudges of lhe peopIe
have ienained. SlaliIily in Chechnya nov depends
on lhe cuiienl KienIin-appoinled Chechen piesidenl,
Ranzan Kadyiov. Moscov conlinues lo aIIocale sig-
nihcanl fedeiaI funds foi Chechnya and luins a lIind
eye lo IocaI coiiupl piaclices, vhich aie oflen a diiecl
vioIalion of lhe Russian fedeiaI Iav.
Wilhoul innediale, lhoiough, and conceiled
inleinalionaI aclion, lhe chaIIenges lhal lhe Noilh
Caucasus piesenls lo lhe voiId nay giov inlo na-
joi piolIens. The Uniled Slales nusl engage ils aIIies
and voik vilh Russia lo slienglhen ils loidei secu-
iily, invigoiale Iav enfoicenenl and counleileiioiisl
coopeialion vilh nalionaI and inleinalionaI agencies,
counlei IsIanisl piopaganda, inpiove inleIIigence ca-
paliIilies, and appeaI foi inleinalionaI coopeialion lo
eIininale lhe hnanciaI suppoil of leiioiisn lhal heIps
Noilh Caucasus niIilanl gioups ouiish.
x
1
#)!!'$?! (@)+"%#'+!)#&%+(A
'+ +@#"B ($)($!)!C
>%#D@#E$+(% $+* (@+!%F)%+(%!
"G/ !,-.,/012 "G-/., <H #/=101<46 %I,-/9169
.75 E<62<J?6 #/6K<76/
The Russian Noilh Caucasus, incIuding lhe Re-
pulIics of Chechnya, Dageslan, and Ingushelia, is
liansfoining inlo a dangeious, ungoveinalIe aiea in
vhich gIolaI IsIanic leiioiisn lhiives. Aflei conven-
lionaI niIilaiy opeialions of 1994-96 and 1999-2OOO
ended, lhe iegion has lecone a nexus foi spieading
gIolaI jihadi vioIence, as lhe allack on lhe oslon
Maialhon ly lhe Tsainaev liolheis denonslialed.
AI-Qaedas Aynan aI-Zavahiii caIIed lhe Noilh Cau-
casus one of lhiee piinaiy fionls in lhe vai againsl
lhe Wesl
1
~sonelhing nany in lhe Wesl, incIuding
Uniled Slales, have nol noliced. This is a lhieal nol
jusl lo Russia, lul aIso lo Luiope~and gIolaI slaliI-
ily. WhiIe Russia and Noilh Caucasian peopIes had
enduied vai, vioIence, and upheavaI since lhe 17OOs,
lhe iegions unpiecedenled eneigence as a cenlei of
gIolaI IsIanic leiioiisn is a iecenl phenonenon lhal
slailed in lhe nid-199Os.
Teiioiisn as a laclic anong Noilh Caucasus-
lased IsIanisl gioups is a iecenl liend lul has sviflIy
calapuIled inlo lhe piinaiy foin of vioIence againsl
Russia and lhe gIolaI SaIah-jihadi novenenls inlei-
nalionaI laigels. The iadicaI Noilh Caucasus gioups
incIude }anaal Shaiial (lhe Dageslani Iionl of lhe
Caucasus Lniiales Ained Ioices), Yainuk }anaal
(lhe Ained Ioices of lhe Uniled ViIayal |Iiovincej
of Kalaida-aIkaiia-Kaiachai), Ingush }anaal, Ri-
yyadus SaIihin headed ly Anii Khanzal, and Doku
2
Unaiovs Caucasus Lniiale, eslalIished in 2OO7 and
decIaied a leiioiisl oiganizalion ly lhe U.S. Slale De-
pailnenl on May 26, 2O11.
2
The goaIs of lhese gioups
incIude: 1) discouiage Russian aulhoiilies fion hghl-
ing lhe leiioiisls, vho have a Iong-vai slialegy lo
log dovn lheii adveisaiies vilh allacks on niIilaiy
and civiIian laigels, 2) spiead IsIanisl ideoIogy ly
exanpIe and ieciuil Noilh Caucasus youlh foi lhe
hoIy vai againsl Russia as veII as foi gIolaI jihad,
and, 3) hghl lo cieale lhe Caucasus eniiale (|nara|
Kat|az). The Iallei is a seIf-piocIained slale enlily
lhal vouId slielch ovei lhe enliie Noilh Caucasus. Ils
nain goaI is lo secede fion Russia and foin an inde-
pendenl slale, iuIed ly Shaiia Iav.
Teiioiisn in lhe Noilh Caucasus vas pioneeied ly
lhe Chechen hghleis in lhe 199Os, vhen foices con-
nanded ly ShaniI asayev execuled Ieivonaysk and
udyonnovsk allacks. In udyonnovsk in }une 1995,
195 leiioiisls Ied ly asayev look aiound 1,5OO civiI-
ians hoslage in lhe viIIage in lhe SlaviopoI Disliicl. As
a iesuIl of lhe allack, 129 peopIe veie kiIIed and 415
injuied. The opeialion vas a success foi lhe leiioiisls,
vho ieIeased lhe hoslages aflei Moscov gianled lhen
a safe passage lo Chechnya. In Ieivonaysk in }anu-
aiy 1996, a gioup of ieleI hghleis look 36 poIicenen
hoslage vhiIe liying lo cioss lhe neaily loidei inlo
Chechnya. They nanaged lo escape lhe seveiaI-day
siege of lhe viIIage conducled ly lhe Russian niIi-
laiy and nade il lo Chechnya, aIleil vilh signihcanl
casuaIlies (153 oul of seveiaI hundied ieleI hghleis
veie kiIIed).
3
The aslonishing Duliovka Thealei siege in 2OO2,
lhe 2OO5 esIan schooI nassacie, and lhe 2O11 Donod-
edovo Aiipoil lonling iepiesenl lhe exlenl lo vhich
Noilh Caucasian leiioiisls aie ieady lo hghl and kiII
3
foi gIolaI jihad. Hovevei, il appeais lhal lhe IsIanisl
hghleis adjusl lheii laclics and occasionaIIy iespond
lo pulIic ciilicisn. Ioi inslance, Doku Unaiov has
pulIicIy slaled lhal he oideied his hghleis lo slop ci-
viIian allacks.
4
He juslihed lhe oidei ly slaling lhal
Russian civiI sociely does nol suppoil lhe Iulin ie-
gine and is ils hoslage in lhe sane vay as lhe Chech-
en hghleis aie foi lheii independence. NeveilheIess,
lhe lhieal lo Russia and lhe voiId, incIuding civiIians,
ienains seveie.
In oidei lo piovide adequale poIicy, niIilaiy, and
secuiily soIulions, U.S. niIilaiy pIanneis and secu-
iily piovideis shouId undeisland lhe hisloiy, geog-
iaphy, poIilics, and ieIigious conicls lhal aie peili-
nenl lo lhe issue al hand. This is vhal lhis nonogiaph
allenpls lo acconpIish.
B'!"@#A @D ;$#D$#% $+*
(@)+"%#'+!)#&%+(A $Q@+& #)!!'$?!
($)($!)! P@#*%#Q$+*!
Russia and lhe nalions of lhe Noilhein Caucasus
have leen in peipeluaI conicl since lhe 18lh cenluiy,
vhen Russias niIilaiy undei Calheiine lhe Cieal an-
nexed lhe iegion inlo lhe Russian Lnpiie. Iion lhe
hisl Russian invasions of lhe aiea in lhe eaiIy 18lh

cenluiy lhiough lhe Caucasian Wai of 1817 lo 1864,
hisloiians and noveIisls, such as Leo ToIsloy (lhe au-
lhoi of Hadji Mura|, a shoil noveI) have depicled lhe
nuneious lallIes lelveen lhe Russians and lhe na-
lions lhal nake up lhe Caucasus and lheii conpIex
ieIalionships.
5
ToIsloy viiles:
The ied-haiied CanzaIo vas lhe onIy one Loiis-Me-
Iikov |a Russian ofhciaI, A.C.j did nol undeisland. He
4
sav lhal lhal nan vas nol onIy IoyaI lo ShaniI lul
feIl an insupeialIe aveision, conlenpl, iepugnance,
and halied foi aII Russians, and Loiis-MeIikov couId
lheiefoie nol undeisland vhy he had cone ovei lo
lhen. Il occuiied lo hin lhal, as sone of lhe highei
ofhciaIs suspecled, Hadji Muiads suiiendei and his
laIes of halied of ShaniI |lhe ieleI connandei, A.C.j
nighl le faIse, and lhal peihaps he had suiiendeied
onIy lo spy oul lhe Russians veak spols lhal, aflei
escaping lack lo lhe nounlains, he nighl le alIe lo
diiecl his foices accoidingIy. CanzaIos vhoIe peison
slienglhened lhis suspicion.
6
InpeiiaI Russia and sulsequenlIy lhe Soviel Union
have had a sulslanliaI inpacl on lhe hisloiy, idenlily,
and deveIopnenl of lhe enliie Caucasus. Tsaiisl Rus-
sia needed Noilh Caucasus lo secuie ils conneclions
lo and lhe iuIe ovei Soulhein Caucasus, lo eslalIish a
liidgehead againsl lhe Ollonan Lnpiie and Iian, and
lo exlend ils Iack Sea coaslIine. To capluie Noilhein
Caucasus, Russia used exlensive niIilaiy foice, elhnic
cIeansing, agiicuIluiaI coIonizalion, and oppiession
lo foice lhe IocaI IsIanic liiles undei ils iuIe.
7
Hovevei, since lhe hisl lallIes in lhe 18lh cenluiy
lhiough lhe piesenl day, Russia has faiIed lo fuIIy and
effecliveIy suppiess lhe sepaialisl lendencies of lhe
Noilhein Caucasian peopIes, vho have nainlained
lheii cuIluie, Ianguage, IsIanic ieIigion, and lheie-
foie, a dislincl and al lines hosliIe idenlily fion SIavic
Oilhodox Russians.
IsIan has leen an inlegiaI pail of Noilhein Cau-
casian idenlily since lhe Iale-7lh cenluiy,
8
vhen
Aial conqueiois hisl inlioduced il lo lhe iegion. Sone
IocaI liiles adopled lhe ieIigion Ialei lhan olheis. The
hisl lo do so veie lhose in Dageslan, specihcaIIy lhe
Avais and Lezgins, and lhis sIov IsIanizalion Iasled
5
fion ioughIy lhe 8lh lo lhe 12lh cenluiies. Chechens
veie nuch Ialei, adopling IsIan duiing lhe 15lh and
16lh cenluiies, vhiIe lhe nalions of lhe Weslein pail
of lhe Noilh Caucasus hnaIIy did so 2 cenluiies Ialei.
9

MeanvhiIe, lheii soulhein neighlois Ceoigia and
Ainenia conlinued lo foIIov lhe Chiislian Oilhodox
liadilion, each having ils ovn aulocephaIous Chuich.
Ioi an iIIuslialion of elhnic divisions in Noilh Cauca-
sus, see Map 1.
E.K N8 +<-,G (.42.646 %,G712 *1R161<768
NM
6
Despile eIenenls of paganisn anong lhe liiles,
and IsIan nol leing as fundanenlaIisl as in olhei ai-
eas, IsIan vas and ienains a signihcanl facloi lhal
heIped unify lhe nany diveise elhnic gioups of lhe
fiagnenled iegion. As seen on Map 1, lhe Caucasus is
hone lo a vaiiegaled coIIeclion of liiles, nalions, and
cuIluies lhal have Iived in a snaII aiea foi cenluiies
vilh conlinuous inleiliilaI sliife and Iiniled inleielh-
nic nixing. Lach of lhe enpiies, Russian, Ollonan,
Iianian, and MongoI, lhal have occupied lhe iegion
Iefl visilIe Iegacies.
#4661.?6 )6/ <H @R/-JG/=9170 D<-2/8
In oidei lo open niIilaiy naneuvei space in lhe
Soulh Caucasus, Iack Sea aiea, and lo piepaie liidge-
heads foi lhe onsIaughl againsl lhe decIining Ollonan
Lnpiie, Russian inpeiiaI foices legan lheii invasions
of lhe Noilh Caucasus slailing in lhe 18lh cenluiy and
conlinuing inlo lhe 19lh cenluiy. The inpeiiaI Ainy
and lhe Cossacks piinaiiIy used liulaI, oveivheIn-
ing foice lhal iesuIled in lhe conpIele devaslalion of
viIIages and lovns vilh high nunleis of dealhs and
iefugees.
11
Duiing lhe Caucasus vai, CeneiaI AIexei Ielio-
vich YeinoIov, lhe nosl pioninenl Russian geneiaI
in lhe heId, used lhe laclic of caiiols and slicks. As
a slick lo punish Chechen ieleIs connilling ciines
againsl lhe Russians, he used elhnic cIeansing, luined
dovn viIIages, and cul dovn foiesls. He vouId oidei
allacks even if he knev lhal Russian Iosses vouId le
signihcanl. YeinoIov punished lhe ieleIIious Chech-
ens ly luining lheii viIIages, deslioying lheii foices,
lealing lhen in skiinishes lhal nevei deveIoped inlo
7
lallIes, and, occasionaIIy even seeking lo vin lhen
ovei ly an unvanled dispIay of cIenency.
12
He viiles in his nenoiis:
In oidei lo punish lhe Chechens vho veie conslanlIy
iolling viIIages, . . . I vanled lo luin lhen oul of lhe
Aksayev Iands, vhich lhey inhaliled. . . . I knev lhal
allacking lheii viIIages in haidIy accessilIe and foiesl
aieas vouId Iead lo signihcanl casuaIlies on oui side,
if lhe viIIageis did nol ienove lheii vives, chiIdien
and piopeily hisl, lhey aIvays piolecl lhese despei-
aleIy, and onIy an exanpIe of an hoiioi can induce
lhen lo do so.
13
YeinoIov aIso used lhe scoiched eailh ap-
pioach, luining aII occupied leiiiloiies lo ashes in
oidei lo pievenl lhe depoiled popuIalion fion leing
lenpled lo iecoIonize lhe pIaces lhey once inhaliled.
HosliIe liiles veie pushed high inlo lhe nounlains
vheie nany slaived, vhiIe olheis veie foiced lo sel-
lIe in Russian-conlioIIed IovIands. These laclics gave
Russia lhe uppei hand and faciIilaled lhe suljugalion
of lhe Noilh Caucasus peopIes. Wilh lhese aclions,
YeinoIov and his discipIes pIanled lhe seeds of fuluie
halied lelveen lhe highIandeis of lhe Caucasus and
lhe Russians.
YeinoIov aIso nade use of caiiols, allenpling lo
Iuie lhe IocaI eIiles lo lhe Russian side lhiough vaiious
gifls and concessions. The IocaI eIiles veie ieciuiled lo
seive lhe Russians, and veie given saIaiies as if lhey
iepiesenled lhe Russian Ieadeiship in lhe aieas lhey
conlioIIed.
14
Cooplalion of and coopeialion vilh IocaI
elhnic eIiles vas a coineislone of lhe Russian enpiie
in geneiaI. In olhei voids, Russian Ieadeiship used
lheii counleipails fion lhe elhnic gioups lhey cane
lo doninale lo ensuie neliopoIilan iuIe.
8
Anolhei laclic voilh nenlioning is lhe fiequenl
use of aoa|iscs (Rus. zasc|i). These veie olslacIes
foined vilh lhe lianches of liees Iaid in a iov, vilh
lhe shaipened ends diiecled lovaid lhe eneny. The
liees aie usuaIIy inleiIaced oi lied vilh viie. I. Dio-
zdov, a conlenpoiaiy Russian ofhcei, viiles lhal lhe
Russian lioops luiIl aoa|iscs innedialeIy upon aiiiv-
ing al lhe Iocalion of lheii lenpoiaiy canp.
15
Once lhe
highIandeis allacked lhese defensive olslacIes, lhey
lecane an easy laigel foi Russian shooleis hidden
lehind lhen.
Yel, lhe highIandeis foughl lack. Inan ShaniI, a
poIilicaI and ieIigious Ieadei of lhe MusIin liiles of
lhe Noilh Caucasus, pul up lhe nosl heice iesislance
againsl lhe poveifuI Russian ainy foi 25 yeais (1834-
59). IniliaIIy, he liied lo avoid diiecl lallIes vilh lhe
Russian foices as he iecognized lhal his posilion vas
nol sound enough, and he did nol vish lo vasle Iives.
Inslead, he concenlialed on soIving inleinaI piolIens,
and foi a peiiod of line he vas alIe lo concenliale
his povei and avoid najoi confionlalions vilh lhe
Russian foices. VIadinii Degoyev, a Russian hislo-
iian and a conlenpoiaiy schoIai of Noilh Caucasus
hisloiy, quoles ShaniI, vho desciiled his hil-and-iun
laclics as haies iun.
16
Ovei line, lhe iadicaI nen-
leis of lhe inanale inlensihed piessuie on ShaniI lo
ievise lhese laclics and lecone noie aggiessive.
In lhe eaiIy-184Os, ShaniIs chaiisnalic Ieadeiship
aIIoved hin lo noliIize an ainy of noie lhan 1O,OOO
nen vilhin days. This nevIy ieaIized slienglh, con-
lined vilh lhe piessuie fion lhe IocaI eIile, nolivaled
ShaniI lo alandon lhe haies iun appioach and
lake advanlage of lhe nonenlun lo iniliale lioad
offensive aclions againsl lhe Russians. He huiiied
lo consoIidale his gains and conquei nev leiiiloiies.
He Ied lhe vai againsl lhe Russians as razziqa, a hoIy
9
vai in lhe nane of AIIah (aIso knovn as ained jihad
oi lhe hoIy vai), and knovn ly ils Russian/Cauca-
sus equivaIenl lein, gazata|. y piocIaining Iileia-
lion fion lhe oppiession of lhe inhdeI, ShaniI faciIi-
laled lhe consoIidalion of his povei ovei his nevIy
conqueied Iands.
VIadinii Degoyev viiles:
He |ShaniIj . . . had a chaiaclei lhal couId nol le in-
piessed ly peisonaI naleiiaI lenehls, vhich so nuch
salished olhei iuIeis vilh nol so nuch inlegiily and
vhich veie sonelhing lhal couId le liaded vilh Rus-
sia. ecause of lhis veiy ieason, il vas inconpaialIy
easiei foi Russia lo deaI vilh feudaI Ioids lhan lo deaI
vilh ShaniI. IoIilicaI, slale, ideoIogicaI and cuIluiaI
conceplions of ShaniI and Russia diveiged conpIele-
Iy, Ieaving no space foi an effeclive conpionise. Rus-
sia vas an olslacIe foi ShaniI, jusl Iike ShaniI vas an
olslacIe foi Russia.
17
UnIike lhe Russian vais vilh Tuikey and Iian,
vais vilh ShaniI veie noie difhcuIl, due lo his un-
expecled laclics deened lailaiian ly lhe Russians.
Degoyev viiles lhal lhe noie lhe Russian geneiaIs
adheied lo lhe convenlionaI laclics lhey veie laughl,
lhe noie Iosses lhey suffeied. ShaniI foiced lhe Rus-
sians lo hghl an unconvenlionaI vai, lo vhich lhey
had lioulIe adapling. His niIilaiy laIenl vas lased on
laking advanlage of lhe unique exiliIily of his lioops
and on undeislanding lhe inpossiliIily of defealing
lhe Russians in an open lallIe. Despile lhe inpiession
lhal ShaniIs laclics Iacked coheience, he aIvays had
a pIan lhal look inlo accounl lhe pecuIiaiilies of each
lallIe, especiaIIy lhe leiiain. He usuaIIy allacked lhe
anks and lhe ieai hisl, avoiding head-on cIashes.
ShaniI aIso paid due allenlion lo defense. He luiIl a
1O
seiies of defensive posls, each of vhich vas neanl lo
veaken and exhausl lhe eneny.
LxanpIes of such laclicaI successes incIude lhe
Ichkeiinsky allIe in 1842 and lhe allIe of Daigo in
May and }une 1845. The Ichkeiinsky allIe look pIace
fion May 3O lo }une 2, and lhe Chechens used laclics
of Ioose foinalion (Rus. rassqpncq s|rcq) and ni-
gialing ailiIIeiy, consisling noslIy of capluied can-
nons.
18
The Russians liied lo lake advanlage of lhe facl
lhal lhe nain foices of Inan ShaniI veie in Dages-
lan al lhal line. NeveilheIess, lhe Russians undei lhe
connand of Adjulanl-CeneiaI IaveI Cialle had lo
vilhdiav aflei Iosing 66 ofhceis.
In lhe allIe of Daigo, ShaniI and lhe highIand-
eis again avoided diiecl cIashes vilh lhe Russians.
They consliucled a seiies of foilihcalions, vhich gave
lhen line lo hie al lhe eneny as lhey veie oveicon-
ing each olslacIe. These laclics incieased lhe nunlei
of Russian casuaIlies lul veie insufhcienl lo keep lhe
Russians oul of Daigo. On }uIy 6, 1845, Daigo vas
conqueied ly lhe Russians.
19
efoie alandoning lhe
cily, lhey luined il lo lhe giound.
Duiing lhe 17lh lo lhe 19lh cenluiies, lhe alIands
noilh of lhe Teiek Rivei giaduaIIy cane undei con-
lioI of lhe Cossack sellIenenls and lhe Russian niIi-
laiy.
2O
WhiIe lhe Russians veie alIe lo inicl seiious
danage, lhe nounlainous leiiain soulh of lhe Teiek
pioved veiy difhcuIl foi lhe inpeiiaI niIilaiy. Chech-
en and foices of olhei nalions iesisling lhe Russians
couId hide and oiganize in lhe nounlains vhiIe de-
fending lhenseIves fion lhe advancing foices. This
enalIed lhe Noilh Caucasus lo lallIe lhe Russian in-
vasion foices Iong aflei lhe annexalion of Ceoigia in
18O1, Ainenia in lhe eaiIy-181Os, and Azeilaijan in
lhe Iale-182Os.
21
11
eyond niIilaiy suljugalion, lhe Russian Lnpiie
did nol have a cohesive slialegy lo inlioduce lhe Rus-
sian cuIluie lhiough sofl-povei neans lhal vouId
seek lo alliacl peopIes of lhe Caucasus lo lheii oilil.
Inslead, in pails of lhe iegion, lhe nain goaI of lhe
Russian Ieadeiship vas lo Iileiale lhe Caucasus
fion lhe IocaI indigenous peopIe via elhnic cIeans-
ing.
22
Nev Russian sellIenenls veie luiIl on lhe lei-
iiloiies enplied ly lhe advancing foices. These sellIe-
nenls veie lo seive as a neans of an evenluaI fuII
Russihcalion of lhe iegion and foi fuilhei penelialing
inlo lhe nounlainous leiiiloiies.
In oidei lo secuie lhe aiea aiound lhe sellIenenls,
Iaige anounls of foiesls veie cul dovn, foicing lhe
IocaIs lo alandon lheii confoilalIe Iiving aieas in lhe
IovIands. As I. Diozdov, a Russian ofhcei and eye
vilness, viole in 1877:
In Iale Ieliuaiy |1864j lhe Ishekh lallaIion noved lo
lhe iivei of Maile in oidei lo olseive hov lhe noun-
lain dveIIeis veie leing depoiled, and, if necessaiy,
in oidei lo evicl lhen ly foice. . . . The viev vas alio-
cious: scalleied coipses of chiIdien, vonen and eI-
deis, loin, ealen ly dogs, nigianls exhausled ly fan-
ine and diseases, vho couId laieIy nove, kepl faIIing
on lhe giound oul of exhauslion, leing ealen aIive ly
hungiy dogs. . . . On May 28, 1864, lhe Caucasian vai
vas ovei. The Kulan OlIasl |ioughIy coiiespond-
ing lo lodays Kiasnodai Kiay-A.C.j vas conqueied
as veII as cIeansed. OnIy a handfuI of peopIe veie
Iefl oul of a foineiIy Iaige popuIalion lhal once Iived
lheie.
23
Russia had Iiniled neans lo inlioduce lhe Chiis-
lian Oilhodox ieIigion as a neaningfuI aIleinalive lo
IsIan, since lhe Caucasian elhnic gioups, and especiaI-
Iy lheii Ieadeis, used IsIan as a unifying foice againsl
12
lhe Russians. Thus, lhe highIandei liiles vouId nevei
accepl lhe Russian Oilhodox Chuich, as il vas lhe
failh of lhe inhdeI eneny.
24
Wilh a Iiniled sofl-povei looI lox, lsaiisl Rus-
sia had lo ieIy on vioIence and lhe desliuclion of lhe
Noilh Caucasus liiles lo conlioI lhe iegion. Though
lhey nanaged lo coIonize lhe iegion ouliighl, niIilaiy
povei nevei fuIIy exlinguished lhe desiie anong in-
digenous peopIes lo shake off lhe Russian yoke. One
of lhe Noilh Caucasus nalions lhal vas a viclin of lhe
Russian expansionaiy poIicy vas lhe Ciicassians. The
liagedy of lhe Ciicassians vas lhal lhey veie unalIe
lo unile againsl lhe connon eneny. The 12 slais on
lhe cuiienl ag of Adygea synloIize lhe 12 oiiginaI
Ciicassian liiles, aIlhough lheii ieaI nunlei vas aI-
IegedIy even highei.
25
A piince Ied each liile, and lhe
nunlei of inleinaI dispules anong lhe liiles vas sig-
nihcanl. Theii divisiveness deleinined lhe oulcone
of lheii vai againsl lhe Russian foices. Having Iosl,
enliie Ciicassian cIans veie foiced lo ee lheii hone-
Iand, and nosl of lhen did nol suivive. They eilhei
diovned in lhe sea on lheii vay lo AnaloIia vhen lhe
oveiIoaded Tuikish loals sank, oi died fion hungei
and diseases in ieIocalion canps.
26
Il is voilh noling lhal Russia vas nol lhe onIy
povei lhal used haish nelhods lo enIaige ils leiiiloiy
and suljugale lhe peopIe lhal Iived aIong ils peiin-
elei oi in lhe coIonies. The 19lh cenluiy vas one of
sliuggIe of Iaige poveis foi doninance, and siniIai
appioaches veie used ly olhei enpiies, such as lhe
iilish, Iiench, Ollonan, as veII as lhe expanding
Uniled Slales.
13
$D"%# ;@#Q* ;$# '
IoIIoving WoiId Wai I and duiing lhe Russian
CiviI Wai (1918-21), Chechnya iniliaIIy suppoiled
lsaiisl foices. Hovevei, Ialei il svilched sides and
suppoiled lhe oIsheviks. The ieason foi lhis vas a
seiies of nyopic nislakes nade ly CeneiaI Anlon De-
nikin, lhe connandei of lhe anli-connunisl (While)
soulhein Russian foices, in his liealnenl of lhe Noilh
Caucasus nalions. Iiisl, Denikin ignoied lhe IeveI of
aIienalion and lhe alheisn lhe oIsheviks inposed on
lhe liadilionaI Iife of lhe MusIin highIandeis. Second,
lIinded ly lhe inpeiiaIisn peinealing olhei lsaiisl
geneiaIs (Russia one and undivided), Denikin and
his nen luined lhe highIandei peopIes againsl lhen.
27

The While foices nyopicaIIy vieved lhis slialegy as
a nev conquesl of lhe Caucasus, vhich did nol aI-
Iov foi aIIiances vilh lhe IocaI Chechen and Ingush
Ieadeiship, vho iniliaIIy veie viIIing lo hghl lhe Red
Ainy on lhe side of lhe Whiles.
IiaclicaI aclions of Denikin onIy inlensihed lhe
aIienalion of lhe Noilh Caucasus peopIe fion lhe
While ainy. He punished lhe Chechens and vanl-
ed lhen lo pay lack foi aII Iosses suffeied ly
lhe Don and Kulan Cossacks, vho foughl on lhe
lsaiisl side. olh lhe Chechens and lhe Ingush ie-
sponded vilh a heice iesislance and expeIIed Deni-
kins foices fion lhe aiea. Olhei slialegic nislakes
added lo lhe Chechen and Ingush dehance. }usl
Iike YeinoIov noie lhan haIf a cenluiy lefoie hin,
Denikin nade use of scoiched eailh laclics, vhich
fuilhei aIienaled lhe Noilh Caucasian nalionaIilies.
28
The nev Soviel Ieadeiship nade ils ovn nislakes
in lhe Noilh Caucasus. Il vas openIy hosliIe lovaid
IsIan, iudeIy ignoied lhe nounlaineeis liadilions
14
and used lhe lolaI expiopiialion appioach of niIilaiy
connunisn lhal exisled in Russia in 1918-21.
29
They
piovided foi lhe aloIilion of piivale lanks, nalionaI-
izalion of indusliy, cenliaI pIanning, goveinnenl no-
nopoIy on conneice, equaI disliilulion of naleiiaI
goods, and nandaloiy Ialoi.
3O
This appioach of lhe
Connunisls quickIy cooIed dovn lhe enlhusiasn of
lhe nounlaineeis, vho iniliaIIy veIconed lhe aiiivaI
of lhe Red Ainy. Hovevei, despile lheii nislakes, lhe
Soviels veie viIIing, al Ieasl on papei, lo gianl lhen a
ceilain IeveI of aulonony, piocIained in lhe DecIaia-
lion of lhe Righls of lhe IeopIes of Russia.
31
Despile
lheii pionises, disiIIusionnenl vilh lhe Red diclaloi-
ship sel in quickIy.
!,.=17 (-.2S6 *<J78
Duiing lhe line of lhe Russian CiviI Wai (1918-21)
and lhe eslalIishnenl of lhe Soviel Union (1922), lhe
Red Ainy ciushed lhe Caucasian ievoIl vilh neici-
Iessness siniIai lo lhal of lhe Tsai. Aflei lhe defeal
of lhe While Ainies, incIuding lhe ones of lhe Don
and lhe Kulan Cossacks, lhe Soviel Union ielained
elhnic Russians doninance ovei lhe iegion using lhe
nev niIilaiy lechnoIogies of WoiId Wai I: lanks, aii-
povei, nodein ailiIIeiy, and chenicaI veapons. The
Caucasus liiles, on lhe olhei hand, veie piinaiiIy us-
ing lhe sane veapons lhey had in lhe 18lh and 19lh
cenluiies.
32
Then an elhnic Ceoigian, }oseph SlaIin, loin Iosif
(Soso) DjugashviIi in lhe Ceoigian lovn of Coii, le-
cane, hisl, lhe Connissai foi NalionaIilies, and lhen
lhe Ieadei of lhe Soviel Union. The peopIes of lhe
Caucasus enleied inlo a nev chaplei of ieIalions vilh
Moscov lhal vouId soon see lheii nalions loin oul al
lhe iools.
15
As WoiId Wai II iaged, SlaIin accused Noilh-
ein Caucasus peopIes, especiaIIy Chechens, Ingush,
Kaiachays, and aIkais (as veII as KaInyks and
Ciinean Talais), of lieason againsl lhe slale and aI-
Ieged coIIusion vilh lhe Nazis, despile lhe Iack of
any ciedilIe evidence.
33
AIlhough nany Caucasian
highIandeis foughl vaIianlIy in lhe Red Ainy in
WoiId Wai II, SlaIin punished even veleians, lheii
faniIies, and lheii nalions vilh dealh, inpiison-
nenl, and liulaI ieIocalion lo Sileiia and CenliaI
Asia. In lhis elhnic cIeansing, up lo one-lhiid of
Chechens died.
The opeialion ained al depoiling lhe Chechens
and lhe Ingush fion lheii hones in lhe Noilh Cau-
casus, caIIed Opeialion LLNTIL, slailed in Ieliuaiy
1944. Accoiding lo a calIe senl lo SlaIin ly eiia, vho
peisonaIIy supeivised lhe expuIsion, 478,479 Chech-
ens and Ingush veie depoiled vilhin lhe hisl veek
of lhe opeialion.
34
The dala on lhe lolaI nunlei of de-
poiled peopIe vaiy. A calIe senl lo SlaIin in }uIy 1944
slales lhal 6O2,193 peopIe veie noved fion lhe Noilh
Caucasus inlo lhe Kazakh and Kyigyz Soviel SociaIisl
RepulIics, nosl of vhon veie Chechens and Ingush
(428,948), foIIoved ly Kaiachays (68,327) and aIkais
(37,4O6). Anolhei calIe Iisls lhe lolaI nunlei of de-
poiled Chechens, Ingush, KaInyks, and Kaiachays as
65O,OOO.
35
The excuse and foinaI juslihcalion lo undeilake
lhese depoilalions vaiied fion nalion lo nalion, lul
veie of a siniIai naluie. Ioi inslance, lhe Kaiachays
veie accused of lieacheious lehavioi, joining Cei-
nan-oiganized lallaIions in oidei lo hghl lhe Soviel
Ieadeiship, leliaying honesl Soviel cilizens lo lhe Cei-
nans, acconpanying lhe Ceinan lioops and shoving
lhen lhe vay. . .
36
Aflei lhe end of lhe vai, lhey veie
16
accused of iesisling Soviel aclions, and hiding lan-
dils and Ceinan agenls. KaInyks veie chaiged vilh
leliaying lhe MolheiIand, joining Ceinan lallaIions
in oidei lo hghl lhe Red Ainy, leliaying honesl Soviel
cilizens lo lhe Ceinans, and giving lhe Ceinans con-
nunaI callIe fion lhe Roslov OlIasl and Ukiaine.
SiniIaiIy lo lhe Kaiachays aflei lhe vai lhe KaInyks
veie accused of acliveIy iesisling Soviel effoils of ie-
luiIding lhe econony deslioyed ly lhe Ceinans and
leiioiizing lhe suiiounding popuIalion.
37
Ciinean
Talais veie aIIegedIy guiIly of lieacheious aclions
againsl lhe Soviel nalion.
38
Like his lsaiisl piedecessois, in lhe pIace of lhe
punished gioups, SlaIin iesellIed elhnic Russians in
oidei lo doninale lhe indigenous elhnicilies lhiough
denogiaphic vaifaie ialhei lhan convenlionaI vai-
faie aIone. Since lhe Soviel Union nandaled an alhe-
isl sociely, lhe KienIin aIso ciacked dovn on IsIan,
culling lies vilh oveiseas inslilulions of Ieaining and
lanning Hajj. SlaIins idea vas lo change Noilh Cau-
casian liilaI and IsIanic civiIizalion and cuIluie lo
lhe sociaIisl ieaIisl faie lhe iesl of lhe counliy vas aI-
ieady expeiiencing. The connunisl paily shul dovn
nosques, hounded nuIIahs, deslioyed uddhisl non-
asleiies of lhe KaInyks, and nuideied oi inpiisoned
lhe Ianas.
Aflei Nikila Khiushchevs iecognilion of SlaIins
aliocilies and lhe cuIl of peisonaIily, he aIIoved
exiIed Chechen, Ingush, and olheis lo ieluin lo lheii
nalive Iands fion lhe exiIe as a pail of Khiushchevs
lhav poIicies duiing his ieign. WhiIe nany (lul nol
aII) ieluined lo lheii ancesliaI honeIands, lhey sliII
veie unalIe lo fuIIy piaclice lheii ieIigion and sone of
lheii cuIluiaI liadilions due lo lhe iesliiclions pIaced
on aII Soviel cilizens. As a iesuIl, lhe iennanls of lheii
17
cuslons venl undeigiound, hovevei, as liilaI eIdeis
found gieal difhcuIly in liansfeiiing lheii liadilions
and piaclices lo lhe young, aflei iepaliialion in 1956-
57, Noilh Caucasus lecane leiefl of cuIluiaI and ie-
Iigious Ieadeis vho vouId pieseive lhe IsIanic Suh
liadilion duiing posl-SlaIinisl Soviel peiiod.
39
This
ieIigious and cuIluiaI vacuun in lhe iegion lecane
feiliIe giounds foi lhe nev SaIah foins of IsIan lhal
inhIlialed Noilh Caucasus in 199Os, and encounleied
IillIe conpelilion fion lhe liadilionaI, nodeiale foins
of IsIan.
4O
(@QQ$>!% @D "B% )+'@+ @D !@T'%"
!@('$Q'!" #%>)PQ'(! $+* "B% D'#!"
(B%(B%+ ;$# UQ$"%VNWXM6 "@ NWWOY
Duiing lhe Iasl yeais of lhe Soviel Union lhiough
lhe eaiIy yeais of lhe Russian Iedeialion, Chechnya
and Dageslan shoved lhe nosl pioIihc ienaissance of
IsIan and nalionaIisn anong aII lhe Noilhein Cau-
casus. Wilh lhe Soviel ideoIogicaI conlioI leginning
lo disappeai, nosl peopIe in lhe iegion ievived lheii
sense of ieIigious, elhnic, and cuIluiaI idenlily, vhich
had exisled lefoie lhe USSR. One ieason foi lhe quick
iise in nalionaIisn and lhe quesl foi independence
vas lhe inpacl of lhe lsaiisl oppiession and SlaIinisl
expuIsions. Though nol lhe onIy elhnic gioup lo suffei
fion elhnic cIeansing ly lhe Ronanoff enpiie oi So-
viel Russia, lhe Chechen Ieadeiship of lhe eaiIy-199Os
consisled of hguies vho veie loin and/oi iaised in
exiIe in Kazakhslan~and loie lhe giudge.
41
NalionaIisn and lhe lillei nenoiies lhal uniled
lhe Chechen peopIe againsl lhe Moscov-lased Russian
goveinnenl ciealed lhe sliong yeaining foi Chechen
independence, vhiIe olhei Caucasian iepulIics veie
18
Iess ieleIIious. In addilion, fion lhe 198Os lhiough lhe
199Os, IsIan vas going lhiough a ienaissance. AII of
lhe Noilh Caucasus iepulIics expeiienced an inciease
in IsIanic aclivily, pailIy as a iesuIl of g|asncs| and
lhe Russians inaliIily lo ieguIale ieIigion and pailIy
due lo opening of lhe loideis lo oulgoing and in-
coning ieIigiousIy-ieIaled liaveI, incIuding Hajj and
sludy alioad.
42
Nev foins of IsIan, hovevei, had oiigins oulside
of lhe iegion. The nevIy inlioduced SaIah/Wahhali
secls veie iadicaI and had iools in Saudi Aialia and
in SaIahsn lhioughoul lhe MiddIe Lasl and Iakislan.
These inpoiled ieIigious leacheis veie veII-hnanced,
and lheii foIIoving diev on lhe fanalicisn and en-
lhusiasn of lhe sepaialisls, ieady lo use foice and
failh lo achieve lheii goaIs. IniliaIIy, nosl of Noilh
Caucasus sociely, especiaIIy lhe eIdeis, iejecled lhese
IsIanisl inpoils. They had no desiie lo adopl noveI
foins of IsIan luiIl on iadicaIisn lhal vouId seek lo
oveihauI lhe liadilions lhal lhe iegion had foughl lo
uphoId foi geneialions and soughl lo pieseive and lo
iesuiiecl. MeanvhiIe, nany youngei peopIe had IillIe
knovIedge and appiecialion of lhe hisloiicaI connec-
lions lelveen lhenseIves and lheii heiilage, vhich
nade lhen vuIneialIe lo iadicaI IsIans inuence
and appeaI.
43
In lhe eaiIy-199Os, lhe socio-econonic silualion
in lhe Soviel Union/Russia and lhe Noilhein Cauca-
sus shaipIy deleiioialed, undeinining lhe hopes foi
a peacefuI and piospeious posl-Soviel fuluie vhiIe
quielIy inlegialing inlo posl-connunisl Russian Ied-
eialion. The chaolic disinlegialion of lhe Soviel Union
Ied lo lhe independence of 14 iepulIics and lo lhe cie-
alion of lhe Russian Iedeialion undei lhe Ieadeiship
of oiis YeIlsin.
19
In lhe Soulh Caucasus, lhe foinei Soviel SociaIisl
RepulIics of lhe USSR, Ainenia, Ceoigia, and Azei-
laijan lecane independenl slales in 1991. The Noilh
Caucasus iegion consisled of Aulononous Soviel
SociaIisl RepulIics (ASSRs), vhich veie suloidinale
lo lhe Russian Soviel Iedeialive SociaIisl RepulIic
(RSISR). When lhe Soviel Union dissoIved, Moscov
vouId nol aulhoiize lhese nalions, vhich consliluled
aulononous iepulIics, lo cieale soveieign slales.
44
As a iesuIl of lhe lieakup of lhe Soviel Union,
Moscov vilnessed lhe Ioss of ils enpiie, incIuding
iegions lhal had lolh a geoslialegic vaIue and veie
consideied IegilinaleIy undei Russian conlioI due lo
decades spenl conqueiing lhen. Iiesidenl YeIlsin and
lhe najoiily of Russian eIiles, incIuding IileiaIs and
nalionaIisls, leIieved lhal fuilhei Iosses of Russian
leiiiloiy lo secession of vaiious nalionaI-leiiiloiiaI au-
lononous iepulIics couId liing aloul lhe disinlegia-
lion of lhe Russian hisloiic coie. Needing lo pieseive
vhal vas Iefl of lhe MolheiIand, YeIlsin couId nol
affoid lo yieId independence lo any ieleI leiiiloiy.
His fanous phiase, lake as nuch soveieignly as you
can caiiy avay, appIied lo pacihc Iands, viIIing lo
palienlIy and peacefuIIy negoliale disagieenenls,
such as Talaislan, nol lhe ieleI Chechnya.
45
Thus, Russias appioach lo posl-Soviel Chech-
nya has leen a nix of nodein slialegic goaIs of slale
pieseivalion and iesislance lo cenliifugaI piocesses,
logelhei vilh olsoIescenl niIilaiy laclics of ovei-
vheIning, inpiecise hie povei, han-handed coun-
leiinsuigency, and iools daling lack lo lhe Caucasus
vais of lhe 18lh and 19lh cenluiies.
Aiound lhe line of lhe dissoIulion of lhe Soviel
Union, foinei Soviel Aii Ioice geneiaI Dzhokhai Du-
dayev, an elhnic Chechen, vas eIecled piesidenl of
lhe Aulononous RepulIic of Chechnya on Oclolei
27, 1991, vhich ienained a pail of lhe nev Russian
Iedeialion. He gained 9O.1 peicenl of lhe voles,
46
aI-
lhough his opponenls accused hin of faIsifying lhe
iesuIls. Upon vilnessing lhe independence of foinei
Soviel saleIIiles in Laslein Luiope and Union iepul-
Iics, sone of lhen snaIIei lhan Chechnya, Dudayev
decIaied Chechnya independenl as lhe Chechen Re-
pulIic of Ichkeiia innedialeIy upon his eIeclion.
47
Wilh lhe Chechen decIaialion of independence and
lhe Russian iesislance, lolh sides ieveiled lo an aclive
slale of hosliIily. On Novenlei 8, YeIlsin issued a de-
ciee decIaiing a slale of eneigency in Chechnya. In
1992, Russia and lhe Chechen sepaialisls heId seveiaI
iounds of fiuilIess laIks dedicaled lo lhe noinaIiza-
lion of ieIalions. The yeai 1993 can le chaiacleiized ly
lhe KienIins confionlalion vilh lhe ieleIIious anli-
YeIlsin paiIianenl, naking inlegialion inpossilIe.
Aflei a peiiod of a dc fac|c Chechen independence in
1991-94, in lhe faII of 1994 YeIlsin and his adninislia-
lion iefocused on lhe Noilh Caucasus. In Decenlei
1994, Moscov ie-invaded Chechnya.
"G/ D1-6, (G/2G/7 ;.- UNWWOVWZY8
The condilions al lhe leginning of lhe Iiisl Chech-
en Wai veie siniIai lo nany cases of decoIonizalion
voiIdvide. The neliopoIis vas veakened ly inleinaI
sliife, vhiIe lhe peiipheiaI eIile desiied lo shake Ioose
lhe inpeiiaI chains. ReIalions lelveen Chechnya and
Russia veie conlenlious. Svanle L. CoineII poinls oul
lhal lhe Chechen niIilaiy eIile vas nol inleiesled in a
negolialed diaIogue vilh Moscov lo cieale a conpio-
nise lhal vouId aIIov Chechnya lo Iive in peacefuI
coexislence vilhin lhe Russian Iedeialion.
48
In facl,
2O
21
olhei MusIin-najoiily iegions Iike Talaislan, ash-
koiloslan, and nany of lhe Noilh Caucasian iepulIics
nanaged lo cone lo agieenenls vilh Iiesidenl YeIl-
sin on lheii conslilulionaI slalus.
49
SeveiaI ieasons can
expIain lhis diffeience. Iiisl, conpaied lo lhe olhei
Russian iepulIics, Chechnyas popuIalion is highIy
honogenous. Accoiding lo lhe 2OO2 census, lhe shaie
of Chechens vas 93.5 peicenl.
5O
In conliasl, onIy 52.9
peicenl of lhe popuIalion of Talaislan vas Talais and
aInosl 4O peicenl veie Russians. SiniIaiIy, in ash-
koiloslan, lhe Iaigesl elhnic gioup in 2OO2 vas lhe
Russians (36.1 peicenl), foIIoved ly lhe ashkiis (29.5
peicenl) and Talais (25.4 peicenl). Russians in Dages-
lan consliluled onIy 4.7 peicenl of lhe popuIalion in
2OO2. Hovevei, lhe popuIalion of Dageslan does nol
have a najoiily elhnic gioup, lul inslead is nade up
of seveiaI nain nalionaIilies, such as lhe Avais (29.4
peicenl), Daigyns (16.5 peicenl), and Kuniks (14.2
peicenl). Il vas noie difhcuIl foi lhe non-Russian
popuIalions of Talaislan, ashkoiloslan, and nosl
olhei iepulIics of lhe RSISR lo oiganize sliong nove-
nenls foi independence, since lhey did nol have a
doninanl elhnic gioup as a secessionisl suppoil lase.
Second, Chechen sepaialisls veie suppoiled ly
oulside foices. Accoiding lo a Russian souice, foieign
neicenaiies fion 15 counliies foughl lhe Russian fed-
eiaI foices in lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai.
51
In lhe Second
Chechen Wai of 1999-2OOO, lhe nunlei of lhe coun-
liies iepiesenled iose lo 52. In 2OOO, lhe nunlei of
foieign neicenaiies ieached 6OO-7OO peopIe.
Thiid, lhe Chechen Ieadeiship vas sel againsl any
deaI vilh Russia. In his Iasl inleiviev, foinei Russian
defense ninislei IaveI Ciachev discusses hov neilhei
he noi Dudayev vanled vai.
52
Ciachev says Dudayev
nusl have ieacled (ly decIaiing independence), le-
22
cause Moscov alIy iefused lo laIk lo hin, and in
such a silualion, lhe Chechen Ieadeiship and nalion
vouId iejecl Dudayevs inaclion.
The najoiily of lhe Chechen eIile leIieved lhal in-
dependence vas lhe soIe oplion, and lhal lheii peopIe
couId Iive fieeIy and peacefuIIy onIy if lhey had a
cIean lieak fion Russia.
53
This enduiing poIilicaI phi-
Iosophy anong lhe Chechens vas veiy siniIai lo lheii
unviIIingness lo conpionise vilh inpeiiaI Russian
foices, leginning vilh lhe hisl invasions in lhe 18lh
cenluiy and lo lheii iefusaI lo acquiesce lo Russias
occupalion evei since. The SlaIinisl expuIsions in lhe
194Os and lhe allenpled eiadicalion of IsIan in lhe
iegion onIy conhined vhal lhe Chechens leIieved foi
cenluiies: The Russians couId nol le ieIied upon lo
piolecl lhen and lo ensuie lheii fieedon lo Iive hov
lhey vish.
NonelheIess, lhe negolialions Iasled fion Maich
1992 lo }anuaiy 1993, lul lhe laIks uIlinaleIy faiIed.
54

The KienIin lhen liied lo inpIenenl a coeicive
dipIonacy appioach ly adopling a noie leIIigei-
enl lone lovaid lhe Chechen Ieadeis in an allenpl
lo conpeI lhen lo nake a deaI siniIai lo lheii olhei
MusIin counleipails, lul lhese effoils aIso faiIed. In
Novenlei 1994, lhe Russians liied lo execule a coup
againsl Dudayev, in pail ly oiganizing pio-Moscov
Chechens lo ousl lheii Ieadei.
55
The allenpled coup
vas a nassive defeal foi lhe Russians.
efoie lhe vai, Defense Minislei Ciachev nade a
faiIed allenpl lo liansfoin lhe Noilh Caucasus inlo
a luffei niIilaiy disliicl neanl lo shieId Russia fion
lhe inslaliIily in lhe Soulh Caucasus. This slep vouId
nean sending lhe lesl lallaIions inlo lhe iegion. Whal
happened in ieaIily vas lhe exacl opposile. Mosl of
lhe lallaIions noved lo lhe Noilh Caucasus veie
23
unpiepaied foi lhe vai and aInosl lolaIIy Iosl lheii
hghling aliIily duiing lhe vai. Tiying lo conlain lhis
negalive liend, lhe niIilaiy Ieadeiship liied lo pul lo-
gelhei lallaIions lhal veie sliII alIe lo hghl, lul even
lhis slialegy luined oul lo le insufhcienl lo defeal lhe
Chechen gueiiIIa hghleis.
IoIIoving lhe seiies of faiIuies, Moscov inlensi-
hed ils effoils. The Russian niIilaiy Ieadeiship nisin-
leipieled lhe Dudayev goveinnenls Iack of engage-
nenl vilh pio-Moscov Chechens as a veakness oi a
hapIessness on lhe pail of lhe sepaialisls. They did
nol ieaIize, accoiding lo IIyas Akhnadov and Miii-
an Lanskoy c| a|., lhal lhe Chechens veie hesilanl lo
kiII each olhei in lhe feai lhal lhis vouId spaik lIood
feuds and vendellas lelveen Chechen cIans lhal had
pIagued lhe nalion cenluiies lefoie.
56
Vendellas aie a
pail of lhe liilaI cuIluie of lhe Caucasus Mounlains.
In pail, as a iesuIl of lhis niscaIcuIalion, Russian
foices assuned lhal any incuision inlo Ciozny vouId
le easy and incui vilh nininaI Russian casuaIlies.
They veie viong. Ioi lhe iII-faled Novenlei 1994
invasion, lhe IedeiaI CounleiinleIIigence Seivice had
assenlIed eIile lank squadions foi an allack on Cio-
zny. Chechen foices anlushed lhen vilh ease and
look nany Russian soIdieis as piisoneis. This faiI-
uie spaiked ciilicisn of lhen-defense ninislei IaveI
Ciachev, vho had fanousIy said lhal he vouId cap-
luie Ciozny vilh one paialioops lallaIion in 2 houis.
57

He Ialei juslihed his slalenenl ly slaling lhal il vouId
ieaIIy have leen possilIe pioviding lhal he couId hghl
ly aII lhe iuIes of vaifaie, neaning lhe avaiIaliIily
of unIiniled avialion, ailiIIeiy, elc. In such case, he
cIained, lhe ienaining ieleI hghlei lands couId have
ieaIIy leen deslioyed oi capluied vilh one aiiloine
lallaIion. ul lhis vas an ex-posl-faclo juslihcalion.
24
The Russian ieaclion lo lhe huniIialing faiIuie lo
capluie Ciozny vas lo loosl ils foices and essenliaIIy
decIaie vai, ielake Chechnya, and iesloie Russian
piide and conlioI. The Russian assauIl on Ciozny le-
gan in Decenlei 1994 and vas nel vilh heavy iesis-
lance fion lhe Chechen foices on lhe giound. In oidei
lo enguIf Chechnya in a shock-and-ave assauIl, lhe
Russian niIilaiy suljecled Ciozny and olhei najoi
Chechen cilies lo an inlense aii lonlaidnenl lhal aII
lul olIileialed lhen, iesuIling in lens of lhousands of
civiIian casuaIlies and hundieds of lhousands of ief-
ugees.
58
They veie lhe hisl Russian cilies deslioyed
since WoiId Wai II~and as ulleiIy as lhe cilies olIil-
eialed ly lhe Nazis.
Aflei 2 nonlhs of iniliaI engagenenl, lhe Russian
ainy conqueied nosl of Chechnya and foiced lhe
sepaialisls lo ee inlo lhe soulhein nounlains, vheie
lhey iegiouped.
59
Despile Dudayevs assassinalion
in ApiiI 1996 ly a Russian piecision-guided nissiIe,
Chechen foices successfuIIy iecapluied Ciozny fion
lhe Russians aflei a fev days of hghling, lolh sides
signed a cease-hie agieenenl knovn as lhe Khasavy-
uil Accoid a fev veeks lheieaflei.
6O
Duiing lhis vai, lhe Chechen ieleIs Iaunched lheii
hisl leiioiisl allack and hoslage slandoff on a hospi-
laI in udyonnovsk in SlavopoIsky Kiai. The gueiiIIa
connando unil, Ied ly ShaniI asayev, consisled of
aloul 15O Chechen ieleIs. On }une 14, 1995, lhe lei-
ioiisls sloined lhe unguaided hospilaI and look 2,OOO
hoslages.
61
The Russian SpeciaI Ioices veie caIIed
in lhe foIIoving day,
62
and lhe opeialion lo neuliaI-
ize lhe ieleIs vas Iaunched on }une 17. Hovevei, il
faiIed lo conpIeleIy Iileiale lhe hospilaI. On }une 18,
Iiine Minislei Vikloi Cheinonyidin negolialed vilh
asayev ovei lhe phone and accepled sone of a-
25
sayevs denands, incIuding a safe passage lo Chech-
nya. Duiing lhe siege, 129 peopIe died and 415 veie
injuied.
63
This is lhe eaiIiesl leiioiisl allack ciediled
lo lhe Chechens, and is leIieved lo have ieinvigo-
ialed lhe hghl againsl lhe Russians.
64
This is aIso lhe
Iaigesl hoslage laking evenl evei lo occui in Russian
leiiiloiy.
65
"G/ (G/2G/7 ".2,1268
An inpoilanl hguie lhal suppoiled lhe Chechens
in lheii sepaialisl effoils againsl Moscov vas Iln aI-
Khallal, a Saudi cilizen vho joined lhe Chechen vai
in Iale 1994. Khallal secuied inleinalionaI hnancing
of lhe sepaialisls, piocuiing veapons and luiIding
leiioiisl piepaialion canps in Chechnya. One of lhe
nosl inpoilanl eIenenls of lhe hosliIilies in Chechnya
vas a snipei vai. Snipeis veie heaviIy ieIied upon
on lhe Chechen side, and lhe Russian fedeiaI foices
iesponded in lhe sane vay.
The Chechen sepaialisls avoided diiecl conlacl
vilh lhe Russian foices. They piefeiied opeialing in
snaII unils of lhiee lo hve peopIe.
66
These unils in-
cIuded a snipei, an iockel-piopeIIed gienade (RIC)
opeialoi/gienade Iaunchei, a nachine gunnei, and
one oi lvo sulnachine gunneis. Theii laclics veie as
foIIovs: lhe nain gioup opens hie al lhe fedeiaI foic-
es, vhiIe a snipei, oflen hidden in a liee and shieIded
ly lhe noise of lhe lallIe, neuliaIizes lhen. The sepa-
ialisls piefeiied shoil and fiequenl hie engagenenls
lo avoid casuaIlies.
The laclics of hghling lioikas (Rus. ocqctaqa
|rci|a) deseive speciaI allenlion. Il consisled of one
snipei, one gienade Iaunchei, and one sulnachine
gunnei. In a niIilaiy opeialion, lhe gunnei inilialed
26
lhe lallIe ly opening hie al lhe eneny lo piovoke
lhen lo hie lack. The snipei idenlihed lhe souices
of lhe enenys hie and deslioyed lhen. MeanvhiIe,
lhe gienade Iaunchei deslioyed ainoied vehicIes and
nachineiy. If lhe hghling lioika vas on lhe defense,
il quickIy anlushed lhe Russian foices and hid in lhe
suiiounding aiea. Once lhe Russian allack legan, lhe
sepaialisls veie alIe lo shool al lhe eneny soIdieis
fion lheii hiding pIaces onIy a shoil dislance (1OO-15O
yaids) avay. Snipeis laigeled lhe Russian connand-
eis and lhe nosl aclive soIdieis in oidei lo spiead
panic anong lhe Russian lioops.
The Chechens aIso videIy used vounded Russian
lioops as lail. They inlenlionaIIy did nol kiII lhen,
lul vailed lo anlush lhe Russian soIdieis vho cane
lo heIp lheii vounded coniades. Once lhe nunlei of
lhe vounded Russian lioops vas Iaige enough, lhe
Chechens syslenalicaIIy kiIIed lhen.
The Russians used a conlinalion of caiiols and
slicks.
67
The Russian Ieadeiship Ied an aclive canpaign
anong lhe Chechen popuIalion, caIIing upon il lo pei-
suade lhe ieleIs lo Ieave lheii viIIages. MeanvhiIe, lhe
Russians kepl laking conlioI of high giounds aiound
Chechen lovns, vhich iendeied any ained iesislance
neaningIess. These laclics aIIoved lhe Russians lo
capluie lhe lovns of Aigun, Cudeines, and ShaIi
vilhoul hghling in 1995.
In lallIes, lhe Russians used nassive hie laiiages,
vhich luined oul lo le a viong slialegy foi lhe lype
of vaifaie lhey faced in Chechnya.
68
Russian genei-
aIs veie using slialegies lhal vouId le appiopiiale
in a Iaige-scaIe niIilaiy opeialion vilh a cIeaiIy de-
hned lallIefionl, lul nol foi gueiiIIa vai in Chech-
nya. Chechen lallaIions veie highIy noliIe, lhey kepl
spIilling inlo snaIIei sulunils, vhich Ialei ieuniled.
27
This Russian niscaIcuIalion, logelhei vilh a supeiioi
knovIedge of lhe nounlain Iandscape, aIIoved lhe
Chechens lo avoid Russian ailiIIeiy hie and aii sliikes.
Theie vas no cIeai lallIefionl, and lhe fedeiaI foices
had lo lonl civiIian oljecls, causing nonconlalanl
casuaIlies and uniling lhe Chechen peopIe againsl lhe
Russian niIilaiy. In olhei voids, lhe Russians veie
iepealing lhe nislakes of lheii 19lh-cenluiy foiefa-
lheis, Aneiican connandeis in Vielnan, and lhe So-
viels in Afghanislan.
Wilh lhe liaining lhal Chechen Ieadeis ieceived
vhiIe in lhe Soviel niIilaiy, incIuding hghling in
Afghanislan, lhe expeiiences sone gueiiIIa eIenenls
such as ShaniI asayev had in hghling on lhe Russian
side againsl Ceoigians in Alkhazia and Ainenians in
Nagoino-Kaialakh~logelhei vilh lhe alundance of
Soviel-eia veaponiy and lellei nolivaled lioops~
gave Chechnya an advanlage. Tiaining piovided ly
aI-Qaeda and olhei afhIialed niIilanl IsIanisls aIso
pIayed an inpoilanl ioIe. Ioi exanpIe, ShaniI a-
sayev cane lo Afghanislan in 1994 and visiled liain-
ing canps in lhe piovince of Khosl.
69
He Ialei ieceived
liaining ly and vas in ieguIai conlacl vilh aI-Qaeda.
In lolaI, seveiaI hundieds of Chechens veie liained in
aI-Qaeda canps in Afghanislan, and niIilanl IsIanisl
gioups aIso hnanciaIIy suppoiled lhe ieciuilnenl of
hghleis fion neighloiing Ceoigia and Azeilaijan.
Aii povei pioved nol lo le lhe decisive facloi ex-
pecled lo vin lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai. The oveiieIiance
on aii povei and ils faiIuie Ied lo lhe Russian lioops
leing pooiIy suppIied and liained, inadequaleIy Ied,
denoiaIized, exhausled, and disoiganized. In Onc
Sc|dicrs lar, his nenoii of Russian ainy Iife, Aikady
alchenko viiles:
28
We slopped caiing foi ouiseIves, no Iongei vashed,
shaved oi liushed oui leelh. Aflei a veek vilhoul
soap and valei, oui hands ciacked and lIed con-
linuaIIy, lIighled ly eczena in lhe coId. We hadnl
vained ouiseIves ly a hie foi a vhoIe veek lecause
lhe danp ieeds vouIdnl luin and lheie vas novheie
lo galhei hievood in lhe sleppe. We legan lo luin
viId as lhe coId and vel and hIlh diove fion us aII
feeIings apail fion halied, and ve haled eveiylhing
on eailh, incIuding ouiseIves.
7O
The Chechens used ciealive laclics lo defeal lhe
Russians in lhe cily cenleis. As desciiled in a RAND
Coipoialion iepoil ly Ailhui L. Speyei III, lhe Chech-
en slialegy in lhe cilies vas a lexllook exanpIe of
lhe nodein uilan gueiiIIa.
71
In oidei lo nininize ca-
suaIlies, lhe Russians vouId use lanks and aii foices
vilhoul infanliy lo lonlaid vaiious luiIdings vheie
ieleIs veie leIieved lo le hiding.
72
Once Russian foic-
es veie deepIy enneshed in lhe cily, lhe Chechens
vouId allack fion posilions in luiIdings aIongside
lhe cily slieels, giealIy ieIying on liied-and-lesled
Russian RICs used in packs.
73
The enliances lo lhese
luiIdings veie laiiicaded fion lhe inside, and lhe
lop oois veie unoccupied so lhal aii allacks vouId
yieId lhe Ieasl anounl of Chechen casuaIlies.
74
The Russian connand faiIed lo fuIIy lake inlo ac-
counl lhal even if lhe Chechens aie foiced lo ieIinquish
lenpoiaiy conlioI of lheii cilies and pIains, lhey veie
IikeIy lo iecovei vhiIe vailing oul lhe eneny in lhe
nounlains and cone lack vilh a vengeance, uliIizing
lheii nounlainous gueiiIIa-slyIe laclics.
The Chechens had a signihcanl inleIIigence ad-
vanlage lecause lheii Ieadeis, incIuding lhe Ciozny
cily engineei, had leen piepaiing foi an invasion of
lhe cily foi 2 yeais. Russian inleIIigence peifoined
29
voefuIIy, due lo lhe Iack of IocaI souices and lheii
inaliIily lo hghl an eneny vhose Ianguage and lia-
dilions lhe elhnic SIavs veie nol faniIiai vilh and
vhon lhey undeieslinaled due lo lhe daikei hue of
lheii skin. Using lanks and pIanes in Iieu of infanliy
lo sloin each luiIding Ied lo lhe logging dovn of
lhe Russian opeialions and lheii uIlinale vilhdiavaI
in 1996.
The Iiisl Chechen Wai vas a speclacuIaiIy denoi-
aIizing defeal foi lhe Russian poIilicaI Ieadeiship and
lhe Russian niIilaiy, vhich ilseIf vas undeigoing an
idenlily ciisis aflei lhe coIIapse of lhe Soviel Union.
The slialegy incIuded an oveivheIning use of aii
povei lo deslioy cilies, kiII and leiioiize civiIians, and
denoIish lhe povei cenleis of lhe Chechen sepaial-
isls. This appioach vas counleipioduclive lecause il
caused seveie civiIian casuaIlies and iadicaIized nany
of lhose vho ienained neuliaI oi even suppoiled ie-
naining a pail of Russia.
The Russian CeneiaI Slaff did nol ieaIize lhal lhe
Chechens veie liained ly IsIanisl enissaiies, lhe
liaining vouId le expanded in lhe inleivai peiiod of
1996-99 duiing lhe piesidency of AsIan Maskhadov.
$!Q$+ E$![B$*@T $+* "B%
'+"%#;$# >%#'@*
In 1997, CoIoneI AsIan Maskhadov, an ex-Soviel
ailiIIeiy ofhcei vho foughl vaIianlIy in lhe Iiisl
Chechen Wai, vas eIec,ed piesidenl of lhe sepaialisl
Chechen RepulIic of Ichkeiia. This pioved lhal lhe
oidinaiy Chechens veie liied of lhe vai and hoped
Maskhadov vouId le alIe lo hnd a conpionise vilh
Moscov.
75
Maskhadov, a laIenled and successfuI niIi-
laiy connandei, hovevei, luined oul lo le a pooi
3O
poIilician. He vas a hoslage of lhe inleiesls of inu-
enliaI heId connandeis, such as ShaniI asayev and
SaInan Raduyev, vhose iesoIve vas sliongei lhan
Maskhadovs. The cenliaIized econony and sociaI
veIfaie syslen lioke dovn foi good. Il vas lhe iighl
of lhe sliongei and lhe cIoseness lo lhe souices of h-
nancing fion Moscovs fedeiaI ludgel lhal had lhe
uIlinale deciding povei.
As lhe piesidenl of Ichkeiia, Maskhadov con-
linued lo lhink in niIilaiy leins. He had lo choose
vhelhei lo aIIy hinseIf vilh Akhnad Kadyiov, vho
lioughl logelhei lhe opponenls of Wahhalisn, oi
ShaniI asayev, vho vas piepaiing a niIilaiy can-
paign lo conquei Dageslan and cieale a Iaigei slale
(eniiale) undei lhe inuence of lhe Wahhalisl ideoI-
ogy. In lhal, lhe piolIens of 199Os aie ieniniscenl of
lhose facing Inan ShaniI in 184Os. Maskhadov chose
asayev, lacked ly lhe sliongesl lallaIions of lhe
Ichkeiian niIilaiy.
Duiing lhe inleivai peiiod, ieIalions lelveen
lhe Chechen sepaialisls and lhe TaIilan conlinued
lo lhiive.
76
In 1997 and 1998, ZeIinkhan Yandailiyev
and MovIadi Udugov, lvo nain Chechen leiioiisl
ideoIogues, visiled lhe TaIilan-conlioIIed Afghani-
slan and heId neelings vilh MuIIah Muhannad
Onai and Osana lin Laden. Konslanlin Kosachev, a
foinei head of lhe Slale Duna Connillee on Inlei-
nalionaI ReIalions, said, We have ieasons lo leIieve
lhal Osana lin Laden vas invoIved in a seiies of lei-
ioiisl allacks in oui counliy.
77
#4661. 17 ,G/ $H,/-9.,G <H ,G/ D1-6, (G/2G/7 ;.-8
The Russian sociely vas unpiepaied foi vhal
slailed as a pooiIy oiganized niIilaiy inpiovizalion
and noiphed inlo lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai.
78
Due lo lhe
31
Iack of undeislanding of lhe ieasons foi lhe opeialion,
lhe allilude of lhe Russian pulIic lovaid lhe poIilicaI
Ieadeiship lhal inilialed il and lhe geneiaIs lhal Ied il
vas IaigeIy negalive, and lhe Ieadeiships ciediliIily
vas hilling iock lollon. Al a Ialei slage of lhe vai,
lhe pulIic piessuied YeIlsin lo slail negolialing vilh
lhe ieleIs.
79
Hovevei, lhe allilude of oidinaiy Russians lo-
vaid lhe ongoing Chechen conicl kepl changing,
depending on lhe Ialesl deveIopnenls in lhe vai. Ioi
inslance, in Iale-1995, aflei lhe fedeiaI foices faiIed
lo achieve a lieaklhiough, as IillIe as 3.2 peicenl of
lhe peopIe suppoiled conlinuing lhe vai, vhiIe 51.1
peicenl suppoiled an innediale vilhdiavaI of lhe
lioops.
8O
In Novenlei 1999, 62.5 peicenl suppoiled
conlinuing lhe vai aflei lhe fedeiaI foices neuliaIized
asayevs land and achieved nolicealIe successes in
lhe iepulIic.
81
The nunlei of Russian casuaIlies in lhe Iiisl
Chechen Wai vas leIov lhe lhieshoId lhal vouId
Iead lo nass anlivai piolesls. Hovevei, consciiplion
and lhe depIoynenl of poIice unils fion aII acioss lhe
counliy lo hghl in Chechnya conliiluled lo a liansfoi-
nalion of an iniliaIIy IocaI conicl inlo a nalionvide
one. The ieluin of Iaige nunleis of angiy and denoi-
aIized veleians Ied lo laIks aloul Russias Weinai
syndione in iefeience lo pie-Nazi Ceinany, vheie
WoiId Wai I veleians pIayed a signihcanl ioIe in
poIilicaI iadicaIizalion.
The niIilaiy consideied ilseIf leliayed ly lhe
chaolic aclions of lhe Russian Ieadeiship and oslia-
cized ly lhe peopIe. The faiIuie lo achieve vicloiy
vas unexpecled ly lhe pulIic, vhich had gollen used
lo iegaiding lhe Russian niIilaiy as a foinidalIe
foice even againsl Luiope and lhe Uniled Slales.
82

32
efoie lhe slail of lhe vai, lhe supiene niIilaiy
Ieadeiship consideied lhe upconing depIoynenl of
lioops in Chechnya lo le anolhei peace-keeping
opeialion, siniIai in naluie lo lhose in, foi exanpIe,
Tiansnisliia.
83
The peace agieenenl vilh Chechnya, signed in
1996, lecane a synloI of defeal and huniIialion of
Russia~onIy 4 yeais aflei lhe ingIoiious alandon-
nenl of Afghanislan. NeveilheIess, IillIe eneigy had
leen spenl lo Ieain fion lhe faiIed Chechen vai. One
of lhe possilIe ieasons is lhal lhe niIilaiy Ieadeiship
vas hesilanl lo adnil ils defeal and inslead chose lo
pIay up lhe sloiy aloul lhe leliayaI ly lhe poIilicians.
Aflei lhe faiIed Iiisl Chechen Wai, lhe KienIin
Ieained seveiaI niIilaiy Iessons. Il undeislood lhe
necessily lo eslinale lhe niIilaiy capaliIilies of lhe
sepaialisls noie oljecliveIy and lo ensuie lellei coI-
Ieclion of and lellei quaIily infoinalion. The Russian
Ieadeiship iecognized lhe need foi poIilicaI suppoil
foi lhe Ainy and Iav enfoicenenl agencies, and lhal
lhe sepaialisls couId nol le expecled lo keep lheii
ends of negolialed laigains due lo lheii decenliaIized
sliucluie.
OveiaII, lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai vas Iosl lo lhe veII-
oiganized and Ied Chechen gueiiIIas ly an ainy lhal
did nol diav lhe appiopiiale concIusions fion ils de-
feal in Afghanislan. Russias faiIuie iesonaled aiound
lhe voiId, and lhe gIolaI ieaclion lo il vas suipiise
and disdain. The connunisl coIossus, vhich onIy
1O yeais eaiIiei had lhe Uniled Slales and lhe voiId
lienlIing, vas defealed ly a iaglag ainy of gueiiIIas
in lhe leiiiloiy lhe Russian enpiie had conlioIIed foi
ovei 2OO yeais. The defeal giealIy inpeiiIed Russias
anlilion lo lecone a Ieading povei in lhe posl-Soviel
space and a seiious pIayei in lhe posl-CoId-Wai voiId
33
oidei. NonelheIess, YeIlsin, lhe KienIin, lhe niIilaiy,
and lhe nalionaIisl eIile acioss lhe loaid~connu-
nisls, nalionaIisls, and nany IileiaIs~ienained con-
nilled lo defealing lhe Chechen sepaialisls. They did
nol have lo vail Iong lo gel a second chance. Aflei
a liief and liaunalic inleivai peiiod, exlienisls
piovoked anolhei disaslious vai.
"G/ '7,/-J.- >/-1<5 17 ,G/ +<-,G (.42.646
UNWWZVWWY8
In lhe Soviel Union, vilh ils inleinalionaIisl and
alheisl ideoIogy coIIapsed, ieIigion and nalionaIisn
legan hIIing lhe poIilicaI and spiiiluaI void. WhiIe
Russians incieasingIy seIf-idenlihed as Chiislian Oi-
lhodox Laslein SIavs, lheii opponenls seIf-idenlihed
as Chechens and Sunni MusIins. Dzokhai Dudayev
and his de faclo Chechen goveinnenl nainIy used
sepaialisn and independence as lhe nolivaling fac-
lois in hghling lhe Russians. AddilionaIIy, liadilionaI
Suh IsIan vas a slinuIus lhal geneialed sepaialisl
alliludes againsl lhe Russians. TiadilionaI Suh IsIan
vas nevei isoIaled fion lhe idea of lhe Chechen na-
lion, noi vas il lhe piinaiy facloi lhal inspiied lhe
Chechen foices lo hghl againsl lhe Russians and lo die
foi Chechnya in 1994-96.
Aflei lhe end of lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai, hovevei,
nonindigenous foins of IsIan such as SaIah/Wah-
hali, vhich veie fai noie iadicaI and gIolaI in scope,
legan lo enlei aggiessiveIy inlo Chechnya and neigh-
loiing Noilh Caucasian iepulIics lo expIoil lhe des-
peiale socioecononic silualion in vai-loin iegion. A
signihcanl piolIen lhal inlensihed in lhe peiiod le-
lveen lhe lvo vais vas lhe IsIanizalion of Chechnya.
AIlhough Moscov signed a liealy vilh Chechnya lhal
34
caIIed foi nuluaI ieIalions lased on lhe piincipIes
of inleinalionaI Iav, Moscov faiIed lo piovide suf-
hcienl funds lo ieluiId lhe Chechen infiasliucluie
danaged oi deslioyed duiing lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai.
SociaI piolIens iesuIling fion lhe negIecl ly Mos-
cov piovided a feiliIe giound foi iadicaI IsIanic cui-
ienls, such as SaIahsn oi Wahhalisn, lo lake hoId in
lhe iepulIic.
84
The poIilicaI couise of lhe acling piesidenl Ze-
Iinkhan Yandailiyev in 1996-97, ained al lhe iapid
IsIanizalion of Chechnya, faciIilaled lhe spiead of
Wahhalisn in lhe iepulIic.
85
In oidei lo slienglhen
lhe Shaiia Iav in Chechnya, agauddin Magonedov,
a iadicaI IsIanisl Ieadei aclive in Dageslan, vas in-
viled lo visil. In Seplenlei 1996, Yandailiyev issued
a deciee lhal aloIished Russian Iav, lanned civiI
couils, and inlioduced an IsIanic (Shaiia) ciininaI
code, vhich vas essenliaIIy copied fion lhal of Saudi
Aialia.
86
IsIan vas decIaied an ofhciaI ieIigion.
Nol aII Ieadeis in Chechnya veIconed lhis nev
couise. The Chechen IsIanizalion vas opposed pii-
naiiIy ly AsIan Maskhadov and Akhnad Kadyiov.
Maskhadov, vho vas a Iiine Minislei undei Yandai-
liyev, did nol favoi lhe hasly inlioduclion of IsIan
as an ofhciaI ieIigion as he feaied lhal il couId Iead
lo a hghl foi lhe lilIe of inan, and lhal lhe Afghan oi
Tajik scenaiios of a ieIigious vai couId le iepealed
in Chechnya. NeveilheIess, in his piesidenliaI can-
paign in 1997, Maskhadov, foi ieasons nol enliieIy
cIeai, used lhe sIogan of ciealing a Chechen IsIanic
slale. He nighl have vanled lo sleaI a popuIai lopic
fion his poIilicaI opponenls, oi peihaps he leIieved
lhal Shaiia Iav vas lhe onIy vay lo unify lhe fiac-
lious Chechens undei an oveiaiching ideoIogy. On
}uIy 25, 1998, Maskhadov oiganized a congiess of lhe
35
MusIins of lhe Noilh Caucasus in Ciozny. Ils pailici-
panls accused lhe SaIahsls/Wahhalisls of exlienisn,
inleivenlion in lhe Chechen poIilicaI Iife, and insul-
oidinalion lo lhe ofhciaI Chechen aulhoiilies. He aIso
caIIed upon lhe Chechen piesidenl lo gel iid of nen-
leis of his adninislialion vho suppoiled lhis exlien-
isl ideoIogy. The chief nufli of Chechnya, Akhnad
Kadyiov, aIso opposed lhe spieading of SaIahsn/
Wahhalisn in Chechnya. He Iaunched a canpaign
ained al disciediling Wahhalisn as an aIien ideoIogy
and ils pieacheis as agenls of foieign seciel seivices.
NeveilheIess, Wahhalisn in Chechnya vas nol eiadi-
caled. The Wahhalisls aIIied lhenseIves vilh olhei
ieIigious iadicaIs, vho veie pioponenls of an anli-
Russian jihad in lhe Noilh Caucasus.
The feiliIe giound foi iadicaI IsIan aIso caughl lhe
allenlion of aI-Qaeda, vhich vas inleiesled in laking
advanlage of lhe silualion lo expand inlo nev leiiilo-
iies. In Decenlei 1996, Aynan aI-Zavahiii, aI-Qae-
das second in connand, liied lo eslalIish a nev lase
foi lhe oiganizalion in Chechnya.
87
He vas aiiesled in
Dageslan and ieIeased in 1997.
Hovevei, lhe spiead of iadicaI IsIan vas nol con-
hned excIusiveIy lo Chechnya. In Augusl 1999, ieleIs
undei lhe connand of aI-Khallal and asayev invad-
ed lvo Dageslani iegions loideiing Chechnya and de-
cIaied lhe ciealion of an IsIanic slale. In a sulsequenl
Russian niIilaiy opeialion, lhiee Wahhalisl viIIages
vheie lhe iadicaIs had laken hoId veie deslioyed. In
lhe neanline, lhe leiiiloiy of Chechnya vas laigeled
ly a iockel allack fion lhe fedeiaI foices. This inva-
sion of Dageslan Ied lo a fuII-edged niIilaiy opeia-
lion, knovn as lhe Second Chechen Wai.
36
D.1=4-/6 <7 P<,G !15/68
Russia nissed lhe oppoilunily lo eslalIish a voik-
ing ieIalionship vilh nodeiale nalionaIisls in Chech-
nya and Dageslan and, faciIilaled ly ils high-handed
laclics, lhe SaIahsl penelialion of Chechnya and
Noilh Caucasus.
Wilh lhe econonic depiession in lhe iegion, high
unenpIoynenl~especiaIIy high youlh unenpIoy-
nenl~and deslaliIizing foices (ianging fion ciini-
naI gangs lo IsIanisl leiioiisls) legan lo eslalIish safe
havens and lhiive in inleivai Chechnya.
88
The Iiisl
Chechen Wai Iefl Chechnya in a disaslious econonic
silualion, in vhich peopIe had onIy sIin piospecls
foi a liighl fuluie. Mosl of vhal had ienained of lhe
econony vas piedoninanlIy conlioIIed ly lhe se-
cessionisl Ieadeis and lheii gangs. In lhis peiiod, lhe
nain souices of incone foi Chechnya veie oiI, diugs,
hoslages, and fedeiaI sulsidies fion Moscov.
In lhe Iale-199Os, lhe nain souice of incone foi
Chechnya (olhei lhan fedeiaI sulsidies) vas oiI.
89

In 1997, Chechnya pioduced lvo niIIion lons of oiI
annuaIIy, accoiding lo ofhciaI slalislics. In Iale 1998,
ofhciaI oiI saIes in Chechnya veie aInosl lolaIIy lei-
ninaled due lo slaggeiing voIunes of oiI iIIegaIIy
snuggIed oul of lhe iepulIic, vhich ieached aiound
7OO,OOO lons/yeai. Duiing lhe hisl 5 nonlhs of 1999,
Chechnya pioduced onIy 96,OOO lons of oiI. The diop
in oiI incone IaigeIy conliiluled lo lhe chaolic and
anaichic silualion in Chechnya in lhe Iale-199Os.
esides oiI, an inpoilanl souice of noney vas
ciininaI aclivily, ianging fion sleaIing fedeiaI aid lo
laking hoslages foi ianson and even sIave liade. Diug
liafhcking aIso pIayed an inpoilanl ioIe. Diugs veie
oflen leing ieceived as a foin of hnanciaI suppoil
37
fion lhe TaIilan and veie Ialei soId in lhe Russian
leiiiloiy foi cash. In 1998, lhe Chechens consliluled
33 peicenl
9O
anong lhe elhnic gioups in Russia nosl
aclive in diug liafhcking.
As lhe Chechen Ieadeiship vas unalIe lo nainlain
even lhe nosl lasic foins of aulhoiily oulside lhe cily
cenleis, IsIanic iadicaIs legan eslalIishing lheii ovn
viil in iuiaI, nounlainous iegions undei lhe ieIigious
guideIines sel ly iadicaI IsIan and Shaiia Iav. The
Chechen ofhciaI secessionisl foices veie undei-
funded, undeinanned, and denoiaIized.
One pailneiship lhal heIped lo loosl iadicaI IsIan
in Noilh Caucasus duiing lhis peiiod vas lhe ieIa-
lionship lelveen lhe Chechen gueiiIIa connandei
and lhe eneiging niIilaiy Ieadei of lhe IsIanisl nove-
nenl ShaniI asayev, and a SaIah enissaiy and Saudi
cilizen knovn ly lhe ncn dc gucrrc, Iln aI-Khallal.
91

The lvo deveIoped a pIan and Iaunched a canpaign
lo unile Chechnya vilh lhe Noilh Caucasian iepulIic
of Dageslan lo lhe easl.
92
Many olhei iadicaI IsIanisls
fion aiound lhe MiddIe Lasl and lhe aIkans aIso
ocked lo Chechnya. CoineII noles hov lhe osnian
IsIanisls vho enigialed fion lhe aIkans aflei lhe
inpIenenlalion of lhe Daylon Accoids found a nev
jihad lhealei foi an IsIanisl CaIiphale~lhis line in
lhe nounlains of lhe Caucasus.
93
Duiing lhe inleivai peiiod, sIave liade in
Chechnya ouiished.
94
In facl, il vas ialhei a naikel
vheie hoslages veie loughl and soId foi ianson oi in
anlicipalion of such. This liade seived as an inpoilanl
souice of incone foi lhe sepaialisls. The ieleIs did nol
Iinil lhe kidnappings lo Chechnya, and viclins veie
oflen snuggIed in fion neighloiing Dageslan, as veII
as Moscov, Sainl Ieleisluig, and olhei Russian cilies.
They vouId le heId in Chechnya unliI ianson vas ie-
38
ceived. In sone cases, hoslages veie kepl in lhe cilies
vheie lhey veie capluied, lul lhis facl lecane knovn
lo lhe ieIalives onIy aflei lhey had paid lhe ianson.
One of lhe nosl pioninenl hoslage lakeis and
sIave liadeis vas Aili aiayev. He vas aIso anong
lhe ciueIesl leiioiisls.
95
efoie joining lhe sepaialisl
novenenl in 1991, aiayev seived in lhe IocaI liafhc
poIice. In 1995, he lecane a Ieadei of lhe seIf-defense
niIilia in lhe viIIage of AIkhan-KaIa lo Ialei lecone
lhe connandei of lhe speciaI IsIanic lallaIion and
a Chechen sepaialisl geneiaI. As a sIave liadei, he is
knovn foi having laken hoslage a gioup of NTV joui-
naIisls in 1997, vhen lhis piaclice slailed leconing a
connon occuiience in Chechnya. He aIso slailed kid-
napping iich Chechens, inslead of Russian soIdieis,
vhich dislinguished hin fion lhose vho focused on
viclins fion oulside of Chechnya.
96
aiayev vas, ly
fai, nol lhe onIy sIave liadei. Olhei knovn sepaialisl
Ieadeis, such as ShaniI asayev, veie aIso invoIved in
hoslage laking and sIave liade.
In 2OO5, a Russian leIevision channeI NTV ieIeased
a docunenlaiy caIIed Open-Heailed Confession~
Iiisoneis of lhe Caucasus.
97
ased on inleivievs
vilh foinei viclins, lhis docunenlaiy desciiles lhe
seIeclion of viclins, nelhods of lIacknaiIing lheii ieI-
alives, and sizes of lhe iansons. The sIave liadeis did
nol kidnap iandon viclins, lul focused on veaIlhy
individuaIs such as chiIdien of iich paienls, jouinaI-
isls, and foieigneis. Aflei lhe hoslages veie capluied,
lhe piocess of lIacknaiIing vas siniIai lo vhal ve
see in novies. The leiioiisls senl lhe ieIalives of lhe
viclin a videolape vheie he oi she is legging lhen
foi heIp. As a sign lhal lhe leiioiisls shouId le laken
seiiousIy, lhey oflen cul lheii viclins hngeis vhiIe
capluiing lhe enliie scene on caneia. If lhe ianson
39
vas nol paid, lhe viclins oflen spenl up lo a yeai (and
sonelines even noie) in caplivily lefoie, in nany
cases, leing found and fieed ly lhe Russians. Mosl of
lhe line lhe iansons ianged fion $3,OOO lo $2O,OOO.
98

The NTV docunenlaiy nenlions anounls as high as
$7O,OOO in one case and aIIegedIy as nuch as $5OO,OOO
in anolhei. Duiing lhe peiiod of 1993-2OO5, 912 hos-
lages veie laken in Dageslan, of vhich 868 veie
successfuIIy fieed ly lhe Russian foices. Accoiding
lo VyachesIav IznayIov, a vai jouinaIisl, oveiaII
aiound 1,5OO hoslages veie fieed, lul nany noie
veie laken.
99
In 1996-99, Chechnya loasled a lolaIIy IegaI ains
naikel, silualed in lhe cenliaI Ciozny naikelpIace.
Al lhis open-aii suk, a KaIashnikov aulonalic couId
le loughl foi aiound $2OO-$3OO and a Makaiov pisloI
foi aiound $6OO. A gienade cosl 3O iulIes.
1OO
Hovevei,
veapons aIso veie oving in fion alioad, and noie
inpoilanlIy, lhey cane vilh foieign insliuclois.
The iadicaI IsIanisl ieciuileis found nany Chech-
en ieciuils anong lhe young vai veleians and unen-
pIoyed vho found IillIe hope in a liighlei fuluie in lhe
de faclo independenl Chechen RepulIic of Ichkeiia,
vheie nany conveiled lo lhe SaIah-Wahhali iadicaI
ideoIogy. As lhe iadicaIs allenpl lo deny and iejecl
elhnic idenlily, lhe ieciuils ieduced lheii aIIegiance
lo Chechen oi olhei Caucasian elhnic idenlily~as
do gIolaI IsIanisls opeialing fion lhe IhiIippines
and ThaiIand lo Afghanislan lo Lasl Afiica and lhe
Magiel (Noilh Afiica). Much of lhe nev iadicaIized
foices congiegaled in soulheaslein Chechnya neai
lhe loidei vilh Dageslan and vilh lhe RepulIic of
Ceoigia. They veie slialegicaIIy Iocaled in lhis aiea
lecause il vouId le lhe slaging zone foi an invasion
of Dageslan on Augusl 7, 1999, in an allenpl lo unile
4O
Chechnya and Dageslan inlo an IsIanic CaIiphale~
a ieIigious-niIilaiy diclaloiship iuIed ly Shaiia Iav.
asayev and Iln aI-Khallal ieciuiled lhe hghleis
necessaiy lo invade fion lhe sane aiea vheie lhey
eslalIished lhe IsIanic liigade.
1O1
Hovevei, vai fa-
ligue aflei lhe pievious conicl vilh Russia, iejeclion
of iadicaIizalion ly Iaige pails of lhe popuIalion, and
inleinaI divisions vilhin lhe Chechen goveinnenl
vouId nake hghling lhe Russians foi lhe second line
fai noie difhcuIl.
1O2
"B% !%(@+* (B%(B+A$+ ;$#
When YeIlsins handpicked successoi, VIadinii
Iulin, lecane Iiine Minislei in lhe sunnei of 1999,
he vas a heice pioponenl of foicilIy liinging Chech-
nya undei undispuled Russian conlioI. This slance
secuied hin lhe suppoil of lhe Russian niIilaiy as
Iulin soIidihed his povei duiing lhe eaiIy peiiod of
his piesidency.
To juslify lheii case foi a vai, Iulin and his coI-
Ieagues poinled oul lhal lhe conicl in Noilh Cau-
casus has evoIved fion an inleinaI, sepaialisl insui-
gency~in vhich lhe voiId noslIy iefiained fion
inleifeience oi vas synpalhelic lo lhe ieleIs~lo a
sliuggIe againsl iadicaI IsIanisn, in vhich lhe voiId
shouId sland vilh Russia. In addilion, Russia legan
ils pulIic-ieIalions canpaign lo convince ils cilizens
and foieign poveis lhal Chechens and olhei MusIin
Caucasian leiioiisls veie an exislenliaI lhieal lo aII
Russian civiIians. Moscov slailed cIaining, nol vilh-
oul ieason, lhal lhe conicl in lhe Noilh Caucasus vas
no Iongei a IocaI hghl foi nalionaI Iileialion ly lhe
fieedon-Ioving Chechens lul a leiioiisl lhieal lo
Russians and olhei elhnic gioups.
1O3
41
UnIike lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai, in vhich Russia had
nade lhe hisl nove, lhe Second Chechen Wai slailed
in Augusl 1999, aflei leiioiisl foices Ied ly ShaniI a-
sayev invaded Dageslan fion Chechnya in an allenpl
lo unile lhe lvo iepulIics. The vision, ailicuIaled ly
aI-Qaedas nunlei lvo, Aynan aI-Zavahiii, vas lo
connecl Afghanislan vilh Noilh Caucasus lhiough a
Caspian Sea liidge. Iulin and lhe Russian niIilaiy
iesponded vilh siniIai oveivheIning foice siniIai lo
lhal seen in lhe hisl vai.
1O4
Devaslalion, dispIacenenl,
and civiIian dealhs veie again slaggeiing.
Lxacl ofhciaI dala on civiIian casuaIlies duiing lhe
Chechen vais aie nol avaiIalIe. Lslinaled nunleis
of viclins aie lased noslIy on assessnenls ly non-
goveinnenlaI oiganizalions (NCOs), lul lhe nun-
leis vaiy consideialIy. A conseivalive eslinale of lhe
nunlei of civiIian casuaIlies in Ciozny aIone duiing
lhe hisl vai is lelveen 25,OOO and 29,OOO.
1O5
Vaiious
Russian ofhciaIs piovided vide-ianging eslinales of
casuaIlies. Ioi inslance, lhen Russian Inleiioi Minislei
AnaloIy KuIikov cIained lhal lhe nunlei of civiIians
vho Iosl lheii Iives vas leIov 2O,OOO.
1O6
ConveiseIy,
Seigey KovaIyovs eslinale is aiound 5O,OOO, and Cen-
eiaI AIeksandei Leled spoke aloul 8O,OOO-1OO,OOO
civiIians kiIIed. Accoiding lo Taus DzhaliaiIov, lhe
head of lhe Chechnya NalionaI CounciI in lhe nid-
2OOOs, 15O,OOO lo 16O,OOO peopIe aie leIieved lo have
died as a iesuIl of lolh Chechen vais, oul of vhon
75,OOO veie Chechen civiIians.
1O7
Aflei lhe slail of lhe Second Chechen Wai,
Maskhadov hIed a suil againsl Kadyiov in lhe Shaiia
couil foi engaging in negolialions vilh Iiine Minis-
lei Iulin.
1O8
Kadyiov vas senlenced lo dealh and ie-
noved fion lhe posl of lhe Mufli.
1O9
This Ied Kadyiov
lo use his suppoil fion lhe KienIin lo hunl dovn
42
Maskhadov. Duiing a speciaI opeialion of lhe Russian
IedeiaI Secuiily Seivice (IS) in 2OO5, Maskhadov
vas aIIegedIy shol dead ly his lodyguaid in oidei lo
avoid leing laken piisonei.
11O
Kadyiov hinseIf Iefl lhe
posl of lhe Mufli aflei he vas appoinled lhe nev head
of Chechnya in }une 2OOO. In Augusl 2OOO, Akhnal-
hadji Shanayev vas appoinled lhe Mufli ly a con-
giess of lhe inans of Chechnya.
111
Duiing lhe Second Chechen Wai, Russian foices
ciushed lhe iadicaI IsIanic faclion and ielook conlioI
of Chechnya, lhus ending ils de faclo independence.
Many of lhe Chechen Ieadeis veie kiIIed in lallIe.
Ioinei Iiesidenl ZeIinkhan Yandailiyev vas as-
sassinaled on Ieliuaiy 13, 2OO4, ly a cai expIosion in
Doha, Qalai. Tvo Russian dipIonals veie accused of
his nuidei and senlenced lo 25 yeais in a Qalaii piis-
on, lul aflei seiving 9 nonlhs lhey veie liansfeiied
lo Russia.
112
The Russian Minisliy of }uslice decIined
lo discIose vheie lhey aie seiving lhe iesl of lheii
piison lein, vhich suggesls lhal lhey veie siIenlIy
ieIeased.
113
Maskhadov vas kiIIed on May 8, 2OO5,
duiing a speciaI opeialion of lhe IS, and asayev
vas kiIIed on }uIy 1O, 2OO6, aIso duiing a Russian
speciaI opeialion.
In lhe Second Chechen Wai, Russia vas nuch
noie effeclive in using elhnic Chechen unils and in-
leIIigence souices againsl lhe sepaialisls.
114
Many of
lhen veie ialhei oppoilunislic pio-Russian foina-
lions, neveilheIess, lhey giealIy conliiluled lo lhe
Russian vicloiy. Theii coopeialion aIIoved Moscov
lo slop negolialing vilh lhe sepaialisls and lheii Iead-
eis, and liansfoin lhe conicl as a vhoIe.
43
InfnrmatInn Warfarc Aspcct nf thc Cnn0Ict.
Russias aliIily lo use piopaganda lo change lhe
peiceplion of lhe vai in lhe Caucasus pioved ciuciaI
in heIping il nol onIy iegain conlioI of lhe iegion, lul
aIso convince Russian cilizens and lhe inleinalionaI
connunily lhal lhe poIicies lovaid lhe Caucasus
veie lhe iighl ones al lhe iighl line. This vas in a
sliiking conliasl vilh lhe hapIess couise lhal lioughl
aloul lhe defeal and lhe ingIoiious Khasavyuil ac-
coids of 1996. Infoinalion nanagenenl lecane an
inpoilanl aspecl of lhe conicl. Russia, vilh lhe heIp
of goveinnenl-conlioIIed nedia (especiaIIy TV chan-
neIs), liied lo censoi lhe vai ciines connilled ly lhe
secuiily and niIilaiy foices duiing and aflei lhe aclive
phase of lhe conicl, and allenpled lo poiliay lhis vai
as a hghl foi Russian soveieignly. Russian nedia aIso
spun lhe hosliIilies and lhe sliuggIe lelveen Chechen
faclions~lhe iadicaI IsIanisls and leiioiisls~and
lhe Iegilinale Chechen nalionaIisls hghleis Ied ly
lhe Kadyiovs.
The fedeiaI foices piepaied foi lhe Second Chech-
en Wai lellei lhan lhey did foi lhe hisl one. WhiIe
asayev and his lands veie sliII in Dageslan, lhe
Ieadeiship of lhe fedeiaI foices chose a slialegy vhich
used ailiIIeiy and lonling iaids hisl, foIIoved ly in-
fanliy assauIls.
115
This laclic luined oul lo le a success
and Ied lo ieIaliveIy snaII Iosses anong lhe Russian
foices. Heavy Russian lonlaidnenl denoiaIized lhe
ieleIs, and asayev vas foiced lo ee fion Dageslan
lack lo Chechnya. In Chechnya, lhe Russians liied lo
nininize lhe need foi ained conicl. Al hisl, lhey
heId laIks vilh viIIage eIdeis and gave lhen a chance
lo peisuade lhe ieleIs lo voIunlaiiIy Ieave lheii viI-
Iages. If lhe ieleIs agieed and if no one in lhe viIIage
44
opened hie on lhe fedeiaI foices, lhe Russians vouId
nol hie al lhe civiIians.
The Ieadeiship of lhe fedeiaI foices anlicipaled
lhal lhe ieleIs vouId Ieave lhe lesieged Ciozny voI-
unlaiiIy as veII.
116
These expeclalions did nol cone
liue, and Russian niIilaiy sloined Ciozny. The aii
foice conducled heavy aeiiaI allacks using Su-24 and
Su-25 hghleis and heIicopleis. The piIols had lo op-
eiale undei aii-defense nissiIe hie fion lhe Chechen
iadicaIs. }usl as in lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai, lhe ieleIs
used nainIy SlieIa of vaiious nodihcalions, IgIa, and
sone Slingei poilalIe aii defense syslens.
117

SiniIai lo lhe hisl Chechen canpaign, Russian soI-
dieis laking Ciozny in 1999-2OOO veie nol sufhcienlIy
liained foi uilan vaifaie.
118
esides pooi piepaialion,
lhe opeialions aIso suffeied fion aved cooidinalion
lelveen lhe Russian unifoined niIilaiy and lhe coun-
liys inleinaI lioops undei lhe Minisliy of Inleiioi,
vhich aIso look pail in lhe allack. Aflei lhe Russians
iecapluied Ciozny in 2OOO, lhe hghling noved deep
inlo lhe Chechen leiiiloiy. The ieleIs ed inlo lheii
nounlain lases Iocaled in caves, and lhe nounlain-
ous vaifaie nade lhe silualion noie difhcuIl foi lhe
Russians. The fedeiaI foices decided lo engage allack
pIanes and lheinolaiic (incIuding fueI-aii) veapons
againsl lhe ieleIs hiding in lhe nounlainous leiiain.
119

The nain lheinolaiic deIiveiy syslen lhe Russians
used in Ciozny vas lhe uialino (TOS-1),
12O
a sys-
len vilh a naxinun effeclive iange of 3.5 kiIoneleis
and a 2OO x 4OO nelei zone of ensuied desliuclion. An-
olhei lheinolaiic syslen iepoiledIy used in Chech-
nya vas a shouIdei-Iaunched iockel siniIai lo RIC
caIIed RIO-A SchneI. This syslen has a naxinun
effeclive iange of 6OO neleis, and a 5O-squaie-nelei
zone of desliuclion in lhe open.
45
Indigenous poIilicaI Ieadeiship vas noie inpoi-
lanl in Chechnya lhan lhe innediale niIilaiy vic-
loiy. Anong lhe pio-Russian Chechen Ieadeis vas
Mufli Ahnad Kadyiov, vho foineiIy foughl vilh
Dudayev in lhe Iiisl Chechen Wai, lul lhen cIashed
vilh Maskhadov. Kadyiov lecane lhe head of lhe
pio-Moscov goveinnenl in Ciozny eslalIished aflei
lhe end of foinaI hosliIilies in 2OOO. He had Moscovs
lIessing lo do vhalevei vas needed lo nainlain lhe
supienacy of Russian iuIe in lhe iepulIic. When lhe
Seplenlei 11, 2OO1 leiioiisl allacks gave ciediliIily
lo Iulins poIicy lovaid lhe iadicaIs in lhe Caucasus,
Russia nol onIy nanaged lo iegain conlioI of Iosl lei-
iiloiy in Chechnya lul aIso, lo sone exlenl, vin lhe
piopaganda vai againsl lhe iadicaIized Chechen fac-
lions and foieign hghleis.
Chechen ieleIs, vho seIf-idenlihed as IsIanisls
(SaIahs-Wahhalis), aIIoved Russia lo uliIize lhe
liadilionaI Suh aIIegiance of lhe Chechens lo luiId
pio-Russian hghling foices, vho had supeiioi IocaI
knovIedge and high IeveI of nolivalion, ialhei lhan
soIeIy using lhe convenlionaI Russian niIilaiy. Hov-
evei, even lhough Russia decIaied lhe second vai
ovei in 2OO4, lhal yeai naiked lhe leginning of lhe
hghl lelveen Russia and lhe pio-Russian Chechen
goveinnenl againsl iadicaI IsIanisls in lhe Noilhein
Caucasus, vilh lhe hosliIilies expanding lhioughoul
lhe iegion and spiIIing ovei lo aII of Russia.
46
&#@;"B @D "%##@#'!" $("'T'"A
$+* #$*'($Q'!E '+ "B%
+@#"B%#+ ($)($!)! !'+(% "B%
!%(@+* (B%(B%+ ;$#
The end of lhe aclive phase of lhe Second Chechen
Wai in 2OOO did nol liing an end lo nodein poIili-
caI IsIan and IsIanisl leiioiisn on lhe Russian leiii-
loiy. The leiioiisl faclions lhal lhiealen Russia and
have ieached as fai as oslon in 2O13 have iools in lhe
Chechen vais as veII as in lhe gIolaI jihadi novenenl,
as lhe Tsainaev liolheis velsile denonslialed. In
addilion, gIolaI IsIanisl faclions sliiving foi seizuie
of poIilicaI conlioI in MusIin Iands and evenluaI cie-
alion of lhe CaIifale, such as lhe MusIin iolheihood
and Hizl-ul-Tahiii aI IsIani (IsIanic Ainy of Lil-
eialion), decided lo connil noie iesouices lo Russia
vhen lhey sav lhe successes of lhe IsIanisl hghleis in
Noilh Caucasus.
Having leen defealed on lhe lallIeheId, asayev
luined his allenlion lo allacking sofl laigels oulside
Chechnya and Dageslan, nol foi any laclicaI gain
againsl lhe Russian niIilaiy lul foi lhe leiioiislic,
liaunalizing vaIue of such acls. MeanvhiIe, vilhin
nuch of Chechnya and neighloiing iepulIics, iadi-
caIs, doneslic and foieign, legan expanding lhe lei-
ioiisl nelvoik ly eslalIishing SaIah janaa|s (connu-
nilies) lhioughoul lhe iegion. They look advanlage of
lhe unique geogiaphy and lhe despeiale socio-eco-
nonic condilions lhal heIped lo ieciuil nany young
IocaIs lo connil lo lheii iadicaI novenenl. Many,
lheiefoie, joined lhe IsIanisl gioups and noved avay
lo isoIaled aieas, escaping lhe aulhoiilies viil and so-
Iidifying lheii connilnenl lo inciease lheii inuence
and pIan allacks.
121
47
Moieovei, IsIanisl Ieadeis Iike asayev and, Ialei,
Doku Unaiov, legan oulIining jihadisl nanifeslos
lhal dehniliveIy decIaied lheii desiie lo liansfoin
Noilh Caucasus inlo a CaIiphale and a vehicIe of lhe
pan-IsIanisl fundanenlaIisl foice hghling againsl
Russians nol jusl foi independence lul foi gIolaI ji-
had.
122
The iadicaIs legan vilh lhe inpIenenlalion of
Shaiia Iav lhioughoul lhe foinei Chechen RepulIic
of Ichkeiia and in lhe SaIah janaa|s, ovei vhich lheii
foIIoveis had inuence oulside of Chechnya. Aflei
Dudayev vas kiIIed and ZeIinkhan Yandailiyev le-
cane acling piesidenl of Ichkeiia in ApiiI 1996, lhe
piocess acceIeialed.
123
As in olhei MusIin socielies, Shaiia Iav is pei-
ceived as Cod-given and lhus paianounl ovei Iavs oi
docliines coning fion civiI oi connon Iav syslens,
such as paiIianenlaiy IegisIalion and piecedenl-lased
Iav. Accoiding lo lhe liadilionaIisl inleipielalions of
lhe Kcran and olhei IsIanic hoIy sciipluies, Shaiia
Iav is nol open lo inleipielalion oi anendnenl ly
secuIai schoIais. This IegaI docliine conliasls vilh lhe
liadilionaI Chechen and Caucasian alliludes lovaid
IsIan, as nany in lhe iegion aie devoul MusIins, lul
have piefeiied lo foIIov Suh IsIan, vhich accepls lhe
foIIoving of Suh sainls and cuIluiaI icons lhal nake
up lhe sepaiale ieIigious and cuIluiaI idenlilies of lhe
Caucasian peopIes.
124
The iadicaIs, on lhe olhei hand,
adheie lo lhe niIilanl nonolheislic piincipIe of |au-
nid in vhich lhe voishiping oi piaying lo any enlily
lesides AIIah~even lo Muhannad hinseIf ~is sac-
iiIegious.
125
Thioughoul lhe voiId, SaIah foIIoveis of
lhe |aunid oflen deslioy giaves of veneialed sainls,
foilid any IocaI voiship, incIuding lhal of anceslois,
and aie geneiaIIy nuch noie inloIeianl lhan lhe Suhs.
Having eslalIished Shaiia Iav, lhe iadicaIs needed lo
48
inpIenenl docliines in oidei lo puiify lhe iegion
fion |ajrs (inhdeIs), vho do nol piaclice IsIan in ac-
coidance lo lheii dogna.
Aflei lhe assassinalion of asayev in 2OO6 ly lhe
Russian SpeciaI Ioices, lhe nev head of lhe Caucasus-
lased IsIanisl novenenl, Doku Unaiov, eslalIished
lhe Caucasus Lniiale (|nara| Kat|az, oi CL) lased on
Shaiia Iav and vilh goaIs consislenl vilh fundanen-
laIisl Wahallisl-SaIahsl leachings of IsIan.
126
This
ieslalenenl of Unaiovs niIilanl IsIanisl ideoIogy is
inpoilanl lo undeisland lhe iadicaI diieclion in vhich
lhe Noilh Caucasus insuigency is noving.
CLs iniliaI nanifeslo decIaied ils oljeclive lo unile
aII of lhe Noilhein Caucasus inlo a singIe Caucasus
Lniiale, eIininaling aII lhe loideis sepaialing au-
lononous iepulIics and aII elhnic, Iinguislic, and cuI-
luiaI dislinclions as un-IsIanic. The vhoIe iegion vas
supposed lo lecone one fionlIine of lhe gIolaI jihad
in lhe nane of AIIah and againsl lhe inhdeIs. In oi-
dei lo achieve lhis goaI, lhe IsIanisls needed lo foice
Russia lo ieIinquish ils conlioI ovei lhe iegion, as has
leen lhe denand anong sepaialisls foi cenluiies.
The exlienisls aIso seek lo foice lhe vaiious iepulIics
and elhnic gioups lo ienounce any indigenous iden-
lily, lhal has leen cheiished and vaIued, and sulnil
conpIeleIy lo iadicaI IsIanisl ideoIogy and connand,
incIuding lhe Anii Unaiov, and join gIolaI jihad.
Once achieving lolaI conlioI, Unaiov and CL vouId
legin lo spiead lheii vai lo lhe MusIin aieas in lhe
UiaIs, CenliaI Asia, and Sileiia, vilh fuluie pIans lo
conquei aII of Russia, incIuding Moscov.
127
The CL lecane an IsIanisl afhIiale of lhe gIolaI
aI-Qaeda-Ied novenenl lhal opeialed synliolicaI-
Iy vilh leiioiisl ceIIs aII acioss lhe MiddIe Lasl and
Luiasia. CL and olhei Noilhein Caucasus iadicaIs
49
ieceived laclicaI, hnanciaI, and noiaI suppoil fion
aI-Qaeda and ils pailneis.
128
Ioi exanpIe, Caucasian
leiioiisls lenehled fion lhe expeilise of aI-Qaeda
opeialives Muhannad aI Lniiali and AlduIIa Kuid,
vho heIped oiganize opeialionaI aclivilies vilhin lhe
iegion vhiIe cooidinaling vilh aI-Qaeda gIolaIIy.
Though Russian counleileiioiisl foices kiIIed lolh
of lhen in ApiiI 2O11, lhey advanced CLs nission
lo connecl vilh gIolaI jihad.
129
eyond lhis ieIalion-
ship, aI-Qaedas lenlacIes in lhe iegion go lack lo lhe
199Os, even lefoie lhe paiadign of Caucasian ieleI-
Iion againsl Russia changed lo jihadisl. Hahn docu-
nenls lhe nany inslances of aI-Qaeda conliiluling
ains, funds, IsIanisl educalion, and access lo liain-
ing canps in Afghanislan and eIsevheie, foi hghleis
fion lhe Chechen RepulIic of Ichkeiia. AI-Qaedas
Aynan aI-Zavahiii once slaled lhal lhe Noilh Cau-
casus iepiesenled one of lhiee piinaiy fionls in lhe
vai againsl lhe Wesl, and CLs aclions allenpled lo
nalch his iheloiic.
13O
"G/ !/2<75 "/--<- (.9K.1078
Wilh lhe heIp of foieign jihadi oiganizalions and
lhe infusion of nev ieciuils and iadicaI innigianls
fion lhe aIkans, lhe yeai 2OOO naiked lhe leginning
of a nev IsIanisl leiioiisl canpaign againsl lhe Rus-
sian popuIalion, sliiking laigels as fai as Moscov.
This vas a slailIing deveIopnenl in conpaiison vilh
lhe vais lelveen Russia and Chechnya, as conicls
had ienained conlained vilhin lhe Caucasus. The
hisl knovn case of leiioiisn as a laclicaI as veII as a
psychoIogicaI veapon vas duiing lhe Iiisl Chechen
Wai in 1995, vhen asayev execuled a Iaige suicide
lonling of Russian foices in Chechnya.
5O
Coinciding vilh lhe leginning of lhe second
Chechen vai, hovevei, Chechen IsIanisl hghleis Ied
ly asayev focused on allacking Russian civiIians.
The eaiIiesl najoi allack vas lhe 2OO2 Duliovka The-
alei siege in Moscov in vhich 912 peopIe veie laken
hoslage.
131
Russian foices kiIIed aII lhe leiioiisls, lul
aiound 13O hoslages peiished vilh lhe leiioiisls. This
Russian anli-leiioiisl opeialion is consideied ly nany
lo le a faiIuie of lhe speciaI seivices. In 2OO6, lhe suivi-
vois and ieIalives of lhe viclins piepaied a 2OO-page
iepoil caIIed Noid-Osl~An Unhnished Invesliga-
lion, in vhich lhey cIain lhal lhe speciaI seivices did
nol do eveiylhing lhey couId lo save as nany peopIe
as possilIe, and accused lhen of negIigence.
132
The
nosl conlioveisiaI aspecl of lhe opeialion vas lhe us-
age of a nev lype of neive gas, vhich is leIieved lo le
iesponsilIe foi lhe dealhs of lhe leiioiisls and lhe 13O
hoslages. Il appeais lhal lhe aulhoiilies did nol de-
pIoy nedicaI leans neai lhe Duliovka Thealei, anass
anluIances lefoie sloining lhe laigel, oi liief lhe
nedicaI peisonneI on lhe neive agenl use and vays lo
lieal lhe palienls. WhiIe haidIy a suipiise, given lhe
pooi slale of Russian niIilaiy nedicine and lhe heaIlh
syslen in geneiaI, lhis vas a faiIuie of eneigency
nedicine of enoinous piopoilions.
Theie have leen nuneious denands lo ieIease lhe
infoinalion aloul lhe gas, lhe conposilion of vhich
conlinues lo ienain seciel.
133
Hovevei, AIeksey IiIa-
lov, a foinei AIpha speciaI foices unil hghlei, jusli-
hed using lhe gas ly cIaining lhal, lecause lhe gas
vas used, lhe leiioiisls faiIed lo delonale lhe lonl
lhey had vilh lhen, in vhich case lhe nunlei of casu-
aIlies vouId have signihcanlIy exceeded lhe nunlei
of lhose kiIIed ly lhe gas.
134
51
SeveiaI yeais eaiIiei in Seplenlei 1999, a seiies
of apailnenl lonlings shalleied lhe peace in Rus-
sia.
135
Ioui apailnenl luiIdings veie lIovn up in
cilies acioss Russia: lvo of lhen in Moscov, one in
uynaksk (Dageslan), and one in VoIgodonsk (Ros-
lovskaya OlIasl). Aiound 3OO peopIe Iosl lheii Iives,
and nany noie veie vounded. The leiioiisl allacks
aie leIieved lo have leen connilled ly sepaialisls
fion Noilh Caucasus as an acl of ievenge foi Mos-
covs niIilaiy opeialions in Chechnya and Dageslan.
Theie aie nany, hovevei, vho chaIIenge lhe veiacily
of lhis veision of evenls.
Since lhe leginning of lhe 21sl cenluiy, asayev
and Unaiov peipelialed a seiies of leiioiisl allacks
acioss Russia. The nosl nolalIe exanpIes aie lhe al-
lacks on a schooI in esIan in 2OO4, lhe Sainl Ieleis-
luig-Moscov passengei liain in Iale-2OO9, lhe Mos-
cov nelio in 2O1O, and on Donodedovo Aiipoil in
Moscov in }anuaiy 2O11. The U.S. Depailnenl of
Slale and lhe Uniled Nalions (UN) iecognized lhese
allacks as connilled ly Chechen leiioiisls, seeking lo
eslalIish lhe Caucasus Lniiale.
136
On Seplenlei 1, 2OO4, a gioup of 17 leiioiisls look
aiound 1,1OO-1,4OO peopIe hoslage in an eIenenlaiy
schooI in lhe lovn of esIan in Noilh Osselia.
137
The
IS-Ied opeialion lo ieIease lhe hoslages ienains con-
lioveisiaI. On Seplenlei 3, lhe IS foices undeilook
a counleiallack, vhich iesuIled in a chaolic exchange
of hie lelveen lhen and lhe leiioiisls.
138
The effoils
of lhe IS and lhe suppoiling lioops suffeied fion a
Iack of cooidinalion and veie fuilhei conpIicaled ly
nany ained civiIians voIunlaiiIy liying lo heIp fiee
lhe hoslages. One of lhe ieasons foi lhe pooi cooidina-
lion is aIIegedIy lhe facl lhal lhe IS foices expecled
onIy 354 hoslages lo le in lhe schooI, vhich iesuIled in
52
choosing a viong slialegy foi lhe allack.
139
AIso, lhey
did nol sel a peiinelei, vhich iniliaIIy pievenled IS
foices fion seaIing lhe schooI and Ialei aIIoved sone
of lhe leiioiisls lo escape. As a iesuIl of lhe opeialion,
335 hoslages veie kiIIed. Hov nany hoslages died al
lhe hands of lhe leiioiisls, hov nany as a iesuIl of
lhe IS using heavy veaponiy, and hov nany due
lo lhe nislakes of lhe iescue lean ienains uncIeai.
14O

If lhe Russian niIilaiy and secuiily foices conducled
a Iessons Ieained invesligalion, il ienains hidden
fion lhe pulIic.
In lhe Noilhein Caucasus, CL and olhei iadicaIs
conlinued lheii gueiiiIIa vai againsl Russian foices
al a slaggeiing pace lhal eained Russia lhe dulious
dislinclion of having one of lhe highesl iales of lei-
ioiisl allacks pei yeai in lhe voiId.
141
In effecl, ovei
lhe pasl decade, lhe Noilh Caucasus has lecone
an ungoveinalIe aiea and a pail of lhe gIolaI jihad
space. LocaI IsIanisl oiganizalions aie nov capalIe
of Iaunching lheii ovn opeialions vilh sone IeveI of
coopeialion vilh gIolaI leiioiisl nelvoiks, as aiiesls
in Luiope and lhe oslon allack have denonslialed.
Moie inleIIigence aclivilies viII le necessaiy lo lellei
undeisland lhe nuIlipIe facels of lhis coopeialion.
#4661.7 (<47,/-,/--<-169 .75 (<47,/-1764-0/72:
17 ,G/ LN6, (/7,4-:8
Russias poious loideis and insufhcienl suiveiI-
Iance lhioughoul lhe iegion, inadequale IocaI knovI-
edge of lhe counleiinleIIigence foices assigned lo
Noilh Caucasus fion aiound lhe counliy, a Iack of
Iinguislic skiIIs ly lhe ieguIai niIilaiy as veII as spe-
ciaI foices, and coiiuplion of lhe IocaI aulhoiilies and
econonic deveIopnenl piogians seveieIy affecled
53
Russian anli-leiioiisl and counleiinsuigency ie-
sponses. Noilh Caucasus, in addilion lo leiioiisn and
IsIanisn, has lecone a holspol of diug and hunan
liafhcking lhal fuilhei funded leiioiisl aclivilies and
soIidihed lhe ieIalionships lelveen lhe Caucasus and
diug havens of Afghanislan and Tajikislan and olhei
gIolaI liafhcking nelvoiks. Chechen and olhei Noilh
Caucasus nelvoiks have lecone signihcanl naicol-
ics disliilulion pIalfoins foi Russia and Laslein and
Weslein Luiope.
Doku Unaiovs Caucasian Lniiale has lecone a
foinidalIe coaIilion of vaiious decenliaIized janaa|s
lhal, despile Russian effoils so fai, has avoided hav-
ing ils nelvoik sulslanliaIIy exposed and Iiquidaled.
}usl Iike IsIanisl iadicaIs eIsevheie, CL nenleis have
successfuIIy hidden fion sciuliny and enlienched
lhenseIves in oidei lo conlinue opeialions. They have
nanaged lo liansfoin nuch of lheii hisloiic giand
slialegy of iegionaI gueiiIIa vaifaie ained al achiev-
ing independence fion Russia~inlo one lhal incIudes
undeigiound laclics and uilan vaifaie, vhiIe invok-
ing iadicaI ideoIogy lhal had IillIe conneclion vilh lhe
hisloiy of lhe iegion. Hovevei, given lhe enoinily
of lhe inleinalionaI jihadi goaIs, il is loo eaiIy lo leII
vhelhei CL viII nanage lo achieve ils oljeclives do-
neslicaIIy and iegionaIIy, and vhelhei ils coniades-
in-ains vouId succeed gIolaIIy.
#)!!'$+ (@)+"%#"%##@#'!"
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$+* !"#$"%&'%! !'+(% LMMM
Aflei lhe successfuI iecapluie of Dageslan and
Chechnya ly Russia in 2OOO, Russian niIilaiy and in-
leiioi ninisliy unils in Noilh Caucasus have lecone
54
piinaiiIy a counleileiioiisl foice. Hovevei, lhey Iack
appiopiiale liaining, equipnenl, and nolivalion.
Wilh Iulin ascending lo lhe piesidency in lhe sane
yeai, Russian counleileiioiisl opeialions nainlained
seaich and deslioy laclics lo slop lhe giovlh of iad-
icaI IsIan in lhe Noilhein Caucasus. Yel, since 2OOO,
Moscov and Ciozny have nol fuIIy eIininaled lhe lei-
ioiisl lhieal in lhe Noilh Caucasus. As Seigey Maike-
donov fion lhe Cenlei foi Slialegic and InleinalionaI
Sludies (CSIS) noles, lhe nain faiIuie of lhe Russian
counleiinsuigency in lhe Noilh Caucasus vas lhe al-
sence of a ieIevanl, veII lhoughl oul and coheienlIy
inpIenenled slialegy. IiaclicaIIy aII opeialions, even
lhe successfuI ones, Iook Iike leIaled iesponses.
Anolhei piolIen is lhe coiiecl idenlihcalion of
lhe eneny. Russian ofhciaIs, incIuding al lhe highesl
IeveI, lend lo iefei lo lhe sepaialisls as leiioiisls oi
landils.
142
Hovevei, leiioiisn is nol ciininaI acliv-
ily, il is poIilicaI vioIence, Maikedonov says.
143
Thus il
is necessaiy lo undeisland lhe ideoIogicaI iools of lhe
cuiienl Caucasian leiioiisls and lheii poIilicaI goaIs.
Since lhe Iale-199Os, leiioiisn undei nalionaIisl and
seIf-deleininalion sIogans has leen iepIaced ly an
IsIanic one. Hovevei, even loday Russian ofhciaIs
conlinue lo speak aloul lhe Chechen sepaialisls.
144
MeanvhiIe, lhe silualion in lhe Noilh Caucasus no
Iongei iesenlIes lhe dynanics of lhe Chechen con-
icl. The insuigency in lhe iegion is nol cenleied in
Chechnya anynoie. Ralhei, eveiy yeai since 2OO5, lhe
iecoided incidence of vioIence in Chechnya has leen
Iess lhan, oi equaI lo, lhe IeveIs of vioIence olseived
in lhe neighloiing iepulIics of Ingushelia and Dages-
lan. IdeoIogicaIIy, lhe Russian goveinnenl does nol
piopose any alliaclive aIleinalives lo niIilanl IsIan.
Inslead, il is iesliicling ils poIicy ly suppoiling lhe
55
slale-sponsoied SpiiiluaI oaid of MusIins (Du|-
nctnqc Uprat|cniqa Musu|nan, oi DUMs), vhiIe un-
deieslinaling lhe ioIe of unofhciaI MusIins vho aie
nol suloidinaled lo DUMs and nol engaged in lhe lei-
ioiisl aclivily and jihadisl piopaganda.
Russian inleIIigence, counleileiioiisn, and sliale-
gic connunilies al lines deveIoped and inpIenenled
poIicies lhal veie acluaIIy causing iadicaI IsIan lo
giov in lhe iegion. Oulside lheii niIilaiy and inleI-
Iigence nelvoiks, Moscov has nainIy ieIied on lhe
sulsidiaiy goveinnenl in Chechnya Ied ly, hisl, Muf-
li Ahnad Kadyiov, and aflei his dealh in lhe lonling
duiing lhe ceIelialion of lhe Russian V-L day on May
9, 2OO4, ly his son, Ranzan.
145
Kadyiov lhe youngei
nanaged lo liing lhe vioIence in lhe iepulIic undei
conlioI. Hovevei, he has a dulious hunan iighls ie-
coid, ianging fion aIIeged kiIIings of pioninenl Rus-
sian jouinaIisls vho openIy ciilicized his piaclices,
lo hunling dovn and kiIIing his opponenls alioad.
A nolalIe case of such kiIIing is lhe assassinalion
of Unai IsiaiIov in Vienna, Ausliia, on }anuaiy 3O,
2OO9.
146
IsiaiIov vas a foinei lodyguaid of Kadyiov,
lul Ialei luined inlo an open ciilic of Kadyiovs ie-
gine in Chechnya and ed lo Ausliia, vheie he vas
given asyIun.
The dynanics of Chechen sociely have, so fai,
voiked lo Kadyiov and Moscovs advanlage, le-
cause nosl of lhe Chechens sliII vanl lo idenlify as le-
ing IoyaI lo lhe Vaynach (Chechen) nalion, ialhei lhan
lo adopl iadicaI IsIan and eiase lheii disciele iden-
lily. Kadyiov has had a gieal inpacl on IocaI sociely
lhiough iepiession of leiioiisl aclivily and pionoling
lhe Chechen nalionaI idenlily, vhich coexisls and
conpIenenls, nol suppIanls, ieIigious piaclices.
56
Thiough Chechen effoils and Russian sulsidies,
Ciozny and olhei cilies undeivenl nassive posl-
vai ieconsliuclion and deveIopnenl lhal incIuded
consliucling lhe Ciozny CenliaI Mosque, lhe Iaig-
esl nosque in Luiope, Russia, and Luiasia, and one
of lhe Iaigesl in lhe voiId, appaienlIy vilh Tuikish
funding.
147
This vas done in oidei lo fuilhei deveIop
Chechen cuIluie and liadilionaI Suh IsIan and as
an allenpl lo suppIanl lhe appeaI of iadicaI,
gIolaI IsIan.
148
In vhal couId le seen as an inpiovenenl in Rus-
sian-Chechen ieIalions, lhe pionolion of Chechen cuI-
luie ly lhe Kadyiov iegine aflei lhe Second Chechen
Wai is one of lhe fev poIicy pIanks on vhich Russian
and Chechen Ieadeiships have acliveIy coIIaloialed.
In oidei lo fuilhei pionole lhe goveinnenls veision
of Chechen sociely ovei lhe iadicaI ideoIogy and lo
inciease his ovn popuIaiily, Kadyiov IegaIized po-
Iygany (even lhough il is iIIegaI undei Russian Iav
and lhe conslilulion).
149
Whal Kadyiov did in lhe hope
of inpioving lhe silualion in Chechnya and decieas-
ing lhe inuence of iadicaI IsIanisls in lhe aiea, vilh
lhe lIessing fion Moscov, appeais lo have leen noie
effeclive lhan Moscovs aclions.
15O
The facl lhal lhe cuiienl Russian counleiinsui-
gency slialegy is fai fion leing fuIIy successfuI is
denonslialed ly nany nevs accounls delaiIing lhe
ongoing vioIence in lhe iegion. As iecenlIy as }une 23,
2O13, 38 speciaI poIice ofhceis veie kiIIed in cIashes
in soulhveslein Chechnya.
151
Anolhei lvo poIice
ofhceis veie kiIIed in lhe Shaloy disliicl on }une 29.
AIeksey MaIashenko, co-chaii of lhe Cainegie Mos-
cov Cenleis ReIigion, Sociely, and Secuiily Iiogian,
leIieves lhal lhe KienIin did nol Ieain any poIilicaI
Iessons fion lhe lvo Chechen canpaigns.
152
He noles
57
lhal lhe KienIin has no pioduclive slialegy in Noilh
Caucasus, ils poIicy lovaid lhe iegion is noslIy ieac-
live. Anolhei diavlack of lhe poIicy of lhe KienIin,
MaIashenko leIieves, is lhal il is nol alIe lo pievenl
lhe eneigence of a nev geneialion of nujahedeen.
Lffeclive neasuies againsl lheii iise vouId inevilalIy
have lo incIude a diaIogue vilh lhe opposilion and
undeilaking piaclicaI neasuies lo conlal lhe uliq-
uilous coiiuplion in lhe iegion~sonelhing lhal lhe
cuiienl eIiles aie unviIIing and unIikeIy lo do.
153
'7,/-7.,1<7.= (-1,12169 <H #4661.
.75 ,G/ [.5:-<R &<R/-79/7,8
InleinalionaI olseiveis fion lhe UN, OSCL, lhe
Uniled Slales, and fion hunan iighls oiganizalions,
have ciilicized lhe Coveinnenl of Russia and Kady-
iovs Chechen RepulIic foi anli-leiioiisl aclivilies
lhal vioIale hunan iighls and lhe Iavs of vai. The
U.S. Congiess has slaled lhal Chechen goveinnenlaI
foices aie enuIaling lhe alusive laclics of lhe leiioi-
isls.
154
The Uniled Slales is undei piessuie lo fieeze
Kadyiovs lank accounls in iesponse lo lhese con-
dennalions.
155
RepoiledIy, Kadyiovs nane is in lhe
cIassihed seclion of lhe Magnilsky Lisl, lhe U.S. Iav
naned aflei a Russian anli-coiiuplion vhislIe lIov-
ei vho died in a Moscov piison availing liiaI, and
lhal laigels gioss vioIalois of hunan iighls.
156
Hov-
evei, despile lhe oveivheIning use of foice, nany in
Chechnya seen lo have accepled lhe Kadyiov iuIe
as lhe Iessei of lvo eviIs lelveen lhe avaiIalIe op-
lions, despile lhe facl lhal Kadyiov appaienlIy has
vioIaled nany Russian Iavs and nay le guiIly of
seiious ciines.
58
Ioi nov, Chechnya is no Iongei in an aII-oul vai
vilh Russia. Despile high unenpIoynenl, il is eneig-
ing fion a deliIilaling econonic depiession. As Iong
as Kadyiov nainlains lhis nodicun of secuiily and
incone foi lhe popuIalion, lhe Chechens viII nol iisk
aIleiing lhe silualion iadicaIIy ly conlaling Russia oi
sveIIing lhe ianks of lhe IsIanisls. They Iive vilh Iu-
lin and Kadyiov foi nov~lul as in lhe pasl, lhis nay
change quickIy.
157
Russia, foi ils pail, uses convenlionaI, counleilei-
ioiisl foices and sofl-povei neans Iike econonic aid,
sulsidies, and deveIopnenl schenes in oidei lo heIp
suslain a pio-Moscov goveinnenl facing an IsIanisl
lhieal. Wilh lhe Kadyiov goveinnenl leconing noie
enlienched, Iulins KienIin has leen viIIing lo Iive
vilh a nanufacluied Chechen-nalionaIisl naiialive
lhal uses Chechen hisloiy and liadilion in oidei lo
sinuIale a ieliilh of Chechen nalionaI piide, hov-
evei, lhis ienaissance has lecone noie of a nake-
shifl 21sl-cenluiy posl-nodein ailifacl suslained and
ieguIaled ly Ciozny and Moscov. Ioi nov, il has
leen effeclive in sliiking a laIance lelveen de faclo
independence shoil of lhe liappings of soveieignly,
such as fuII loidei conlioI, foieign ieIalions, and foi-
naIIy independenl ained foices. Moscov and Cio-
zny, loo, considei lhis lhe Iessei of lvo eviIs.
Yel, lhe ienaissance cones al a piice. Theie aie
iepoils lhal Kadyiov is aIIoved lo conlioI a good
poilion of lhe Iucialive ieaI eslale naikel in Mos-
cov. This conlinalion of sliong-ain laclics, Iucialive
lusiness venluies, and ciininaIily heIps lo keep lhe
Kadyiov iegine undei KienIins conlioI, vhiIe nain-
laining Moscovs doninalion ovei lhe iegion ly le-
ing Kadyiovs de faclo lankei and piolecloi. Thanks
lo Moscovs slialegic hnanciaI injeclions, Kadyiov
59
has oveiseen lhe ieluiIding and deveIopnenl of cily
lIocks, shopping cenleis, and olhei najoi consliuc-
lion piojecls, incIuding suppoil of lhe failh. In oidei
lo pionole fuilhei lhe slale-conpalilIe foin of
IsIan, Kadyiov has leen hnancing Chechens ighls
lo Mecca foi Hajj, one of lhe hve olIigaloiy IsIanic
piIIais of failh.
158
One of lhe ieasons vhy lhe Chechen peopIe con-
linue lo join lhe insuigency and lecone foIIoveis
of iadicaI IsIanic ideoIogies is lhe Iong-lein Iack of
oppoilunilies and gIoony piospecls foi lhe fuluie.
Despile lhe heavy hnanciaI suppoil fion lhe Rus-
sian fedeiaI ludgel, Chechnya is lhe second pooiesl
suljecl of lhe Russian Iedeialion in leins of gioss
doneslic pioducl (CDI) pei capila aflei Ingushelia,
vilh appioxinale CDI pei capila of $1,85O in 2O1O.
159

Chechnya has IeveIs of unenpIoynenl lhal aie unsus-
lainalIy high foi a seIf-sufhcienl econony. The ofhciaI
unenpIoynenl IeveI in Iale-2O12 vas 25.3 peicenl.
16O

Hovevei, accoiding lo Russian nedia souices, lhe
ieaI Chechen unenpIoynenl is as high as 7O peicenl,
vilh youlh unenpIoynenl leing even highei.
!"!
The
high unenpIoynenl iales and Iov saIaiies of lhose
vho aie Iucky enough lo le enpIoyed ieecl lhe Iack
of piospecls and oppoilunilies, especiaIIy foi young
peopIe. One nay lhink lhal vilh ovei 9O peicenl of
Chechnyas ludgel lankioIIed ly Moscov, Kadyiovs
goveinnenl can onIy cieale and execule poIicy lhal
has lhe lIessing fion lhe KienIin in oidei lo pieseive
lhe sliII lenuous lianquiIily.
162
Hovevei, Moscov il-
seIf is a hoslage of soils in Chechnya, as no one loday
is seen as capalIe of iepIacing Kadyiov.
MeanvhiIe, Chechen iefugees in Luiope aie giad-
uaIIy oiganizing lhenseIves and foining a veII-es-
lalIished diaspoia. The Iaigesl Chechen diaspoia is in
6O
Weslein Luiopean counliies, such as Noivay, Iiance,
eIgiun, Ceinany, and Ausliia, and nade up of an
eslinaled 1O,OOO lo 3O,OOO peopIe in each of lhose
counliies.
163
Tnc Caucasus Tincs cIains lhal lhis nevIy
foined Chechen diaspoia is alIe lo exeil inuence on
lhe silualion in Chechnya.
164
Theie aie seveiaI oiganizalions in lhe Chechen dias-
poia. Ioi inslance, lhe WoiId Chechen Congiess is ieg-
isleied as an NCO in eIgiun.
165
Anolhei oiganizalion
is lhe Chechen Diaspoia of Noivay.
166
AddilionaIIy,
in Seplenlei 2O1O, a viiluaI WoiId Chechen Con-
giess look pIace in IoIand, vhich vas a conlioveisiaI
evenl evoking negalive ieaclions anong anli-KienIin
Chechens.
167
Ioi inslance, ZhaIodi SaiaIyapov, speakei
of lhe so-caIIed IaiIianenl of lhe Chechen RepulIic
of Ichkeiia, said lhal lhese aclions aie ained al de-
slaliIizing lhe silualion in lhe Chechen nalionaI Iilei-
alion novenenl, al lhe desliuclion of posilive deveI-
opnenls acquiied duiing lhe Iong vai.
168
Menleis
of lhe Chechen diaspoia in counliies aII acioss Luiope
dislanced lhenseIves fion lhe congiess, slaling lhal il
vas oiganized ly Russians in oidei lo consoIidale lhe
Russian occupalion of Chechnya.
The nenleis of lhe Chechen diaspoia aie nol
uniled. A najoiily of Chechen iefugees nay le sup-
poilive of lhe IsIanisl oulIook, saying lhal lhey vanl
lo see lhe hghl foi independence conlinue (66 peicenl)
and lhal lhey have a posilive allilude lovaid eslal-
Iishing a singIe Noilh Caucasus iepulIic (54 peicenl).
Theie is aIso a snaII gioup vho aie pio-Kadyiov in
lheii vievs.
169
These peopIe acliveIy pionole lhe ideas
of a connon slale vilh Russia.
Undei lhe Dniliy Medvedev adninislialion
(2OO9-12), in oidei lo pionole a soflei appioach lo
exeiling Moscovs povei ovei lhe iegion, lhe KienIin
61
has ciealed lhe Noilhein-Caucasian IedeiaI Disliicl
and Noilhein-Caucasian Lcononic Disliicl. AIexan-
dei KhIoponin, lhe KienIin-appoinled Coveinoi-
CeneiaI of lhe Noilhein-Caucasian IedeiaI Disliicl,
has oulIined lhe Disliicls lioad goaIs and individuaI
piojecls. KhIoponin announced lhal ly 2O2O lhe ie-
gion viII le pail of a lianspoilalion nelvoik lhal viII
Iink lhe Noilh Caucasus vilh lhe iesl of Russia, lhe
MiddIe Lasl, and CenliaI Asia. He has pioposed vaii-
ous piojecls, incIuding ioad infiasliucluie, luiIding
hoIiday iesoils, inpioving iegionaI access lo highei
educalion, naking aiipoil ienovalions, and consliucl-
ing hydioeIecliic pIanls acioss lhe enliie Noilh Cau-
casus.
17O
Recenl invesligalions of lhe iesoils schene
suggesl lhal a good pail of lhese piojecls veie neans
lo iIIicilIy syphon off ludgelaiy funds inlo lhe piivale
pockels of favoied lusinessnen vho aie pailicu-
IaiIy cIose lo lhe poveis lhal le.
171
The sane can le aIIeged aloul lhe Sochi Winlei
OIynpics in 2O14. The Russian Minisliy of RegionaI
DeveIopnenl announced in 2O1O (aInosl 4 yeais le-
foie lhe ganes) lhal lhe expenses foi piepaiing foi lhe
OIynpics had aIieady suipassed $3O liIIion.
172
Olhei
souices cIain lhal lhe Sochi sulliopicaI Winlei
OIynpics viII cosl $5O liIIion. In conpaiison, lhe cosl
of lhe Iasl Winlei OIynpics in Vancouvei in 2O1O is
eslinaled lo have leen lelveen $3.6 and $6 liIIion.
173

Accoiding lo oiis Nenlsov, lhe foinei Russian Iiisl
Depuly Iiine Minislei and a Ieadei of lhe Russian op-
posilion lanned fion lhe Duna, lhe oveiaII anounl
of enlezzIenenl al lhe Sochi OIynpics has aIieady
ieached aloul $25-$3O liIIion.
174
He leIieves lhal lhe
lolaI expendiluies have aIieady suipassed $5O liIIion,
vhich nakes il lhe nosl expensive Winlei OIynpics
in hunan hisloiy.
62
The iesponsiliIily of nalionaI secuiily, hovevei,
foi Noilhein Caucasus, is a pailneiship lelveen lhe
aulononous iepulIic goveinnenls and lhe fedeiaI,
Moscov-lased nalionaI secuiily inslilulions. The na-
lionaI secuiily appaialus vilhin lhe fedeiaI govein-
nenl has indeed nainlained lhe Iead in inleIIigence,
ieconnaissance, and suppoil foi vhal Iulin liies lo
poiliay as a soIeIy iegionaI piolIen, lul vhich in
ieaIily lhiealens lhe vhoIe of Russia and leyond.
In 2OO6, Russia eslalIished lhe NalionaI Anli-Tei-
ioiisn Connillee, headed ex-ofhcio ly lhe Diiecloi
of lhe IS, in oidei lo liing vaiious depailnenls in
one siIo, vheie counleileiioiisl poIicy couId le lel-
lei foinuIaled and inpIenenled noie efhcienlIy.
175

Lven vilh lellei cooidinalion, hovevei, vioIence and
dealh aie sliII ianpanl lhioughoul lhe Noilh Cauca-
sus. IunneIed ly hosliIe nedia and pulIic opinion,
Doku Unaiov, lhe CL enii, has nade a decIaialion
on lehaIf of CL in 2O12 lhal leiioiisls undei his con-
nand vouId slop allacks againsl Russian civiIians
and, inslead, focus lheii effoils on lallIing niIilaiy,
poIice, goveinnenl ofhciaIs, oi lhe secuiily appaia-
lus.
176
The sinceiily of Unaiovs decIaialion ienains
unceilain: lhe slalenenl nay have leen nade jusl lo
gel lellei pulIic ieIalions, oi in oidei lo cajoIe Rus-
sians inlo nodeialing lheii assauIls on CL and ils
leiioiisl nelvoiks. His pulIic affaiis liack iecoid ie-
nains, unsuipiisingIy, spolly: in facl, Unaiov aIIeg-
edIy announced his iesignalion on Augusl 1, 2O1O,
due lo pooi heaIlh.
177
The nexl day, hovevei, Una-
iov ieIeased anolhei video vheie he caIIed his foinei
announcenenl faked.
178
He aIso said lhal he vas in
good heaIlh.
In facl, Unaiov had assuned a Iess aclive ioIe
in CL lul ielains lhe lop Ieadeiship posilion in lhe
gioup, vhich signihes hov decenliaIized lhe con-
63
nand sliucluie in lhis leiioiisl nelvoik is, in sync
vilh olhei nel-cenliic leiioiisl oiganizalions aiound
lhe voiId.
179
Rogue aclois in lhe Noilh Caucasus, ieaI
oi inagined, sliII allack civiIians, defying Unaiovs
decIaialion. Moieovei, lhe evenls in eIgiun and os-
lon, vheie Noilh Caucasus leiioiisls veie aiiesled,
denonsliale lhal lhe voiId nusl nol discounl lhe
lhieal of IsIanic iadicaIisn in lhe Noilh Caucasus lo
Luiopean and Aneiican nalionaI secuiily.
%DD%(" @D +@#"B%#+ ($)($!)! @+
P#@$*%# #)!!'$+\ $E%#'($+\
$+* &Q@P$Q !%()#'"A
Wilh IsIanisl leiioiisl aclivilies chaIIenging Rus-
sias conlioI in lhe Noilh Caucasus, Moscov iisks
having lhe insuigency undeinine Russian slialegic
goaIs of ieeslalIishing ilseIf as a Ieading gIolaI povei.
Wilh lhe advenl of lhe 2O14 Winlei OIynpic Canes
and lhe 2O18 Soccei WoiId Cup in Russia, Iulin and
lhe iuIing eIile aie eagei lo use lhese and olhei Rus-
sian-hosled gIolaI evenls lo inpiove lhe counliys in-
age, alliacl gIolaI inveslnenl, and secuie lhe voiIds
conhdence lhal Russia is a 21sl-cenluiy gIolaI Ieadei
akin lo China, India, and iaziI. If one of lhose evenls
veie lo allacked, lhe consequences foi Russias gIolaI
inage vouId le exlieneIy negalive. WhiIe Unaiov
pIedged lo allack Sochi in 2O14, Iulin has nanaged lo
convince nuch of lhe voiId lhal lhe secuiily piolIens
in lhe Noilh Caucasus, in spile of spoiadic allacks and
aclive leiioiisl ceIIs, have leen IaigeIy iesoIved.
"G/ Q<70],/-9 #16/ 17 #.512.=1698
Lven lhough Russia nade il lhiough lhe Sochi
OIynpics vilh no casuaIlies, lhe hghl is fai fion
64
ovei. Olhei iegions in lhe Noilhein Caucasus, espe-
ciaIIy Dageslan, aie expeiiencing a iise in IsIanic iadi-
caIisn. The oiigins of conlenpoiaiy IsIanic iadicaI-
isn in Dageslan go lack lo lhe eaiIy-199Os, vhen lhe
Soviel Union vas coIIapsing and opening ils loideis
lo lhe oulside voiId.
18O
A key hguie in oiganizing lhe
iadicaI IsIanisl novenenl in Dageslan vas agaud-
din Keledov. He vas a devoul suppoilei of SaIahsn
and haishIy ciilicized olhei, noie nodeiale foins
of IsIan, such as Suhsn. In 199O, he lecane one of
lhe Ieadeis of lhe IsIanic Iaily of RevivaI and sulse-
quenlIy a Ieadei of a iadicaI ving of Dageslani SaIaf-
isls, Ialei naned lhe IsIanic }anaal of Dageslan (I}D).
The SaIah ideoIogy enjoyed vide suppoil anong lhe
popuIalion due lo lhe deepening econonic ciisis, lhe
sinpIicily and undeislandaliIily of lhe SaIah ideas,
and lhe spiiil of liolheihood in lhe oiganizalion. The
I}D giaduaIIy lecane lhe nosl inuenliaI SaIah gioup
in Dageslan.
The pioliacled conicl in Chechnya vas aIso one
of lhe ieasons lhal faciIilaled lhe spieading of lhis iad-
icaI ideoIogy in Dageslan. The 1996 vilhdiavaI fion
Chechnya vas a sign of Russian niIilaiy veakness.
Il encouiaged lhe Dageslani iadicaIs lo foin cIosei
lies vilh lheii liolheis in failh. Many of lhen venl
lo hghl in Chechnya oi joined IocaI leiioiisl oigani-
zalions. In addilion, lhe Chechen conicl encouiaged
peopIe vho sav lhe vai as a souice of incone lo join
lhe iadicaIs.
The anligoveinnenl and anli-Russian senlinenls
anong lhe nenleis of lhe I}D veie encouiaged ly
lhe counleipioduclive poIicy of IocaI Dageslani au-
lhoiilies. They Iacked a cohesive slialegy lo conlain
lhe I}D and inslead chose lo iiiilale il vilh poIice ac-
lion. In pailicuIai, lhe IocaI Dageslani aulhoiilies de-
65
cided lo Iaunch vhal lhey consideied lo le a lolaI
vai againsl lhe iadicaI exlienisl gioups. Hovevei,
lhe ianks of Wahhalisls veie oflen hIIed ly oidinaiy
MusIins vilh no pievious lies lo exlienisls. Moie-
ovei, lhe hunl on Wahhalisls vas fiequenlIy used
as a neans lo soIve peisonaI and poIilicaI dispules,
and aIso foi lhe peisonaI lenehls of coiiupl Iav en-
foicenenl and pelly poIilicians. Using excessiveIy
haish nelhods onIy nolivaled nany IsIanisl aclivisls
lo seek ievenge oi lo go hghl in Chechnya.
In 2O12, lhe silualion in Dageslan lecane ciilicaI.
181

Aiound lhiee-quaileis of aII leiioiisl acls connilled
in lhe Noilh Caucasus foi lhe hisl 9 nonlhs of 2O12
look pIace in Dageslan. Despile lhe nininaI chances
foi success of lheii goaI lo eslalIish an IsIanic quasi-
slale, lhe SaIahsls/Wahhalisls enjoy consideialIe
suppoil of lhe Dageslani popuIalion. SiniIaiIy lo lhe
eaiIy-199Os, peopIe conlinue lo le dissalished vilh an
unlenalIe econonic silualion, incIuding unenpIoy-
nenl, coiiuplion, pooi heaIlhcaie, and lhe Iack of fu-
luie piospecls. Hovevei, lhe ieIigious yeaining and
ils vioIenl nanifeslalion aIso alliacl Dageslanis inlo
lhe ianks of leiioiisls.
The silualion in Ingushelia is siniIai lo lhal in
Dageslan. The inuence of IsIanic iadicaIs in Ingush-
elia ienains high despile lhe ieguIai kiIIing and cap-
luiing of iadicaI leiioiisls and heId connandeis.
182

SaIah/Wahhali ideoIogy and oiganizalions have a
sliong polenliaI foi lhe sane ieasons as in Dageslan.
Moscov decIaied lhe counleileiioiisl opeialion in
Chechnya conpIeled in 2OO9. Hovevei, lhis aclion aI-
Ioved leiioiisl aclivily lo spiead noie easiIy lo lhe
neighloiing iepulIics, incIuding Ingushelia.
183
Teiioi-
isl allacks conlinue lo lake pIace. The ianks of Wah-
halisls conlinue lo le hIIed nainIy ly Ingushelias
youlh vho do nol see olhei vays of seIf-ieaIizalion.
66
SiniIaiIy, in Kalaidino-aIkaiia, lhe nalionaIisn
of lhe IocaI elhnic connunilies doninales ovei civiI
vaIues.
184
Hovevei, iadicaI IsIanisl leiioiisls aie ac-
live in Kalaidino-aIkaiia. Ioi inslance, on }anuaiy
6, 2O13, lhiee suspecled leiioiisls veie kiIIed ly lhe
Russian secuiily seivices.
185
They aie leIieved lo have
leen piepaiing leiioiisl allacks againsl IocaI chuiches
duiing lhe ceIelialion of lhe Oilhodox Chiislnas. Al
Ieasl since 2OO9, lhe cIashes lelveen lhe ieleIs and lhe
Russian secuiily seivices in lhe iepulIic have leen a
veekIy, if nol a noie fiequenl, occuiience.
186
Theie
aie aIso iepoils lhal hundieds of Sunni hghleis have
joined iadicaI foices in Syiia lo hghl lhe AIavi iegine
of Iiesidenl ashai eI-Assad and his Shia aIIies, such
as HezloIIah and Iian.
187
Russia no doull appIauds
lhe exodus of lhe lioulIenakeis, despile ils suppoil
of lhe Assad iegine: if kiIIed oi vounded in Syiia,
lhese exlienisls aie off lhe slieels in lhe Caucasus.
NeveilheIess, lhe Russian expeils inleivieved in
lhe couise of lhis ieseaich agiee lhal expeclalions of
a geneiaI nassive upiising in lhe Noilh Caucasus
againsl Moscovs iuIe aie nol ieaIislic. LocaI upiis-
ings aie possilIe in lhe evenl lhal IocaI adninislia-
lions connil poIilicaI nislakes, giving lhe insuigenls
an excuse lo oiganize and acl againsl lhe KienIin.
188

In addilion, lheie aie nuneious dispules vilhin lhe
iegion ilseIf, such as inleielhnic lensions lelveen lhe
Osselians and lhe Ingush oi Iand dispules lelveen
diffeienl gioups in Dageslan and Kalaidino-aIkaiia,
Iel aIone inlei-iepulIican loidei dispules (e.g., le-
lveen Noilh Osselia and Ingushelia, and lelveen In-
gushelia and Chechnya).
189
Olhei exanpIes of lensions
incIude inlia-IsIanic dispules, such as lhose lelveen
Suh MusIins, vho considei lheii liilaI Iands lo le a
pail of lheii elhno-nalionaI heiilage, and lhe uIlia-
67
ieIigious SaIahs, vho exhilil highei diffeiing IeveIs of
iadicaIisn, and vioIenl foIIoveis of gIolaI jihad.
The pailiaI ienedy lo depiive lhe ieleIs of an ex-
cuse lo Iuie nev nujahedeen seens lo le econonic
and sociaI deveIopnenl of lhe iegion, alliaclive secu-
Iai poIicies, and lhe piesence of a sliong aIleinalive
lo lhe iadicaI liand of IsIan. If coiiuplion and unen-
pIoynenl aie successfuIIy deaIl vilh and if lhe youlh
is given a vialIe and alliaclive aIleinalive, lhe ieleI
Ieadeis viII Iose lheii appeaI, and lhe vhoIe insuigen-
cy novenenl nay giaduaIIy fade.
Inslead, Moscov is liying lo disciedil iadicaI Is-
Ianisn as sonelhing lhal is foieign lo liadilionaI Is-
Ian and Caucasian elhnic liadilions~a slialegy lhal
has so fai had IillIe effecl. IaiadoxicaIIy, lhis slialegy
has leen unsuccessfuI despile lhe facl lhal even unofh-
ciaI MusIins, nol suloidinaled lo lhe slale-sponsoied
IsIanic sliucluies, aie ialhei ciilicaI and suspicious of
lhe Caucasus Lniiale aclivily.
19O
The IocaI popuIa-
lion in nany cases faiIs lo viev fedeiaI inslilulions in
lhe iegion as Iegilinale. In lhe neanline, lhe Noilh
Caucasus is giaduaIIy luining inlo a dc fac|c innei
alioad foi Moscov.
In oidei foi Moscov lo achieve successes in hghl-
ing lhe Noilh Caucasian sepaialisls, ils poIicy needs
lo incIude neasuies ained al inlegialing al Ieasl sone
of lhe iadicaIs inlo lhe Russian sociely. In olhei voids,
lhe iesoIve of lhe KienIin lo neuliaIize lhe sepaialisls
al aII cosls needs lo le conlined vilh sofl povei
addiessed lo lhe cilizens.
191
Russia needs lo le alIe
lo dislinguish a leiioiisl acl fion a gangIand sIaying
(veiy oflen lhe highesl iepiesenlalives of lhe Russian
slale idenlify leiioiisls as landils). These neasuies
nusl le acconpanied ly a ieIenlIess anlicoiiuplion
slialegy (lecause piivalizalion of lhe IocaI povei
68
piovokes sociaI piolesl and iadicaIisn), ciealion of
nev peisonneI foi lhe iepulIican IeveI of pulIic sei-
vice~(veII-educaled leyond lhe Caucasian iepul-
Iics)~and pionolion of aIleinalive veisions of IsIan
(iegionaI Caucasus oi Luiopean IsIan foi exanpIe).
eyond lhe Noilh Caucasus, lhe silualion is sIov-
Iy deleiioialing. In pailicuIai, lhe MusIin-najoiily
iepulIics of ashkoiloslan and Talaislan, vhich aie
Iocaled in lhe coie of Russia and fai avay fion lhe
Noilh Caucasus, have slailed lo deveIop IsIanisl nel-
voiks lhal aie Iinked vilh lhe Noilhein Caucasus and
gIolaI nelvoiks. On }uIy 19, 2O12, Depuly Mufli VaIi-
uIIa Yakupov vas kiIIed, and IIdus Iayzov, lhe Mufli
of Talaislan, vas seveieIy injuied in a cai lonling
in Kazan, Talaislan.
192
These cIeigynen veie openIy
ciilicaI of lhe spiead of Wahhalisn in lhe counliy.
193

RadicaIized cilizens of Talaislan have aIso leen gone
lo hghl in Chechnya and vilh lhe TaIilan in Afghani-
slan.
194
AIso, in ashkoiloslan in Ieliuaiy 2O11, ash-
kii ofhciaIs slaled lhal foui IsIanisl iadicaIs opeialing
al lhe lehesl of Unaiov veie caughl vilh a hone-
nade lonl vilh lhe inlenlion of inicling nass
civiIian casuaIlies.
195
Since Noilh Caucasus is an eneigy hul adjacenl
lo lhe Iack and Caspian Seas, lhe salolage of eneigy
infiasliucluie ienains a conslanl concein anong Rus-
sian eneigy hins upsliean and dovnsliean. As Rus-
sia sliives lo connecl nev pipeIines Iike Soulh Sliean
fion Novoiossiysk on lhe Iack Sea lo Tuikey and
Luiope and conlinues lo luiId up Kiasnodai Kiais
poils as eneigy-Iogislics huls, IsIanisl leiioiisls in
lhe Noilh Caucasus viII conlinue lo focus on any op-
poilunily lo sliike Russian eneigy liade and civiIian
popuIalion in a devaslaling vay.
69
Ioi lhe Uniled Slales, lhe vinding dovn of opeia-
lions in Afghanislan and Iiaq viII change lhe U.S. fo-
cus on CenliaI Asia and lhe Caucasus and ils lhieal
assessnenl of Noilh Caucasus leiioiisn. Aflei lhe
vilhdiavaI of lhe U.S. lioops fion Afghanislan in
2O14, lhe counliy viII nosl IikeIy sIip lack inlo chaos,
lhiealening lhe slaliIily of lhe counliies of CenliaI
Asia and Noilh Caucasus, vhich has liadilionaI po-
IilicaI, ieIigious, and diug-liafhcking lies vilh Af-
ghanislans TaIilan. Thus, lhe Uniled Slales nay le
iequiied lo iefocus on lhe iegion, vhich has so fai ie-
ceived insufhcienl allenlion undei lhe aiack Olana
adninislialion.
Teiioiisl nelvoiks fion Russia viII hnd nev op-
poilunilies lo undeinine Russian and U.S. aIIies and
lhe peace lhal lhe Uniled Slales foughl so haid lo se-
cuie. Iasl iepoils shov lhal Russian cilizens fion lhe
Noilhein Caucasus have leen aclive in conlal and
in diug liafhcking in Afghanislan and Soulh Asia.
196

Noilh Caucasus leiioiisls aIso giealIy lenehled fion
lhe diug liade oiiginaling fion Afghanislan.
197
Aflei lhe U.S. vilhdiavaI fion Afghanislan, lhe
oId lies aie IikeIy lo ievive. The gIolaI hnancing of
leiioiisn is vilaI lo heIp giov lhe Noilh Caucasus
IsIanisl nelvoik. The iadicaI IsIanisls in lhe Noilh
Caucasus conlinue lo chaIIenge Russian fedeiaI au-
lhoiilies, lhanks lo lhe avaiIaliIily of oulside souices
of hnancing. As fai lack as 2OOO, Khallal and velsiles
suppoilive of aI-Qaeda have soIiciled hnanciaI suppoil
foi Noilh Caucasus gioups, even lefoie CL vas eslal-
Iished.
198
Thiough lhe gIolaI chaiily caIIed enevo-
Ience InleinalionaI Ioundalion, sel up in Saudi Aia-
lia, Chechen gioups ieceived vasl anounls of noney
fion lhe MiddIe Lasl, lefoie lhe inleinalionaI leiioi-
isn hnance ain vas shul dovn in Russia, lhe Uniled
7O
Slales, and eIsevheie.
199
In 2O1O, a chaiily knovn as
Shaiia4eIgiun, vhich vas sending noney lo CL,
vas lhvailed, as veII as nuneious velsiles lased in
Luiope lhal soIiciled and Iaundeied funds lhal uIli-
naleIy ieached IsIanic leiioiisl gioups.
2OO
Nol onIy fiauduIenl chaiilies in Luiope veie
exposed as noney-Iaundeiing schenes foi leiioiisls,
sone Noilh Caucasus ceIIs have leen uncoveied in
Luiope as veII. In lhe Czech RepulIic, a ceII associ-
aled vilh CL, conlaining one Chechen and a coupIe
of Dageslanis, anong olhei IsIanic iadicaIs fion
Laslein Luiope, vas appiehended in ApiiI 2O11. The
Iiench poIice found hve Chechen nalionaIs, incIuding
an inan, in a ceII vhich nade and sloied conponenls
foi naking lonls.
2O1
ased on lhe naluie of lhese hnd-
ings, Noilh Caucasus leiioiisn in Luiope appeais lo
laigel civiIians and goveinnenl ofhciaIs iegaidIess of
vhal decIaialion Unaiov nighl pioduce.
IinaIIy, as aIieady nenlioned, Chechens and olhei
exlienisl Sunni hghleis fion lhe Noilh Caucasus
have nade lheii vay via Tuikey lo Syiia hghling
foi lhe Sunni ieleIs againsl lhe AIavi Assad iegine.
Hundieds of IsIanisls fion lhe Noilh Caucasus, no-
lalIy Chechnya, have joined lhe ieleIIion againsl Syi-
ian piesidenl ashai aI-Assad, even as Kadyiov slales
no Chechens aie acliveIy engaged in Syiia.
2O2
A senioi
Azeilaijani ofhciaI vho iequesled anonynily eslinal-
ed lhe nunlei of Noilh Caucasians hghling in Syiia
againsl Assad lo le in lhe hundieds. He conpIained
lhal Russia is nol doing nuch lo slop lhe nigialion of
ils young nen lo hghl a jihad in Syiia lecause Rus-
sian aulhoiilies piefei lheii exlienisls lo le kiIIed
fai avay fion ils loideis.
2O3
On lhe olhei hand, if
liained and lallIe-haidened in Syiia, lhese hghleis
nay cone hone and cause a Iol of lioulIe lo lhe pio-
71
Moscov adninislialions of lheii honeIand. As seen
in Luiope, Syiia, Afghanislan, and in Noilh Aneiica
(oslon), lhe Noilh Caucasian lhieal is aIieady gIolaI
in naluie, and aclive coopeialion anong inleinalionaI
inleIIigence and Iav enfoicenenl oiganizalions is
iequiied in oidei lo pievenl lhis iegion fion inicl-
ing any noie hain lo Aneiican and inleinalionaI
inleiesls.
@)"Q@@[ $+* #%(@EE%+*$"'@+!
WhiIe Kadyiov and Iulin conlinue lo evisceiale
leiioiisls, lheii nelvoiks, and suppoileis, Russian
sociely as a vhoIe has nade IillIe piogiess in eslal-
Iishing an inleielhnic hainony and inlei-ieIigious de-
lenle lelveen lhe elhnic Russian Oilhodox najoiily
and lhe MusIin Noilh Caucasian peopIes lhioughoul
lhe counliy. The Russian eIiles and SIavic Oilhodox
najoiilys alliludes lovaid lhe Caucasus vaiy. Sone
leIieve lhal Russia needs lo slop pouiing nuIliliIIion
doIIai sulsidies fion lhe fedeiaI ludgel lo lhe Iikes of
Kadyiov and lo olhei Caucasus aulononous iepul-
Iics. Hence lhe fanous sIogan foinuIaled ly lhe op-
posilion Ieadei, AIexei NavaIny: Lnough feeding lhe
Caucasus.
LvenluaIIy, elhno-ieIigious ennily and econonic
dispaiily nay Iead lo poIilicaI independence of lhe ie-
gions oi pails lheieof. Many pioninenl eslalIishnenl
hguies, such as lhe foinei Iiine Minislei Yevgeny
Iiinakov, Chaiinan of lhe Accounls Chanlei of
Russia and foinei Iiine Minislei Seigei Slepashin,
lhe head of Rosalon and lhe foinei Iiine Minislei
Seigey Kiiiyenko, and lhe foinei Moscov nayoi
Yuiy Luzhkov, essenliaIIy agiee lhal Russia shouId
alandon lhe Noilh Caucasus and luiId a nev loi-
72
dei on lhe Teiek Rivei. Yel, olheis sliII considei lhe
Caucasus lo le an aggiavaling piolIen lhal shouId le
suppiessed ialhei lhan iesoIved. Whichevei lhe ap-
pioach, Russia is unIikeIy lo give up lhe Noilh Cau-
casus unIess foiced lo ly lhe afoienenlioned faclois.
The nalionaIisl novenenls lhal have conspicuous-
Iy expiessed lheii aninosily lovaid lhe iegion have
pIed lo Iulin lo slop lhe goveinnenls assislance lo
goveinnenls in lhe Noilhein Caucasus al lhe expense
of SIavic/Oilhodox Russians. In lhe Iasl fev yeais,
Russians have piolesled and iioled againsl lhe deveI-
opnenl aid lo lhe Caucasus, as veII as in iesponse lo
aIIeged and ieaI allacks on elhnic Russians ly Cauca-
sian nigianls in cilies and viIIages aII acioss Russia.
Localions incIuded lhe viIIage of ezopasnoye (vhose
nane iionicaIIy neans safe), in SlaviopoIskaya
OlIasl, Miiny, in UIyanovsk olIasl (vhich equaIIy
iionicaIIy neans peacefuI), lhe cosnopoIilan capi-
laIs of Moscov and Sainl-Ieleisluig,
2O4
Kondapoga
in lhe KaieIia, Iugachev (Saialov olIasl),
2O5
Nizhny
Novgoiod, and Kiiov, lo nenlion jusl a fev.
Mosl of sociely, even if nol openIy piolesling,
hoIds peopIes fion lhe Noilh Caucasus in Iov esleen,
iefusing lo see lhen as Russians and oflen Iiniling
lhen lo Iov-skiIIed, neniaI jols such as fainei nai-
kel liadeis in lhe najoi cilies. Yel, lhe denogiaphic
dynanic suggesls lhal lhe nunlei of Russian cilizens
vilh MusIin iools is gioving, and lhey occupy in-
cieasingIy inpoilanl socio-econonic posilions. Ioi
exanpIe, Rashid NuigaIiyev, vho seived as Russias
Inleiioi Minislei fion 2OO3 lo 2O11, and LIviia NaliuI-
Iina, foinei Minislei of Lcononic DeveIopnenl and
Tiade and cuiienl Head of Russian CenliaI ank, as
veII as nany jouinaIisls, lusinesspeopIe, goveinnenl
ofhciaIs, and Iav enfoicenenl peisonneI. Iulin, hav-
ing lo sliuggIe vilh econonic, poIilicaI, and sociaI
73
piolIens lhioughoul aII of Russia, cannol iisk hav-
ing lhe Noilh Caucasus ieappeai as a nalionaI ciisis
ashpoinl, since il nay Iead lo pailiaI oi even fuII Ioss
of goveinnenl conlioI ovei lhe counliy. The KienIin,
lheiefoie, has IillIe choice lul lo conlinue ils iolusl
anli-leiioiisl poIicies vilh auxiIiaiy econonic and
poIilicaI suppoil.
A favoialIe fuluie in vhich lhe iegion piospeis
and IsIanisn lecones Iess appeaIing Iooks incieas-
ingIy unIikeIy loday. The oulIook of lhe Noilh Cauca-
sus is lIeak, and lhe possilIe scenaiios iange fion a
nuddIe lhiough, noie of lhe sane/lusiness as usuaI,
incIuding Iov inlensily conicl, lo a disaslious oul-
cone in vhich lhe Russian slale is unalIe lo conlioI
lhe aiea, alandons lhe iegion, and IsIanisn lakes a
cenliaI ioIe.
)8!8 !%()#'"A '+"%#%!"! $+* "B%
+@#"B ($)($!)! (B$QQ%+&%!
In oidei lo secuie lhe lesl oulcone foi lhe iegion,
lhe Uniled Slales and ils aIIies nusl conlinue lo focus
lheii allenlion on lhe Noilh Caucasus. The foIIoving
aie lhe scenaiios:
1. A signihcanl inpiovenenl in socio-econonic
and poIilicaI dynanics if lheie is a diop in leiioiisl
ieciuilnenl and aclivily. This shouId deciease lhe
need foi goveinnenlaI counleileiioiisl opeialions
againsl lhe eneny and cieale a posilive cIinale foi
inveslnenl,
2. A slalus quo, as lhe iegion conlinues ils ieIiance
on Moscov foi sulsidies, Iegilinacy, and suppoil.
The slalus quo vouId aIso conlinue lo slignalize lhe
Noilh Caucasus MusIins as cilizens of Iessei slaluie,
in shoil, a nuddIe lhiough,
74
3. Russian and IocaI aulhoiilies faiIuies lo nain-
lain lhe oidei in lhe iegion, and lhe Noilh Caucasus
descends inlo chaos.
The slalus quo/nuddIe lhiough ienains lhe
nosl IikeIy Iong-lein oulcone foi lhe iegion, unIess
Ranzan Kadyiov is kiIIed oi incapacilaled, hovevei,
nainlaining lhe slalus quo onIy nakes lhe ciisis noie
IikeIy in lhe Iong lein, since any signihcanl econonic
deleiioialion nay liing palience and acquiescence
anong lhe popuIalion lo an end.
In Iighl of lhe cuiienl silualion, lhe Uniled Slales
nusl acl lo piolecl ils inleiesls in lhe Aneiican hone-
Iand, as veII as in Luiope, lhe Caucasus, lhe MiddIe
Lasl, and CenliaI Asia. The Uniled Slales nusl le
connilled lo cuiling lhe giovlh of IsIanisl leiioi-
isn and iadicaIisn in lhe Noilh Caucasus. The Uniled
Slales nusl engage ils aIIies and voik vilh Russia lo
slienglhen ils loidei secuiily, invigoiale Iav enfoice-
nenl, and counleileiioiisl coopeialion vilh nalionaI
and inleinalionaI agencies, inpiove inleIIigence ca-
paliIilies, and appeaI foi inleinalionaI coopeialion lo
eIininale lhe hnanciaI suppoil of leiioiisn lhal heIps
Noilh-Caucasus niIilanl gioups ouiish.
Wilhoul innediale, lhoiough, and conceiled
inleinalionaI aclion, lhe chaIIenges lhal lhe Noilh
Caucasus piesenls lo lhe voiId viII giov inlo najoi
piolIens. As lhe leiioiisl lhieal giovs in lhe Noilh
Caucasus, lhe Uniled Slales needs lo inpiove lhe ca-
paliIilies of lhe agencies nosl engaged in hghling il.
SpecihcaIIy, lhe Uniled Slales can voik vilh Ceoigia
and Azeilaijan lo inpiove lheii loidei secuiily vilh
Russia. The inaliIily lo liack and lo slop lhose vho
iIIegaIIy cioss lhe poious loideis poses a gieal iisk lo
lhe eneigy infiasliucluie in lhe Soulh Caucasus. Ln-
75
gaging vilh Russia as veII as Aneiican fiiends and
aIIies in lhe iegion lo pievenl infiasliucluie allacks,
as veII as lhe snuggIing of hunan leings, diugs
and ains, vouId giealIy heIp lo piolecl lhe iegion
fion leiioiisn.
The Uniled Slales nay aIso heIp liain and luiId
ieIalionships vilh inleIIigence, counleileiioiisl, and
Iav enfoicenenl agencies in Soulh Caucasus, incIud-
ing Ceoigia, Azeilaijan, and Ainenia. The Uniled
Slales can expIoie expanded coopeialion vilh olhei
foieign Iav enfoicenenl and inleIIigence seivices foi
lhe coIIeclion of, pievenlion, and disiuplion of lei-
ioiisl opeialions, incIuding againsl Aneiican and
fiiendIy laigels. U.S. inleIIigence and Iav enfoicenenl
agencies vouId lenehl fion cuIlivaling iegionaI lies
and coopeialing againsl such fuluie lhieals as de-
sciiled in lhis nonogiaph. Such coopeialion viII give
lhe Uniled Slales a lellei undeislanding of lhe Noilh
Caucasus lhieal fion souices vho knov lhe Ian-
guages, ieIigions, cuIluies, hisloiy, and geogiaphy of
lhe iegion.
The Uniled Slales aIso needs lo sliive lo uncovei
lhe Noilh Caucasus leiioiisl nelvoiks lhal have con-
neclions lo inleinalionaI leiioiisn. One effeclive vay
foi lhe Uniled Slales lo slop Noilh Caucasus-lased
leiioiisn is lo hanpei lhe neans ly vhich lhe gioups
giov and opeiale in lhe iegion and leyond. Ioi exan-
pIe, lhis neans lhal lhe Uniled Slales shouId encoui-
age MiddIe Laslein slales lo slop lhe liansfei of funds
lo lhe Noilh Caucasus exlienisls and cease lheii in-
docliinalion and SaIah/Wahhali educalion foi gIolaI
leiioiisl cadies, incIuding ieciuileis and piopagan-
disls fion lhe Noilh Caucasus.
76
(@+(Q)!'@+
Ovei 2 cenluiies of aluses of lhe Russian inpeiiaI
poIicy in lhe Noilh Caucasus iesonale even loday.
The Noilh Caucasus has leen a suljecl of lhe lsaiisl
expansionisl poIicies, connunisl oppiession, SlaIins
ciueIly, and posl-Soviel Russias ciippIed and coiiupl
inslilulions, vhich, vhiIe pioviding sone nodeiniza-
lion diiveis, seved inlei-elhnic and inlei-ieIigious
discoid and peipelualed lhe vioIenl cuIluie. The na-
lionaI ieaclion gave vay lo ieIigious exlienisn. Rus-
sians did conquei lhe Noilh Caucasus niIilaiiIy, lul
lhey faiIed lo assiniIale lhe IocaI popuIalion, exliipale
lhe dislincl idenlilies of lhe Noilh Caucasian peopIes,
oi hnd a ncdus titcndi vilh IsIan. The Chechens, lhe
Ingush, lhe Ciicassians, and olhei IocaI nalions ie-
nenlei lheii liagic pasl and leai giudges againsl lhe
Russians. Lven lhough lhe Winlei OIynpics in Sochi
in 2O14 lioughl inleinalionaI allenlion lo lhe liage-
dies of lhe iegion, foilunaleIy, leiioiisl allacks nevei
naleiiaIized duiing lhe ganes.
Aflei lvo devaslaling vais al lhe end of lhe 2Olh
cenluiy, Moscov has nov IaigeIy ieluiIl lhe de-
slioyed Chechen infiasliucluie. On lhe suiface, lhe
Chechen capilaI Ciozny Iooks noie piospeious lhan
evei. Hovevei, lhe KienIin has faiIed lo soIve lhe
undeiIying piolIens lhal fueI IsIanisl exlienisn
and leiioiisn.
Inpioving lhe silualion in lhe Noilh Caucasus
vouId uIlinaleIy iequiie lackIing coiiuplion and en-
suiing goveinnenl accounlaliIily lo lhe IocaI popu-
Ialion~sonelhing lhal is highIy unIikeIy lo happen
anyline soon. Soaiing unenpIoynenl, unfaii lieal-
nenl of lhe Noilh Caucasian elhnic ninoiilies in Rus-
sia piopei, lhe Iack of oppoilunilies, and a Iack of le-
77
Iief in a lellei fuluie nolivale sone of lhe Chechens,
Ingush, Dageslanis, elc., lo join vioIenl gioups aclive
againsl lhe IocaI goveinnenls and againsl Moscov~
and in lhe cause of lhe gIolaI hoIy vai againsl lhe
inhdeIs.
The Noilh Caucasus sliII faces a piecaiious fuluie,
as veII as econonic coIIapse and devaslalion. The
giovlh of iadicaI IsIan and lhe dangei of gIolaI ji-
had inpeding on lhe iegion inpeiiI nol onIy Russia,
lul aIso lhe secuiily of lhe U.S. honeIand and aIIies.
Whal vas a nalionaIisl sliuggIe againsl Moscov has
nulaled ovei a shoil peiiod of line inlo a gIolaI nen-
ace lhal aIieady has spiead lo lhe MiddIe Lasl, CenliaI
Asia, Luiope, and lhe Uniled Slales. The Uniled Slales
nusl liack lhe lhieals fion lhe Noilh Caucasus and
sliive lo pievenl lheii fuilhei inlegialion vilh gIolaI
niIilanl IsIanisl aclois. Today, no Aneiican slial-
egy againsl gIolaI IsIanisn viII le effeclive vilhoul
delaiIed piogians and pIans lo conlal leiioiisl nel-
voiks in lhe Noilh Caucasus.
%+*+@"%!
1. AiieI Cohen, A Thieal lo lhe Wesl: The Rise of IsIanisl
Insuigency in lhe Noilhein Caucasus and Russias Inadequale
Response, Heiilage Ioundalion 8ac|grcundcr, No. 2643, Maich
26, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncri|agc.crg/rcscarcn/rcpcr|s/2012/03/
a-|nrca|-|c-|nc-ucs|-|nc-risc-cf-is|anis|-insurgcncq-in-|nc-ncr|ncrn-
caucasus.
2. Designalion of Caucasus Lniiale, Washinglon, DC: U.S.
Depailnenl of Slale, May 26, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion uuu.s|a|c.gct/r/
pa/prs/ps/2011/05/164312.n|n.
3. Teiakl v KizIyaie i Ieivonayskon 9~18 yanvaiya 1996
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78
4. Doku Unaiov piikazaI nodzhakhedan ne alakoval
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Mujahedeen nol lo Allack lhe Russian CiviIian IopuIalion),
Kcrrcspcndcn|.nc|, Ieliuaiy 3, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion |crrcspcndcn|.
nc|/tidcc/ucr|d/1315131-dc|u-unarct-pri|aza|-ncdznancdan-nc-
a|a|cta|-grazndans|cc-nasc|cnic-rcssii.
5. Cieelings fion Ciozny: LxpIoie Chechnyas TuiluIenl
Iasl: 17OOs: HoIy Wai, IS Wide AngIe, }uIy 25, 2OO2, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.pos.crg/unc|/uidcang|c/cpiscdcs/grcc|ings-frcn-grcznq/
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6. Leo ToIsloy, Hadji Mura|, Chaplei 12, 1917, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.ccc|.crg/ccc|/|c|s|cq/nadij.xiii.n|n|.
7. Ioi noie infoinalion on lhe lackgiound of lhe Russian/
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lhe Wesl: The Rise of IsIanisl Insuigency in lhe Noilhein Cau-
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8ac|grcundcr No. 2643, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncri|agc.crg/rcscarcn/
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8. IauI . Henze, IsIan in lhe Noilh Caucasus: The Lxan-
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Cenluiies IsIan in Russia/IsIan in Noilh Caucasus), avaiIalIe
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11. Henze, p. 4.
79
12. Moshe Cannei, 'IioconsuI of lhe Caucasus: A Re-
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15. I. Diozdov, IosIednaya loila s goilsani na Zapad-
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sias Hcncgrcun |nsurgcncq. ]inad in |nc Ncr|n Caucasus, CaiIisIe,
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28. D. Cakaev, Ciazhdanskaya voyna v Checheno-Ingush-
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81
IiaclicaI Handlook foi Sludenls of aII SpeciaIizalions and aII
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31. DekIaiaciya piav naiodov Rossii, 2(15) noyaliya 1917 g.
(DecIaialion of lhe Righls of lhe IeopIes of Russia, Novenlei
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32. Cohen, p. 5.
33. Renenleiing SlaIins Depoilalions, 88CNcus, Ieliu-
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34. Dokunenly iz aikhiva Iosifa SlaIina (Docunenls fion
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35. N. I. ugay, Iiavda o depoilacii chechenskogo i ingushs-
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36. Ukaz ol 12 oklyaliya 1943 goda O Iikvidacii Kaiachae-
vskoy Avlononnoy OlIasli i ol adninislialivnon usliojslve
yeyo leiiiloiii (Deciee of Oclolei 12, 1943, on lhe Liquidalion
of lhe Kaiachevo Aulononous OlIasl and aloul lhe Adninislia-
live Oiganizalion of ils Teiiiloiy), avaiIalIe fion uuu.|ioussr.ru/
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37. Ukaz Iiezidiuna Veikhovnogo Sovela SSSR O Iikvida-
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RSISR (Deciee of lhe Supiene Soviel of lhe USSR On lhe Liq-
uidalion of lhe KaInyk ASSR and lhe Ciealion of lhe Asliahkans-
kaya OlIasl as pail of lhe RSISR), avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncncria|.
|rs|.ru/DOKUM|NT/USSR/431227.n|n.
82
38. Depoilaciya naiodov v SSSR. Spiavka (Depoilalion of
lhe IeopIes of lhe USSR. Oveiviev), R|A Nctcs|i, Novenlei 14,
2OO9, avaiIalIe fion ria.ru/sccic|q/20091114/193419498.n|n|.
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4O. Zeyno aian, S. Iiedeiick Slaii, and Svanle L. CoineII,
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41. CoineII, p. 127.
42. See Vakhil Akaev, The Hisloiy and Specihcs of lhe Is-
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44. The ASSRs consisled of Chechen-Ingush ASSR, Dageslan
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Cheikess ASSR, and Adigeian ASSR. These ASSRs lecane Au-
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Inguish ASSR spIil in lvo aIong elhnic Iines.)
45. Heniy SokoIski, eyond Nunn-Lugai: Cuiling lhe Nexl
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83
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87
92. CoineII, p. 133.
93. |oid., p. 133-134.
94. Sanolai Sheinalova and Leonid Nikilinsky, CeneiaIy
ialoloigovIi (The CeneiaIs of lhe SIave Tiade), Mcs|cts-
|iqc Nctcs|i, Maich-ApiiI 2OOO, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncnc.ru/nr/
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95. VIadinii Aidaev, Ken lyI Aili aiayev (Who Was
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ni/russian/ncus/ncusid_1407000/1407433.s|n.
96. Cennadiy Tioshev, Moya voyna. Chechenskiy dnevnik
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Tiench CeneiaI), 2OO1, avaiIalIe fion uuu.|io.ru/M|MUARY/
CH|CHNYA/|rcsncu.|x|_ui|n-oig-pic|urcs.n|n|.
97. Chisloseidechnoye Iiiznanie~Kavkazskiye IIenniki
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98. Tinui AIiyev, Chechnya: liznes na voyne (Chechnya:
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ooc.cc.u|/ni/russian/russia/ncusid_4044000/4044675.s|n.
99. Open-Heailed Confession~Caucasian Caplives.
1OO. |oid.
1O1. CoineII, p. 135.
1O2. Akhnadov, pp. 173-176.
1O3. CoineII, p. 138.
1O4. Cohen, p. 5.
1O5. AIexandei Cheikasov, Denogiahya, poleii naseIe-
niya i nigiacionnye poloki v zone vooiuzhonnogo konikla v
Chechenskoy RespulIike. Kiilika islochnikov (The ook of
Nunleis, Denogiaphics, CiviIian Losses and Migialion IIovs
in lhe Conicl Zone in lhe RepulIic of Chechnya: A Ciilique of
88
lhe Souices), SlaviopoI, Russia: Kniga cnisc|, Mcncria|, Seplen-
lei 2OO1, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ncnc.ru/nr/nc|pcin|s/N-Caucas/nisc/
nunocc|.n|n.
1O6. U.S. Dcpar|ncn| cf S|a|c Ccun|rq Rcpcr| cn Hunan Rign|s
Prac|iccs 1996-Russia, Washinglon, DC: Uniled Slales Depail-
nenl of Slale, }anuaiy 3O, 1997, avaiIalIe fion uuu.rcfucr|d.crg/
dccid/3ac6aa7o0.n|n|.
1O7. Maiia MslisIavskaya, Vysshaya chechenskaya aiifne-
lika (Highei Chechen Aiilhnelic), |cn|a.Ru, Augusl 16, 2OO5,
avaiIalIe fion |cn|a.ru/ar|ic|cs/2005/08/16/|csscs/.
1O8. Kak okholiIis na Akhnala Kadyiova (Hov Akhnal
Kadyiov Was Hunled), Kcnncrsan|, May 11, 2OO4, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.|cnncrsan|.ru/dcc/473143.
1O9. D. Ivanov, AsIan Maskhadov pioigiaI voynu (AsIan
Maskhadov Losl lhe Wai), |cn|a.Ru, Maich 9, 2OO5, avaiIalIe
fion |cn|a.ru/ar|ic|cs/2005/03/08/nas|nadct/.
11O. SIedslvie: Maskhadova zaslieIiI okhiannik (Invesli-
galion: Maskhadov Was Shol Dead ly his odyguaid), Agcn|ura.
Ru, Oclolei 28, 2OO5, avaiIalIe fion uuu.agcn|ura.ru/ncus/21800/.
111. Shanaev Akhnad-khadzhi, Oclolei 17, 2OOO, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.rc|igic.ru/dcsjc/24/63.n|n|.
112. Osuzhdyonnyye za uliyslvo Yandailiyeva veinuIis v
Rossiyu (Those Senlenced foi KiIIing Yandailiyev Reluined lo
Russia), Rcssiqs|aqa Gazc|a, Decenlei 23, 2OO4, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.rg.ru/2004/12/24/|a|ar-ancns.n|n|.
113. Russian }uslice Minisliy Knovs, Yandailiyevs KiIIeis
Seive Senlence in Russia, Doesnl Knov Wheie, Rcgnun, Decen-
lei 14, 2OO5, avaiIalIe fion uuu.rcgnun.ru/cng|isn/560154.n|n|.
114. Inleiviev vilh Seigey Maikedonov, Visiling IeIIov,
Washinglon, DC: Cenlei foi Slialegic and InleinalionaI Sludies
(CSIS), }uIy 2O-24, 2O13.
89
115. IIdai edieldinov, Vloiaya Chechenskaya voyna (The
Second Chechen Wai), 2OO4, avaiIalIe fion uuu.airuar.ru/
nis|crq/|ccuar/cnccnnqa/su/su.n|n|.
116. Kavkaz: Vloiaya chechenskaya vojna (The Caucasus:
lhe Second Chechen Wai), 2OOO, avaiIalIe fion razun|ct.crg.ua/
u|r/ar|ic|c.pnp?ncus_id=565.
117. IVO i poleii udainykh veiloIyolov (Aii Defense Sys-
lens and Losses of Allack HeIicopleis), Ncus|and.ccn, }anuaiy
15, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion ncus|and.ccn/ncus/dc|ai|/id/1106730/.
118. |oid.
119. Na Aigunskoe ushheIye sliasyvayul olyonno-delon-
iiuyushhiye lonly (Theinolaiic Weapons aie eing Thiovn
Dovn on lhe Aigun Coige), |cn|a.Ru, Ieliuaiy 9, 2OOO, avaiIalIe
fion |cn|a.ru/tcjna/2000/02/09/argun/.
12O. Leslei W. Ciau and Tinolhy Snilh, A 'Ciushing Vic-
loiy: IueI-Aii LxpIosives and Ciozny 2OOO, Augusl 2OOO, avaiI-
alIe fion fnsc.|catcnucr|n.arnq.ni|/dccuncn|s/fuc|air/fuc|air.n|n.
121. Coidon M. Hahn, Caucasus Lniiale }ihadisls: The
Secuiily and Slialegic InpIicalions, Slephen }. Iank, ed., Russias
Hcncgrcun |nsurgcncq. ]inad in |nc Ncr|n Caucasus, CaiIisIe, IA:
Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S. Ainy Wai CoIIege, Oclolei, 2O12,
p. 29, avaiIalIe fion uuu.s|ra|cgics|udicsins|i|u|c.arnq.ni|/pdfj|cs/
PU81116.pdf.
122. Liz IuIIei, Chechnya: Resislance Leadeiship Afhins
Readiness foi Ieace TaIks, RIL/RL, }uIy 14, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.rfcr|.crg/ccn|cn|/ar|ic|c/1069862.n|n|.
123. Coidon Hahn, The Caucasus Lniiale }ihadisls,
Slephen }. Iank, ed., Russias Hcncgrcun |nsurgcncq. ]inad in
|nc Ncr|n Caucasus, CaiIisIe, IA: Slialegic Sludies Inslilule, U.S.
Ainy Wai CoIIege, Oclolei, 2O12, p. 3. (The ]anaa| iefeience
cones fion Cohen, A Thieal lo lhe Wesl, p. 7.)
124. |oid., pp. 5-6.
9O
125. |oid., p. 7.
126. Cohen, p. 6.
127. Hahn,Anii Doku Alu Usnan o lin Ladene, Inaiale
Kavkaz I poleiyakh nodzhakhedov (Anii Doku Alu Usnan
on lin Laden, lhe Caucasus Lniiale and Losses of lhe Mujahe-
deen), Kat|az |scn|r, May 17, 2O11, p. 1O, avaiIalIe fion uuu.
|at|azccn|cr.ccn/russ/ccn|cn|/2011/05/17/81607.sn|n|.
128. Cohen, p. 7.
129. Iion Cohen, Top AI Qaeda Lnvoy KiIIed in Chechnya,
RT, May 4, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion r|.ccn/ncus/qacda-|crrcrisn-|i||cd-
cnccnnqa/.
13O. Iion Cohen, p. 7, RacheI LhienfeId and }onalhan HaIevi,
AI Qaedas CIolaI Reach, Nev Yoik: Aneiican Cenlei foi De-
nociacy, May 12, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion acdcnccracq.crg/A| Qacdas-
g|coa|-rcacn/.
131. LSICh: opeialsiya na Duliovke lyIa piovedena s na-
iusheniyani (The Opeialion in Duliovka Was Conducled vilh
VioIalions), 88C Russian, Decenlei 2O, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.ooc.cc.u|/russian/russia/2011/12/111220_s|rasocurg_ccur|_
ncrd-cs|.sn|n|.
132. Noid-Osl. Neokonchennoye iassIedovanie~dokIad
pod lakin nazvanien piedslaviIi segodnya olshheslvennosli iod-
slvenniki pogilshikh i posliadavshiye pii leiakle na Duliovke.
(Noid-Osl. An Unhnished Invesligalion~A Repoil undei lhis
Nane Was ReIeased Today ly ReIalives of lhe Viclins and ly
Those Injuied), ||nc Mcs|tq, May 15, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion uuu.
ccnc.ns|.ru/ncus/322802.n|n|.
133. Minzdiav oyaviI soslav gaza iz Noid-Osla gosu-
daislvennoy laynoy (The Minisliy of HeaIlh Has DecIaied lhe
Conposilion of lhe Cas Used in Noid-Osl a Coveinnenl Seciel),
|cn|a.Ru, Decenlei 11, 2OO2, avaiIalIe fion |cn|a.ru/|crrcr/2002/
12/11/gas/.
91
134. Veleian AIfy: piineneniye gaza pii shluine Noid-Os-
la lyIo opiavdano (An AIpha Veleian: Using Cas al Iieeing
Noid-Osl Was }uslihed), R|A Nctcs|i, Oclolei 26, 2O12, avaiIalIe
fion ria.ru/sccic|q/20121026/906935884.n|n|.
135. Senlyaliskiye vziyvy 1999 goda (Seplenlei 1999
Iasls), R|A Nctcs|i, Seplenlei 12, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion ria.ru/
nis|crq_ccnncn|s/20110912/436010306.n|n|.
136. Iion Cohen, p. 6, QI.U.19O.11. Doku Khanalovich
Unaiov, Nev Yoik: UN Secuiily CounciI, Maich 1O, 2O11,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.un.crg/sc/ccnni||ccs/1267/NSQ|29011|.sn|n|,
Designalion of Caucasus Lniiale Leadei Doku Unaiov, Wash-
inglon, DC: U.S. Depailnenl of Slale, 2O1O, Designalion of Cau-
casus Lniiale, Washinglon, DC: US Depailnenl of Slale, 2O11.
137. Khionika zakhvala zaIozhnikov v shkoIe nonei 1 g.
esIan. Spiavka (A ChionicIe of lhe Hoslage Taking in SchooI
No. 1 in iesIan: Oveiviev), R|A Nctcs|i, Seplenlei 1, 2OO9,
avaiIalIe fion ria.ru/sccic|q/20090901/183228293.n|n|.
138. Ronan Oshaiov, 'CoIos esIana: Naiod ponnil. . . .
A vIasli` (Ronan Oshaiov, 'The Voice of esIan: The IeopIe
Renenlei. . . . And lhe Aulhoiilies`), Vcicc cf Ancrica, Seplen-
lei 3, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion uuu.gc|cs-ancri|i.ru/ccn|cn|/ocs|an-
russia/1500567.n|n|.
139. DokIad konissii Toishina iazochaiovaI 'Maleiey esIa-
na (The Repoil of lhe Toishin Connission Has Disappoinled
lhe 'Molheis of esIan), |cn|a.Ru, Decenlei 28, 2OO5, avaiIalIe
fion |cn|a.ru/ncus/2005/12/28/ocs|an1/.
14O. Iedoi Maksinov, esIan olyasniIi vziyvlexlicheski
(esIan LxpIained lhiough Iasls), Kcnncrsan|, Seplenlei 4,
2OO6, avaiIalIe fion uuu.|cnncrsan|.ru/dcc/702175/.
141. Iion Cohen, p. 6, NalionaI Consoiliun foi lhe Sludy of
Teiioiisn and Responses lo Teiioiisn, Suicide Allack al Mos-
cov Aiipoil, 8ac|grcund Rcpcr|, }anuaiy 24, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.s|ar|.und.cdu/s|ar|/puo|ica|icns/or/8ac|grcund_Rcpcr|_2011_
]anuarq_Mcsccu_Airpcr|.pdf.
92
142. Meeling vilh VIadinii Iulin, VaIday CIul, Moscov,
Russia, Seplenlei 2OO4 (aulhois noles).
143. Seigey Maikedonov, peisonaI inleiviev, }uIy 23, 2O13.
144. |oid.
145. Adhnad Kadyiovs Dealh Maiked lhe Lnd of an
Lia, R|A Nctcs|i, May 13, 2OO5, avaiIalIe fion cn.rian.ru/ana|q-
sis/20050513/39977649.n|n|.
146. C. }. Chiveis, Invesligalion Links Ciilics Dealh lo
Top Chechens, Tnc Ncu Ycr| Tincs, ApiiI 25, 2O1O, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.nq|incs.ccn/2010/04/26/ucr|d/curcpc/26cnccncn.
n|n|?pagcuan|cd=a||c_r=0.
147. AnaloI Lieven, Ciacious Ciozny, Tnc Na|icna| |n|cr-
cs|, Seplenlei 18, 2OO8, avaiIalIe fion na|icna|in|crcs|.crg/ar|ic|c/
gracicus-grcznq-2865.
148. Ton Iaihll, The allIe foi lhe SouI of Chechnya, Tnc
Guardian, Novenlei 22, 2OO7, avaiIalIe fion uuu.guardian.cc.u|/
ucr|d/2007/nct/22/cnccnnqa.|cnparj|l.
149. Cohen, p. 8.
15O. Iaihll.
151 . Maiilek Valchagaev, Laige-ScaIe CIash vilh Insui-
genls Repoiled in Chechnya in anul, ]ancs|cun |cunda-
|icn, }uIy 11, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion uuu.jancs|cun.crg/rcgicns/
|nccaucasus/sing|c/?|x_||ncusj||_ncus]=41110c|x_||ncusjoac|Pid]
=639ccHasn=0f6f9cca3d2d62c7o7af0d435cd9dd3d#.Ucq|5l008nU.
152. AIexei MaIashenko, peisonaI inleiviev, }uIy 2O, 2O13.
153. |oid.
154. U.S. Congiess: Russia Uses Teiioiisl Taclics in Cau-
casus, Kat|az Ccn|cr, ApiiI 24, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion uuu.
|at|azccn|cr.ccn/cng/ccn|cn|/2011/04/24/14158.sn|n|.
93
155. The Connillee of lhe USA foi InleinalionaI ReIigious
Iieedons Advises lhe USA lo Iock Ranzan Kadyiovs ank
Accounls, Caucasian Knc|, May 5, 2O11, avaiIalIe fion cng.
|at|az-uzc|.ru/ar|ic|cs/16966/.
156. Chechen Leadei Kadyiov Laughs off Magnilsky Lisl
Runois, R|A Nctcs|i, ApiiI 13, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion cn.rian.ru/
russia/20130413/180621103.n|n|.
157. Vakhil Akaev,The Hisloiy and Specihcs of lhe IsIanic
Renaissance Today in lhe Chechen RepulIic, Ccn|ra| Asia and |nc
Caucasus, VoI. 12, Issue 3, 2O11, LuIea, Sveden: CA&CC Iiess, pp.
97-1O4.
158. Akaev, pp. 1O1-1O2.
159. VaIovoy iegionaInyy piodukl po sulyeklan Rossiys-
koy Iedeialsii na dushu naseIeniya v 1998-2O1O (Cioss Region-
aI Iioducl pei Capila ly TeiiiloiiaI Unils of lhe Russian Iedeia-
lion in 1998-2O1O), avaiIalIe fion uuu.g|s.ru/frcc_dcc/ncu_si|c/
ttp/dusna98-10.x|s.
16O. V 2O12 godu v Chechenskoy RespulIike nalIyudaIos
snizhenie uiovnya lezialolilsy (Chechnya Sav a DecIine
in UnenpIoynenl in 2O12), }anuaiy 11, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion
cnccnnqa.gct.ru/pagc.pnp?r=126cid=12197.
161. Anaslasia KiiiIenko, Chechne neolxodiny inveslilsii ne
loIko v slioileIslvo (Chechnya needs Inveslnenl nol onIy in lhe
Consliuclion Secloi), Caucasian Knc|, Ieliuaiy 23, 2O1O, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.|at|az-uzc|.ru/ar|ic|cs/165773/.
162. MichaeI Schviilz, Russian Angei Ciovs Ovei Chech-
nya Sulsidies, Tnc Ncu Ycr| Tincs, Oclolei 8, 2O11, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.nq|incs.ccn/2011/10/09/ucr|d/curcpc/cnccnnqas-ccs|s-
s|ir-angcr-as-russia-apprcacncs-c|cc|icns.n|n|?pagcuan|cd=a||20
2013,20n||p.uuu.nq|incs.ccn20111009ucr|d
curcpccnccnnqas-ccs|s-s|ir-angcr-as-russia-apprcacncs-c|cc|icns.
n|n|3fpagcuan|cd=a||.
163. Maiilek Valchagaev, Conlinuing Hunan Righls
Aluses Ioice Chechens lo IIee lo Luiope, Washinglon, DC:
94
}aneslovn Ioundalion, Maich 7, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion uuu.
jancs|cun.crg/sing|c/?nc_cacnc=1c|x_||ncusj||_ncus]=40559c|x_
||ncusjoac|Pid]=623#.Udxn|231oYQ.
164. Tinui MaIsagov, Chechenlsy po-eviopeyski (Chech-
ens in a Luiopean Way), Caucasus Tincs, Maich 19, 2OO9, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.caucasus|incs.ccn/ar|ic|c.asp?id=19774.
165. WoiId Chechen Congiess iegislialion, 2OO5, avaiIalIe
fion uuu.cjus|icc.jus|.fgct.oc/|st_pdf/2005/09/27/05134537.pdf.
166. ZayavIeniye Chechenskaya Diaspoia Noivegii,
(Slalenenl of lhe Chechen Diaspoia of Noivay), Cnccncncus.
ccn, Decenlei 9, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion cnccncncus.ccn/ucr|d-ncus/
orca|ing/1739-1.n|n|.
167. ViiluaI 'WoiId Chechen Congiess Was Slaged,
Kat|azccn|cr.ccn, Seplenlei 26, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion uuu.
|at|azccn|cr.ccn/cng/ccn|cn|/2010/09/26/12582.sn|n|.
168. |oid.
169. Tinui MaIsagov, Chechenlsy po-eviopeyski (Chech-
ens in a Luiopean Way), Caucasus Tincs, Maich 19, 2OO9, avaiI-
alIe fion uuu.caucasus|incs.ccn/ar|ic|c.asp?id=19774.
17O. Hahn, pp. 47-49.
171. Khishcheniya 275 nIn iul vyyavIeny v konpanii Ku-
ioily Seveinogo Kavkaza (Thefl of 275 niIIion RulIes in lhe
Resoils of lhe Noilh Caucasus Conpany Has een Discoveied),
Arguncn|q i |a||q, May 8, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion uuu.aif.ru/ncncq/
ccrrup|icn/303920.
172. Anaslasia ashkalova, Koiiupciya uslanoviIa oIinpi-
yskiy iekoid (Coiiuplion Has Sel an OIynpic Recoid), Ncza-
tisinaqa Gazc|a, }une 7, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion uuu.ng.ru/cccncn-
ics/2010-06-07/1_ccrrupciqa.n|n|.
173. Thonas Ciove, SpeciaI Repoil: Russias $5O
iIIion OIynpic CanlIe, Rcu|crs, Ieliuaiy 21, 2O13,
avaiIalIe fion uuu.rcu|crs.ccn/ar|ic|c/2013/02/21/us-russia-sccni-
idUS8R|91K04M20130221.
95
174. Maiia Makulina, Nenlsov uslanoviI iekoid OIin-
piady (Nenlsov Sel an OIynpic Recoid), Gazc|a.Ru, May
3O, 2OO5, avaiIalIe fion uuu.gazc|a.ru/pc|i|ics/2013/05/30_a_
5362917.sn|n|.
175. IedeiaIniy zakon Rossiyskoy Iedeialsii ol 6 naila 2OO6,
No. 35-IZ O Iiolivodeislvii leiioiiznu (IedeiaI Lav of lhe
Russian Iedeialion No. 35-IZ of Maich 6, 2OO6, On Conlalling
Teiioiisn), Rcssiqs|aqa Gazc|a, Maich 1O, 2OO6, avaiIalIe fion
uuu.rg.ru/2006/03/10/ocroa-|crrcrizn.n|n|.
176. Muiad Makhnudov and Lee }ay WaIke, Russian Iedei-
alion: Doku Unaiov: An IsIanic Teiioiisl Vovs lo Slop CiviIian
Allacks, Mcdcrn Tc|qc Tincs, Ieliuaiy 18, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion
ncdcrn|c|qc|incs.ccn/2012/02/18/russian-fcdcra|icn-dc|u-unarct-
an-is|anic-|crrcris|-tcus-|c-s|cp-citi|ian-a||ac|s/, lhe quoles pio-
vided vilhin lhe ailicIe aie piovided ly VaIeiy Dzulsev of lhe
}aneslovn Ioundalion.
177. OIga Ciilsenko, Teiioiisl v olslavke (A Reliied Tei-
ioiisl), Vzg|qad.Ru, Augusl 2, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion tzg|qad.ru/
pc|i|ics/2010/8/2/422440.n|n|.
178. Anii Inaiala Kavkaz Doku Alu Usnan olneniI
svoyu olslavku, nazvav eyo sfaliikovannoy, i vyslupiI po elo-
nu povodu so speciaInyn zayavIeniyen (Doku(Alu Usnan)
Unaiov, Lnii of lhe Caucasus Lniiale, CanceIed his Resigna-
lion and Made a SpeciaI Slalenenl on lhis Issue), Kat|az Ccn-
|cr, Augusl 4, 2O1O, avaiIalIe fion uuu.|at|azccn|cr.ccn/russ/
ccn|cn|/2010/08/04/74303.sn|n|.
179. Andiey Shaiyy, Andiey alickiy~o Doku Unaiove i
vooiuzhonnon podpoIye (Andiey alicky aloul Doku Una-
iov and lhe Ained Undeigiound), avaiIalIe fion uuu.stcocda.
crg/ccn|cn|/ar|ic|c/2000202.n|n|.
18O. D. V. Makaiov, NacionaInye olnosheniya. RadikaIizaci-
ya isIana v Dageslane: Voznozhnosli i piedeIy dzhixadizna
(Llhnic ReIalions. RadicaIizalion of IsIan in Dageslan: IossiliIi-
lies and Linils of lhe }ihadisn), 2OO4.
96
181. AIexei MaIashenko, Kuda idyol Dageslan (Wheie Is
Dageslan Coing), Novenlei 19, 2O12, avaiIalIe fion carncgiccn-
dcuncn|.crg/2012/11/19/D08AD183D084D080-
D088D084D085D182-D084D080D0
83D085D181D182D080D08D/c|zq.
182. TanziIa Chalieva and MichaiI Roshin, Konikl poko-
Ieniy v ingushskon isIane: suhi i saIahly (A Conicl of Cen-
eialions in IsIan in Ingushelia: lhe Suhs and lhe SaIahs), Cauca-
sus Tincs, ApiiI 29, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion uuu.caucasus|incs.ccn/
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eing Allacked ly Caucasians: 'They cul ny foiehead, Ieaving
lIood sliipes, lhey sluck a lIade in one of ny Iegs, lhen in lhe
olhei one), Kcnscnc|s|aqa Pratda, Seplenlei 16, 2O12, avaiIalIe
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Mcs|cts|iq Kcnscnc|c|s, }uIy 8, 2O13, avaiIalIe fion uuu.n|.ru/
incidcn|/ar|ic|c/2013/07/08/880538-t-sara|cts|cq-co|as|i-ncs|nqic-
zni|c|i-pcdra|is-s-|at|az|sani.n|n|.
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