Objectives

Understand the concept of amplifiers

Chapter 6 BJT Amplifiers

Identify and apply internal transistor parameters Understand and analyze common-emitter, common-base, and common-collector amplifiers Discuss multistage amplifiers Troubleshoot amplifier circuits.

Introduction
One of the primary uses of a transistor is to amplify ac signals. This could be an audio signal or perhaps some high frequency radio signal. It has to be able to do this without distorting the original input.

Amplifier Operation
Recall from the previous chapter that the purpose of dc biasing was to establish the Q-point for operation. The collector curves and load lines help us to relate the Qpoint and its proximity to cutoff and saturation. The Qpoint is best established where the signal variations do not cause the transistor to go into saturation or cutoff. What we are most interested in is the ac signal itself. Since the dc part of the overall signal is filtered out in most cases, we can view a transistor circuit in terms of just its ac component.

Review of previous class Amplifier Operation

For the analysis of transistor circuits from both dc and ac perspectives the ac subscripts are lower case and italicized. Instantaneous values use both italicized lower case letters and subscripts.

Amplifier Operation
The boundary between cutoff and saturation is called the linear region. A transistor which operates in the linear region is called a linear amplifier. Note that only the ac component reaches the load because of the capacitive coupling and that the output is 180 out of phase with input.

Review of Output Characteristic

Example 1

Transistor Equivalent Circuits We represent a transistor with a network of several elements to simplify the analysis

xample 1

et Q as the selected perating oint(quiscent point).

f Ib varies about 0microamps, find ce and Ic variations

Transistor Equivalent Circuits

We can view transistor circuits by use of resistance or r parameters for better understanding. Since the base resistance, rb is small it is normally is not considered and since the collector resistance, re is fairly high we consider it as an open. The emitter resistance, re is the main parameter that is viewed. You can determine rc from this simplified equation.

Example 2

re = 25 mV/IE

A current measurement device gave a reading of a direct current value for current flowing at the Emitter of a transistor as 2mA. Find resistance internal to the transistor between the emitter and base terminal It is re and is given by 25mV/IE=12.5ohm Note: we can use this equation to find IE for given re value

Transistor Equivalent Circuits

The two graphs best illustrate the difference between DC and ac. The two only differ slightly.

Transistor Equivalent Circuits

Since r parameters are used throughout the rest of the textbook we will not go into deep discussion about h parameters. However, since some data sheets include or exclusively provide h parameters these formulas can be used to convert them to r parameters. h parameters are labeled in this manner: hxy
x: i (input impedance), r (voltage feedback ratio), f (forward current gain), o (output admittance)

y : e (common emitter), b (common base),

c (common collector)

re = hre/hoe

rc = (hre + 1)/hoe

rb = hie - (1+ hfe) hre/hoe

and

Direct conversion: ac = hfb

ac = hfe

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

The common-emitter amplifier exhibits high voltage and current gain. The output signal is 180 out of phase with the input. Now lets use our dc and ac analysis methods to view this type of transistor circuit.

The dc component of the circuit sees only the part of the circuit that is within the boundaries of C1, C2, and C3 as the dc will not pass through these components. The equivalent circuit for dc analysis is shown. The methods for dc analysis are just are the same as dealing with a _____?_____ circuit. Classroom exercise!

The Common Emitter Amplifier DC Analysis

lassroom exercise: raw signals internal o the amplifier circuit

Circuit Redraw method for AC

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

The ac equivalent circuit basically replaces the capacitors with shorts, being that ac passes through easily through them. The power supplies are also effectively shorts to ground for ac analysis.

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

The ac equivalent circuit basically replaces the capacitors with shorts, being that ac passes through easily through them. The power supplies are also effectively shorts to ground for ac analysis.

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

We can look at the input voltage in terms of the equivalent base circuit (ignore the other components from the previous diagram). Note the use of simple series-parallel analysis skills for determining Vin. Example : For the circuit in slide 17, an ac input with Vs=10mV, source resistance of 300 and IE of 3.8mA, find the signal voltage at base.

Classroom exercise: Prove that R = r

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

Example : For the circuit in slide 17, an ac input with Vs=10mV, source resistance of 300 and IE of 3.8mA, find the signal voltage at base. re = 25mV/3.8mA = 6.58 Rin(base) = acre = 160*6.58 = 1.05k Rin(tot) = R1//R2//Rin(base) = 873 Vb = Vs*Rin(tot)/(Rin(tot)+Rs) = 7.44mV

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

The input resistance as seen by the input voltage can be illustrated by the r parameter equivalent circuit. The simplified formula below is used.

Rin(base) = acre
The output resistance is for all practical purposes the value of RC.

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

Voltage gain can be easily determined by dividing the ac output voltage by the ac input voltage. Av = Vout/Vin = Vc/Vb Voltage gain can also be determined by the simplified formula below. (Please do the derivation)

Attenuation
Taking the attenuation from the ac supply internal resistance and input resistance must be determined since it affects the overall gain. Attenuation = (Vb/Vs) = Rin(total) / (Rs + Rin(total))

Av = RC/re

Attenuation

Taking the attenuation from the ac supply internal resistance and input resistance must be determined since it affects the overall gain. Attenuation = (Vb/Vs) = Rin(total) / (Rs + Rin(total))

Common Emitter Amplifier AC Equivalent Circuit

Taking the attenuation from the ac supply internal resistance and input resistance into consideration is included in the overall gain. Av = (Vb/Vs)Av

Attenuation
Example: Suppose we have a source of
10mV. Due to resistances, the voltage felt at base(amplifier input) is 5mV. Then, attenuation factor is 5mV/10mV = 0.5 Let say the gain from input(base) to output is 20, then the output voltage is 20*5mV = 100mV. The overall gain is therefore 100mV/10mV = 10. This is equivalent to multiplying attenuation factor and amplifier gain: Which is 0.5*20 = 10

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

The emitter bypass capacitor helps increase the gain by allowing the ac signal to pass more easily. The XC(bypass) should be about ten times less than RE at the minimum frequency where the circuit will operate! Write the simple formula based on this statement. Homework: Calculate the minimum frequency for the circuit below!

EXAMPLE 6-4 Select a minimum value for a emitter bypass capasitor, C2, in figure 6-16 if the amplifier must operate over a frequency range from 2 k Hz to 10 kHz. FIGURE 6-16 Solution Since RE=560, Xc of the bypass capasitor, C2, should be no greater than 10Xc= RE Xc= RE/10 = 560/10 = 56 The capacitance value is determined at the minimum frequency of 2 kHz as follows: C2=1/(2fXc) = 1/(2(2 kHz)( 56)) = 1.42F This is a minimum value for the bypass capasitor for this circuit.You can use a large value, although cost and physical size usually impose limitations. Related Problem If the minimum frequency is reduced to 1 kHz, what value of bypass capasitor must you use?

Voltage Gain w/o Bypass Capacitor

The emitter is no longer at AC Ground, the RE is now seen by the signal and adds to internal re Av = Rc/(re+RE). Gain is somewhat reduced!

Voltage Gain w/o Bypass Capacitor

EXAMPLE 6-5 Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure 6-16 both without and with an emitter bypass capasitor if there is ni load resistor. Solution From Example 6-3,re=6.58 from this same amplifier. Without C2 the gain is Av=Rc/(re+RE) = 1.0 k/6.58=152 With C2, the gain is Av=Rc/re=1.0k/6.58= 152 As you can see, the bypass capasitor makes quite a difference. Related Problem Determind the base-to-collector voltage gain in figure 6-16 with RE bypassed, for the following circuit values: Rc=1.8k, RE=1.0k,R1 = 33k, and R2=6.8k.

When load RL is added at the output capacitor end, the effective resistance seen by the signal is Rc in parallel with RL. Rc(tot) = RC//RL

Effect of Inserting Load

EXAMPLE 6-6 Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure 6-16 when a load resistance of 5 k in connected to the output. The emitter is effectively bypassed and re=6.58. Solution The ac collector resistance is Rc=RcRl/(Rc+Rl) = ((1.0 k)(5 k))/6 k = 833 Therefore, Av=Rc/re = 833 /6.58 = 127 The unloaded gain was found to be 152 in Example 6-5 Related Problem Determine the base-to-collector voltage gain in Figure 6-16 when a 10 k load resistence is connected from collector to ground. Change the resistence values as follows: Rc=1.8 k, R1=33 k, and R2=6.8 k. The emitter resistor is effectively bypassed and re=10 .

Effect of Inserting Load

Voltage Gain Stability

Bypassing RE with capacitor causes the gain to be more dependent on re- reduced stability. Without bypassing the gain is Av=RC/(re+RE) and if RE is big enough. Av=RC/RE. Which is less dependent on re or IE. We need to intorduce swamping techniques RE2 is introduced, RE1>10re is not bypassed but RE2 is bypassed making Av= Av=RC/(re+RE1) or..?

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

The bypass capacitor makes the gain unstable since transistor amplifier becomes more dependant on IE. This effect can be swamped or somewhat alleviated by adding another emitter resistor(RE1).

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The common-collector amplifier is usually referred to as the emitter follower because there is no phase inversion or voltage gain. The output is taken from the emitter. The common-collector amplifiers main advantages are its high current gain and high input resistance.

The Common-Collector Amplifier

Because of its high input resistance the commoncollector amplifier used as a buffer to reduce the loading effect of low impedance loads. The input resistance can be determined by the simplified formula below.

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The output resistance is very low. This makes it useful for driving low impedance loads. The current gain(Ai) is approximately ac.
The voltage gain is approximately 1.

Rin(base) ac(re + Re)

The power gain is approximately equal to the current gain(Ai).

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The darlington pair is used to boost the input impedance to reduce loading of high output impedance circuits. The collectors are joined together and the emitter of the input transistor is connected to the base of the output transistor. The input impedance can be determined the formula below.

and Circuits The common-base amplifier has high voltage gain with a current gain no higher than 1. It has a low input resistance making it ideal for low impedance input sources. The ac signal is applied to the emitter and the output is taken from the collector.

Theodore f Bogart: Electronic Devices The Common Base Amplifier

Rin = ac1ac2Re

The Common-Base Amplifier The Common-Base Amplifier

The common-base voltage gain(Av) is approximately equal to Rc/re The current gain is approximately 1. The power gain is approximately equal to the voltage gain. The input resistance is approximately equal to re. The output resistance is approximately equal to RC. Av? With and w/o load? You may see circuits biased this way.. How do we analyse? IE=(VEE-VBE)/RE VC=VCC-ICRC

Multistage Amplifiers
Two or more amplifiers can be connected to increase the gain of an ac signal. The overall gain can be calculated by simply multiplying each gain together.

Multistage Amplifiers
Gain can be expressed in decibels(dB). The formula below can be used to express gain in decibels.

Av = Av1Av2Av3

A v(dB) = 20logAv
Each stages gain can now can be simply added together for the total.

Multistage Amplifiers
The capacitive coupling keeps dc bias voltages separate but allows the ac to pass through to the next stage.

Multistage Amplifiers
The output of stage 1 is loaded by input of stage 2. This lowers the gain of stage 1. This ac equivalent circuit helps give a better understanding how loading can effect gain.

Multistage Amplifiers
Direct coupling between stage improves low frequency gain. The disadvantage is that small changes in dc bias from temperature changes or supply variations becomes more pronounced.

Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting techniques for transistor amplifiers is similar to techniques covered in Chapter 2. Usage of knowledge of how an amplifier works, symptoms, and signal tracing are all valuable parts of troubleshooting. Needless to say experience is an excellent teacher but having a clear understanding of how these circuits work makes the troubleshooting process more efficient and understandable.

Troubleshooting
The following slide is a diagram for a two stage commonemitter amplifier with correct voltages at various points. Utilize your knowledge of transistor amplifiers and troubleshooting techniques and imagine what the effects would be with various faulty components, for example, open resistors, shorted transistor junctions or capacitors. More importantly how would the output be effected by these faults. In troubleshooting it is most important to understand the operation of a circuit What faults could cause low or no output? What faults could cause a distorted output signal?

Troubleshooting

Summary
Most transistors amplifiers are designed to operate in the linear region. Transistor circuits can be view in terms of its ac equivalent for better understanding. The common-emitter amplifier has high voltage and current gain. The common-collector has a high current gain and voltage gain of 1. It has a high input impedance and low output impedance.

Summary
The common-base has a high voltage gain and a current gain of 1. It has a low input impedance and high output impedance Multi-stage amplifiers are amplifier circuits cascaded to increased gain. We can express gain in decibels(dB). Troubleshooting techniques used for individual transistor circuits can be applied to multistage amplifiers as well.