Rider - Photoelectric Control - Harvey Pollack

PHO TOELE C TRIC
CONTROL
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New York Institute of Technology
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS SERIES
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF RELAYS
PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
ELECTRONIC CONTROL AND REGULATION
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
"PULSE TECHNIQUES
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONIC PROCESSES
In preparallon
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PHO TOELECTRIC
CONTROL
HARVEY POLLACK, M. A.
Faculty, New York
Institute of Technology
Department of Physics
Forest Hi//s High School
Author of: Basic Principles
and Applications of Relays
Experimental Electronics
for Young People
e JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, |NC., NEW YORK
a division of HAYDEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
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COPYRIGHT MAY I962 IY JOHN F. RIDER
All rights reserved. This book or any ports
thereof may not be reproduced in any form or
Io c| e without permission of the publisher.
any
LIBRARY OF CONGR
"9" 9
ESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 62-13395
Printed in the United States of America
PUBLISHER, INC.
THE UNIVERSITY 0F MISIIIEAII
DEARBORN CAMPUS LIBIIAREI
'15
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preface
This book is the second in a series dealing with fundamental aspects
of components and circuitry relating to applications in industrial
electronics. In the same manner utilized to choose the content of the
rst volume, the selection of material for this book resulted from
a series of conferences between faculty members of New York
Institute of Technology and outstanding representatives of the
electronics industry. The nal outlines of this volume reect the
determination of the reviewing committees and their suggestions
relating to the incorporation of materials vital to this topic.
Light sensitive devices of various kinds are used in numerous
industrial applications. Just as with the relay, the phototube is a
component basic to the use of many electronic products and elec-
tronic control circuits. The fundamental theories, operations and
applications should be thoroughly understood by the practitioner
working in the eld of industrial electronics.
The topics covered in this book form a rm foundation for
presentation, discussion and evaluation of the important ideas
relating to an understanding of the theory and characteristics of
photoelectric controls. They should permit the interested crafts-
man working in the eld of electronics to become aware of the
technological advances and potentialities of phototubes and of the
many industrial applications stemming from them.
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vi PREFACE
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the sta? of New York
Institute of Technology for its assistance in the preparation of this
book, and to Harvey Pollack for his authorship.
New York, N. Y.
May 1952 ALEXANDER SC!-IURE
Project Editor
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contents
l classes and principles of phototubes .............................. ..
What a Phototube Does ' Types of Light-Sensitive Devices ' Elements
of a Photoemissive Tube ' Cathode Structure of Phototubes ' Phototube
Emission Characteristics ' Light Waves ' Light Wave Measurements
' Photons ' The Radiant Spectrum ' Candlepower and Foot-Candles '
The Lumen ' Illumination Examples ' The Kelvin Color Scale ' Spectral
Response of Phototubes ' Basic Circuit Action of a Phototube ' Effect
of Gas in a Phototube ' Gas Amplification Factor ' Vacuum Photo-
tube Ratings ' Ratings of Gas-Filled Phototubes ' Saturation Emission '
Role of the Load Resistor ' Interpreting the Vacuum Phototube Char-
acteristic Curve ' Construction of a Load Line ' Interpreting the Load
Line ' Characteristics of Gas Phototubes ' Which to Use? Gas or
Vacuum? ' Multiplier Phototube Structure ' The Action of a Multiplier
Phototube ' Some Data on the Photovoltaic Cell ' Outlines and Socket
Connections for Phototubes ' Review Questions
2 basic phototube relays .................................................... ..
What Relay Circuits Do ' Direct Control of Relay by Photosensitive
Device ' Basic Vacuum Tube Relay Circuit ' Structure of a Small Thyra-
tron ' Action of a Thyratron ' Line Operated Thyratron Photoelectric
Relay Forward Action Circuit ' Thyratron-Phototube Circuit for
Inverse Action ' Modifications of Forward Action Circuit to Permit Use
of Gas Phototube ' Modifications of inverse Action of Circuit to Use
Gas Phototube ' Other Photorelay Circuits Use of a Beam Power
Tube Amplifier ' Improving Photorelay Circuit Performance Use of
Large Load Resistors ' Precautions in Using Large Load Resistors ' A
Two-Tube Photorelay Using a Large Load Resistance ' Use of Cathode
l
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S.
CONTENTS
Followers ' Power Supply for Multiplier Phototube ' How to Get the
Most from a Light Source ' Use of a Lens on Phototube Mount '
Obiections to d-c Amplification ' Using Modulated light Sources '
Review Questions
3. measurement and indication by phototubes .................. ..
Industrial Applications ' Application Methods ' A Circuit for the
Measurement of Illumination ' A Circuit for Measuring Ultraviolet
Intensity ' Sound-on-Film Reproduction ' Measurement of Very Small
Values at Illumination ' Review Questions
4. light-sensitive semiconductor devices ............................ ..
What are Semiconductors? ' How Photoconductance Takes Place '
Commercial Cadmium Sulfide Photocells ' Sensitivity of Large Surface
CdS Photocell ' Characteristics of Small Surface CdS Cell ' The
Cadmium Selenicle (Cd$e) Photocell Spectral Response and Time
Constant ' Barrier layer Photovoltaic Cells ' Performance Curves far
Solar Cells ' light-Powered Circuits ' Series Connection of Solar
Cells ' Determining Solar Cell Resistance ' Phototransistors ' The Point-
Contact Principle in Phototransistors ' Characteristic Curves of Point-
Contact Transistor ' Some Examples in the Use of Phototransistor Curves
' Load Line Construction ' Np-n Phototransistor with Sensitive Base '
Review Questions
5. industrial photocontrol devices ..................................... ..
Flame Failure Causing Fuel Cut-Off ' Step-Wedge Densitometer for
Photographic Negatives ' Safety Control for Industrial Machinery '
Automatic Exposure Control for Photographic Enlargers ' High-Speed
Photoelectric Counters in Industry ' Review Questions
index ...................................................................................... ..
75
93
II7
I35
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I. classes and principles of
phototubes
What a Phototube Does
Although phototubes are used in countless industrial applications,
the fundamental operation performed by any one phototube in any
application is always the same. A phototube converts a change of
radiant energy into a corresponding variation of electrical energy.
Radiant energy may take the form of visible light, or invisible radi-
ations such as ultraviolet or infrared. If the light reaching the
phototube [Fig. 1-1 (A)] is made to go on and off as in the case of
a shutter-controlled ship-to-ship signalling device, then the electric
current in the phototube circuit will have a waveform that approxi-
mates a square wave. In certain types of communication systems,
the voice is used to modulate the intensity of an infrared beam,
[Fig. 1-1 (B) ]. In this case, the electrical waveform would be char-
acteristic of speech irregular and impure. Should the intensity of
light arriving at the phototube rise and fall sinusoidally, [Fig.
1-l (C) ], the corresponding electric current would be a sine-wave.
Thus, a phototube is to radiant energy as an ordinary microphone
is to sound energy.
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PIIOTOELECTRIC
CONTROL
S
Li
so
hutter
ght
urce
MMMM _
Phototube
Square
electrical
(A l signal
)2) Voice Microphone
Irregular
II
waves tllllltllllt.
IIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIII
__ A .='. '.""'.:,:':
i I IHJ I II II
Ill IIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
QIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIII
wIIIII
Amplifier Light
Irregular
signal
(B )
fork
Tuning
~) Microphone
Smooth rise and
fall of light
intensity
I-III
1 .-iiiiiiEii:.
Illllllllll/lllll
Sine wave
_ al
Light
sign
Modulator
(Cl
Fig. I-I. Phototubes used to convert light signals to electrical ones. (A) Square
wave; (B) Irregular signal; (C) Sinusoidal signal.
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CLASSES AND rnmctnss or PHOTOTUBES 3
Types of Light-Sensitive Devices
Photovoltaic cell. An electrical response to visible or invisible
light can be obtained in one of three different ways. If the radiation
is allowed to fall upon certain materials, notably selenium and
silicon, the substance develops a voltage drop across its ends. Such
photoelectric devices are called photovoltaic or photogenerative
cells. Pure metals provide a potential of only a few microvolts even
under strong illumination. When theelectrode is covered _w_i_th_cer-
tain oxides or suldes as shown in Fig. _ J,-2 (A) , the conversion_ from
radiant energy to electrical energy is much more efficient, so that
sizeable currents can be obtained. Of the modern .photo.v.oltajc .cglls
found in industry today, there are two types of importance. Que
of these, often called the Photox (Westinghouse) cell, utilizes 3,
deposit of copper oxide on a baseplate of_ pure copper. The light
is__gused,__t_Q_ gf_a_ll__u_pgn__tl1e copper oitide layer, whereupon electrons
rnove from the copper mtheR<>pfi oitide, causing a currentilow in
an external circuit connecting the_two_ _l_ay_er_s. Theuotliclr popular
type of photovoltaic cell is known.as the Photronic (Weston) ggll,
This consists of a plating of iron selenide (a compound of iron and
selenium). on a baseplate of pure iron. .With_ illumination on the
iron s_el_enide,, electr_9ns_ ow from the pure metal to the semi-
conductor. The symbol forWa""photovoltaic cell is shown in Fig.
1-2 (B) . The actual cell structure is not quite as simple as shown in
the illustramillidfails on 'constructionRand" operation of these
cells are presented in .C.hapter/1.-.
Photoconductive cell. The second type of photoresponsive device
is called the photoconductive cell. Certain compounds such as
cadmium sulde, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride under-
go relatively large resistance changes when the illumination on their
IIII/IIIII1 cououcrme nus '
i <- ssmcououcroa R
\\\\\\\\\\\\ \ 4- METAL +
( A) (B)
Fig. l-2. Photovoltaic cell. (A) Basic circuit; (B) Symbol.
-..-..
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4 PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
\\\' /// M POWER SOURCEI
fl _ N + Determines direction
/ of electron flow
Photoconductive PO
Material
(A)
DEPOSIT OF
LEFT GRID - PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
?/ x MATERIAL
(;R||)3 ARE RIGHT GRID
SERRATED %
IIIII A
LEFT TERMINAL RIGHT TERMINAL
(B)
Fig. I-3. Photoconductive cell. (A) Basic circuit; (B) Construction permitting con-
siderable illumination of photoconductive material.
surfaces is varied, [Fig. 1-3 (A) ]. In all cases, the resistance is con-
siderably higher when the cell is in the dark, as compared to the
resistance when illuminated. Within limits, the stronger the illum-
ination, the greater is the difference between the dark resistance
and the light resistance.
Selenium has also been used as a photoconductive material. Older
types of selenium photoconductive cells have dark-to-light resistance
ratios of about ve to one. More recent cadmium cells have dark
resistances of well over one megohm, while the resistance in average
room illumination drops to 2000 ohms or less. Modern photocon-
ductive cells capable of handling considerable power utilize a rather
unusual construction. To expose as much of the semiconductor
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOTUBES 5
material to the light, it is deposited between two interlocking
serrated grids of metal that form the electrodes, [Fig. 1-3 (B) ]. In
this way, a very short path of large cross section is obtained, insur-
ing substantial current handling ability and comparatively low
resistance under strong illumination. Photoconductive cells, unlike
the photovoltaic type, require a source of electric power to operate
since they do not generate their own.
Photoemissive cell. More important and more widely used than
the photovoltaic and photoconductive cells is the third type, the
photoemissive cell or the phototube. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz in
his experiments with electric oscillations observed that a spark-gap
res at a lower voltage if exposed to strong sunlight. He then
showed that it was necessary only to illuminate the negative elec-
trode of the gap. It was discovered later that light of high-frequency,
such as ultraviolet light, causes even a pure metal to emit electrons.
In the case of Hertz's spark gap, these photoemissive electrons form
the preliminary current carriers that help to ionize the air between
the points and render it more conductive. Emission of electrons
under the action of low-frequency radiation (infrared, red, orange,
and yellow light) could not be realized until certain substances and
combinations of substances were discovered that were ready emitters
of electrons, even when illuminated by low-energy radiation. Silver
combined with cesium oxide and metallic cesium emits electrons
copiously for all visible wavelengths. Other combinations are sensi-
tive to different ranges of the radiation spectrum. Photoemissivity
is analogous to thermal or thermionic emissivity, (Fig. 1-4) , in the
PHOTOEMISSION THERMIONIC
( Energized by EMl$5lON
\\\i //// Radium E"9'9Y Energized by heat
I
'7 Q ELECTRONS
// ELECTRONS
U
O OOOOQIC
THERMIONIC
CATHODE
"00
ELECTRONS HEATE
T
R
CURREN
PHOTOSENSITIVE
PLATE (Cathode)
Fig. l-4. Comparison of photoemission and thermionic emission.
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6 PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
sense that energy must be added to the emitting material. In
thermal emission, the cathode is heated; in photoelectric emission,
the cathode is illuminated.
Elements of u Pholoemissive Tube
A phototube contains two essential metallic electrodes in an
envelope [Fig. 1-5 (A) ], that is either evacuated as completely as
possible, or is lled with some inert gas under low pressure. A
commercial example of each is shown in Fig. 1-5 (B) . The cathode
has the property of electron emission under the action of radiant
energy. The second metallic element is the anode, which is very
THERMIONIC PHOTQTUBE
Cathode V|EwED FROM C0l|'10d8
p|q@e___'5L= }' THE TOP N
Heater A"d
Cathode . Anode
. VIEWED FROM
Anode or _ THE 5|DE Cathode
Plate
P K
SYMBOL
K A
Fig. I-5. (A) Therrnionic diode and pllolofube conslruclion compared; (B) Typical
exqmples pf u vacuum and gas pholoiube. RCA.
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PIIOTOTUBES 7
much like the plate of a vacuum tube. The anode is given a posi-
tive potential with respect to the cathode so that electrons emitted
by the latter are attracted to it. For most phototubes, a voltage
difference of 20 to 25 volts between the two electrodes is sufficient
to cause all the emitted electrons to move to the anode, thus causing
a current to ow in the external circuit. This photocurrent is, of
course, greater with increased light intensities than it is when the
phototube is in the dark. The presence of a gas such as argon in the
proper concentration can cause the change of current due to a given
light intensity variation to be much greater than in the vacuum type
phototube.
In general, there are three different electrode arrangements com-
monly encountered in industrial phototubes. In one type, [Fig.
1-6 (A) ], the cathode is so placed that light must enter the rounded
end of the tube to be effective; in a second, [Fig. 1-6 (B) ], the ele-
ments are arranged to accept light from the side; and nally, the
third type, [Fig. l-6 (C) ], is built with a perforated cathode so that
light from any direction can activate the phototube.
Cathode Structure of Phototubes
The structure of a phototube cathode is distinctly different from
those of thermionic emission vacuum or gas tubes. Thermionic
cathodes are very narrow sleeves of oxide-coated metal that t snugly
over an internal heating element (Fig. 1-4). This permits the heat
of the lament to reach the cathode quickly and easily with little
loss of energy. In the phototube the source of energy is incoming
light or other radiation, so that the cathode is designed with a large
light-catching surface, (Fig. 1-5). It is concave in shape and is
formed like a hemicylinder in most phototubes, with the anode a
slender rod lying along the axis of the cylinder. Since electrons
ejected photoelectrically from a light-sensitive surface generally
emerge nearly at right angles to the surface at that point, photo-
electrons from a cathode having this shape already possess a sub-
stantial velocity immediately upon emergence. Thus, less force is
required from the attracting anode to draw the electrons to itself
and so make the transit path complete.
The inside surface of the hemicylinder is coated with the photo-
sensitive emitting material. Much intensive research has been done
on cathode materials for phototubes to make them even more sensi-
tive to small light intensities. Present day tubes make use of lithium,
sodium, rubidium, cesium, silver, antimony, and potassium in vari-
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END FIRE SIDE ACTIVATION OMNI-DIRECTIONAL
RCA 924 TYPE RCA 929 TYPE RCA 928
(A) (B) CYLINDRICAL (C)
MESH
CATHODE
CATHODE
DIRECTION
o|= LIGHT
CATH ODE
INTERMEDIATE
SCREW BASE
ANODE
CONNECTION
INTERMEDIATE SMALL SHELL
CATHODE SHELL OCTAL SMALL 4 PIN
CONNECHON 5 PIN BASE BASE
DIRECTION OF ueur PERFORATED
ANODE NC
l~
AN~ 0 0
NC CATHODE
CATHODE NC - No Connection
Fig. I-6. Arrangements of phototube elements for directional and nondirectional
activation of cathode emission. RCA.
ous combinations with each other and their oxides. By varying the
composition of the emitting material, not only is it possible to
control the sensitivity to a large degree, but it permits a selection of
color responses. For instance, some applications call for photo-
tubes that are particularly sensitive in the near-ultraviolet while
others demand high level response for the colors to which the human
eye is most sensitive. Phototube coating materials are now available
to provide color sensitivities to t almost any industrial specica-
tion. These will be discussed further in a later portion of this
chapter.
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cussss AND PRINCIPLES or PHOTOTUBES 9
Phototube Emission Characteristics
The first law. A far better understanding of photoelectricity is
possible if the two fundamental physical laws which govern this
phenomenon are thoroughly understood. Electrons do not of them-
selves y out of metals or other substances, because atomic and
molecular forces within the material tend to keep them inside. This
means that the ejection of one or more electrons from the fabric of
a metal requires a denite and measurable amount of added energy.
Thus, work must be done upon the molecules of a metal to cause it
to emit an electron from its surface. Due to the fact that different
materials have varying internal structures, the amount of work
needed for electron emission is high for some substances and low
for others. When a metal or metallic compound maintains a rm
hold on its electrons so that relatively large energies must be added
to liberate them, the material is said to have a large work function;
conversely, metals that are easy" emitters have low work functions.
Experiments show that the work function of the cathode, together
with the wavelength of the light that strikes it, are the sole factors
that determine whether or not electrons will be emitted photo-
electrically. That is, the intensity of the light that impinges on the
cathode has nothing to do with the speed of the emitted electrons
or with the emission of electrons from a given cathode material.
Short wavelengths such as ultraviolet and blue light are more ener-
getic than long waves like red and infrared; thus, the blue light
from a distant star may cause photoelectric emission, while the in-
tense infrared radiation from a nearby heat lamp may have no
effect at all on a certain cathode material. This is the First Law
of photoelectricity: the energy of photoelectrons depends only upon
the work function of the emitter and the wavelength of the incident
light.
The second law. An intense light source is somehow a more
effective energizing agent for phototubes and photocells than a weak
light source. How does radiation intensity t into the pattern?
Consider a specic cathode surface material. Suppose that we
attempt to activate it with yellow light and nd that no electrons
are photoelectrically dislodged. The First Law tells us that we should
shorten the wavelength of the light. This we do by changing the
color from yellow to green and then to blue. When the short blue
wavelength is nally reached, we suddenly nd emission of electrons
taking place, the energy of each electron being about the same as
that of every other for this condition. Now let us increase the
intensity of the same blue light, making it stronger while we observe
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I0 PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
the effect upon the electron emission with each step. With each
step-up of light intensity, we nd that more electrons are emitted.
Upon measuring electron energies, however, we discover that the
average velocity of the electrons is unchanged from the previous
condition when the light intensity was low. Thus, we have the Second
Law of photoelectricity: the g_tgr5tQe[__0f e_l_e_ct_r_o_@ e;_rm'y;:_d from a
give" iLl?2!_QEi.iP6 21125? is dfimzlicrit 011.11 1411911 the irgrqgwy
of the light falling upon it.
Light Waves
Before turning to a discussion of the response of phototubes to
different forms of radiation, we must rst give our attention to the
nature and characteristics of light in general. We can no longer
state with assurance that light is nothing more than a form of wave
motion. Modern quantum theory insists - with much experimental
evidence behind it that radiant energy as we know it possesses
both wave and particle characteristics. For this reason, many optical
phenomena cannot be fully explained by using only wave concepts
or only particle concepts; often both sides are necessary. Whenever
light waves are discussed, however, it is recognized that the wave
characteristics are those of transverse waves, [Fig.1-7 (A) ]. A trans-
verse wave may be dened as one in which the displacement of the
Q O O O
AXIS o|=
Lllill 8 O sec O 8 T PROPAGATION
O _R 0
PARTICLE
MOTION
(A) Particles at right angles to the axis of propagation
$0UN2 o ooaooo o<o; o o o oooooo I>Q,gAT'oN
PARTICLE
MOTION
(B) Particles move back and forth along the axis of propagation
Fig. I-7. Wave characteristics. (A) Transverse; (B) longitudinal.
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF FHOTOTUBES II
particles of the medium occurs at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave. Nothwithstanding the fact that light
apparently travels through the vacuum of space on its way to us
from the sun, it exhibits these transverse characteristics just as
though it had moved through a material medium. A second wave,
in contrast, is a longitudinal wave [Fig. 1-7 (B) ], in which the
vibration of the particles of the medium takes place along the
line of propagation rather than perpendicular to it.
In a normal light wave, the transverse vibrations occur in planes
and may take on any direction at all within the plane as long as this
direction crosses the propagation axis at right angles.
light Wave Measurements
All waves, whether they be transverse or longitudinal, are char-
acterized by several common measurements. For example, the three
familiar ones wavelength, frequency, and velocity are closely
related in that the velocity of a wave can always be found by multi-
plying its wavelength by its frequency. Expressed mathematically,
c = If
where
c = velocity
1 = wavelength
f = frequency
Wavelength is given as the distance between two successive crests of
the wave, or the distance between two successive troughs. The fre-
quency of a wave is merely the number of complete vibrations any
particle makes during a unit of time in its carrying medium. Figure
1-8 illustrates these meanings. If the wavelength is measured in
centimeters and the frequency in vibrations per second, then the
velocity is expressed in cm/sec. For light, the velocity in a vacuum
or air is approximately 3 X 10" cm/sec.
The intensity or strength of a wave is measured by the length
of the path over which the particles move, or the amplitude of
vibration. An increase in amplitude means an increase__in intensity.
For light, the word brightness may be taken as synonymous with
intensity.
The energy of a light wave depends upon the frequency of the
wave motion. This fact is not evident from a study of waves alone,
but is an outcome of the laws of the quantum theory; we shall speak
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CREST
Both curves have the some
wavelengths (measured from
AMPUTUDE crest to crest), time interval,
WAVELENGTH and velocity, but have
different amplitudes
Hi TIME INTERVAL
_ I
Same amplitudes,
different wave-
~ lengths
Q J l Both waves differ in
l a
mplitude and wavelength
Fig. I-B. Wavelengths and amplitudes of waves compared.
of this more fully later. The relative intensity of the various lines
in the spectrum for a neon lamp are shown in Fig. 1-9 (A). Most
of the energy is in the red and orange part of the visible band. The
visible spectrum is indicated in Fig. 1-9 (B).
Wavelengths of light are measured in two common units: the
Angstrom unit (A) is equal to 1/100,000,000 cm (one centimeter
divided by 100,000,000) or l X 10-8 cm, and the millimicron (mp)
is equal to 1/ 10,000,000 cm (one centimeter divided by 10,000,000)
or 1 X 10-7 cm. Sometimes wavelength measurements in centi-
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOTUBES I3
(A) 25
I
i
O 2O
u.
t-
15
5
LU 10
Z
l
5 5
Lu
I
0 a
5000 6000 7000 Angstrom (A)
WAVELENGTHS
(Bl U|trc|vio|et\viSib|e S,pecl'um/Infrared
Wovelengthlkl 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 O
0 O o o O 0 o 0 0 0 A
- N to <r no no r~ o:> cn O"
x10 cycles
per sec
Frequency(f) 30 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Fig. I-9. (A) Line spectrum of the relative intensities of lines of a neon lamp;
(B) Electromagnetic spectrum.
meters (cm) or millimeters (mm) are also encountered. To com-
pare these various units, we might write the wavelengths of a certain
green light as:
5130 Angstrom units (A)
513 millimicrons (ma)
0.000513 millimeters (mm)
0.0000513 centimeters (cm)
Photons
By the beginning of the 20th century, grave doubts had already
been cast on the wave theory of light. Certain experimental evi-
dence had indicated that light can produce effects that are absolutely
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I4 PHOTOELICTRIC CONTROL
inconsistent with wave action. A German scientist, Max Planck
(1858-1948) proposed, in explanation of these otherwise incom-
prehensible experiments, that radiation must consist of discrete
packets of energy rather than continuous streams of waves. Today
the view is held that radiant energy possesses characteristics that par-
take of both wave and packet nature. These packets are called
quanta or photons. Planck also showed that the energy in a beam
of radiation is directly proportional to the frequency of the radia-
tion only if the radiation is considered as photons.
Experimental evidence demonstrates very conclusively that high-
frequency radiation (such as ultraviolet or x-rays) is much more
energetic than low-frequency radiation. A freshly cleaned piece
of zinc metal will emit photoelectrons copiously when stimulated
by ultra-violet light, but shows no reaction at all to longer waves in
the yellow and red part of the spectrum. (See the First Law of
photoelectricity.)
The Radiant Spectrum
However radiation may be described either as a form of wave
or as quanta of energy called photons it is convenient to classify
RADIOMETER
Required to detect
heat fCIdIOiIOn of
infrared waves
3000 4000 + B000
GS ROM N TS
ELECTROSCQPE \ AN T V U l /
Required to detect v|5|BLE
ultraviolet waves SPECTRUM
INVISIBLE INVISIBLE
Fig. I-'lO. Colors corresponding to wavelengths of visible light.
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different kinds of radiation by means of frequency and wavelength.
The frequency coverage is often called the electromagnetic spectrum
and extends indeed over a tremendous span of wavelengths, [Fig.
1-9 (B) ]. The very shortest waves of radiation, gamma rays from
radioactive materials, end at about 0.1 A and extend to an unknown
distance to the left. X-rays range from about 0.1 A to 50 A. The
part of the spectrum in which we are interested for our study of
photoelectricity begins with ultraviolet whose range is from about
50 A to approximately 4000 A. The span continues through the
visible spectrum from 4000 A to 7000 A, thence on into the infrared
from 7000 A all the way to waves of 0.5 cm in length. (0.5 cm cor-
responds to 50,000,000 Al) Above the infrared portion of the
spectrum we nd radio waves beginning with microwaves of 0.5 cm
length and extending up to long-wave radio in the 1000 meter
region. For our purposes, it is important to note the colors cor-
responding to the various wavelengths of visible light (Fig. 1-10)
and the wavelengths associated with the near ultraviolet and infra-
red, since these are the radiations most often utilized in industrial
photoelectric control circuits.
Candlepower and Foot-Candles
We have seen that the energy of photoelectrically ejected electrons
depends upon the frequency or wavelength of the incident radia-
tion; the Second Law of photoelectricity tells us that the number
of electrons emitted is a function of the strength of illumination.
How are light intensities measured? Here we must be very careful
with our terms.
One candlepower is the total amount of light produced by a
standard candle burning in still air. While candlepower describes
the total light coming from a source, intensity of illumination is
measured in foot-candles. One foot-candle is the intensity of illum-
ination on a surface located one foot away from a one candlepower
source, [Fig. 1-ll (A) ]. The intensity on a given surface varies
directly with the candlepower of the source if the distance is kept
constant, [Fig. 1-ll (B) ]. Thus, a 55 candlepower source produces
an illumination of 55 foot-candles on a screen l foot away. On the
other hand, illumination intensity falls off as the square of the dist-
ance from the source [Fig. 1-ll (C) ], if the distance is doubled, the
intensity is reduced to one-fourth; if the distance is tripled, the
illumination becomes one-ninth, and so on. The relationship be-
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I 6 PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
1ft- candle
s '1
1 CANDLE>E 1
POWER
Candlepower
Intensity = ()2
_ __
IA) L-m_t
2 CANDLE ICANDLE 1/ _ I
POWER 2ft-candle V/POWER 4" conde
I II/__
\
\\
\\l///
~
L-ml (B) l
Fig. I-'ll. Diagrams showing relationship between intensity, candlepower, and
distance. (A) Unit foot-candle; (B) Doubling candlepower doubles the intensity;
(C) Doubling the distance decreases intensity by one quarter.
tween candlepower, distance, and foot-candles is easily expressed
thus:
_ candlepower
foot-candles - (feet) 2
The lumen
The lumen is another unit of light measurement that is often
encountered in photoelectric work. It may refer either to a lumin-
ous source or to a surface receiving light from a source. The mean-
ing of a lumen is best described by the following example. Consider
a one candlepower source placed one foot away from a screen. We
have seen that the illumination on the screen will then be one foot-
candle. Suppose now that the screen has an area of one sq ft and
is curved so that every part of it is exactly one foot away from the
source. (The screen may be considered a section of a sphere with
the source at the center.) The light falling on it would then be
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equal to one lumen. On this basis, it is evident that a lumen on one
square foot is exactly the same illumination as one foot-candle, or
l ft-candle = l lumen/sq ft
To illustrate further, suppose we were to increase the size of our
screen to an area of two square ft, still maintaining its spherical
surface. Light from the source that had previously escaped falling
on the screen would now reach it; also, since each part of the screen
is still one foot from the source, the intensity will remain the same
and each square foot will now have one lumen of intensity. Thus,
the total light now has a value of two lumens on the screen, while
the foot-candle value remains at unity. Thus, the lumen is a
measure of total light on a surface, while the foot-candle is the
measure of intensity of illumination or brightness of a surface.
Illumination Examples
A lumen is often said to be the measure of luminous ux emitted
from a source or incident on a surface. The surface of a sphere is
equal to 4:: times the radius squared. Also, the lumen is defined
as the total light falling on a unit area of surface; therefore, the
total ux from a source is equal to 4:: times the candlepower and is
independent of distance. To get some idea of the light value of the
lumen, and how it is used in practical work, study and compare
the values given in the listings below.
A 40-watt tungsten lamp emits a luminous ux of 465 lumens.
A 40-watt uorescent lamp emits a luminous ux of 2325 lumens.
Therefore, a uorescent lamp of this power is ve times more
efficient than the corresponding tungsten lamp of the same power.
In terms of candlepower, dividing 465 and 2325 by 411:, yields 37.1
and 185 candlepower, respectively. Sunlight at high noon produces
an illuminance of 100,000 lumens per square meter. Illuminance
is now dened in terms of lumens per square meter in standard
engineering practice. A normal room interior close to a window
open to a clear sky has an illuminance of 1000 lumens per square
meter. Minimum illuminance recommended for close work under
articial light is 100 lumens per square meter. Full moon produces
an illuminance of only 0.2 lumens per square meter.
To show the direction in which lamp ratings have been changing
over the years, one should note that in 1920 all electric lamps were
rated in terms of candlepower. As time passed, this was given up in
favor of wattage ratings. Most recently uorescent lamps are rated
in terms of the luminous ux emitted; that is, in lumens.
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1a PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
The Kelvin Color Scale
As a last step in our discussion of light and color as applied to
photoelectricity, it should be mentioned that there is an increasing
tendency in the industry to speak of colors not only in terms of
wavelengths of light, but also in accordance with the Kelvin color
scale. Since various phototubes respond differently to different
V'5','B _E PEAK Aour io,ooo Z
SPECTRUM
Although there is now intensity all through
I
8| the visible portion, the peak still occurs in
ml the infrared ( I |
I I
| I _ | _ I
>- There IS substantial visible light, but
E much waste in the infrared
5 I
I I
E Radiation is still very
_ predominant in the infrared
g _ but some emission is taking
E place over most of the visible
_i 2 spectrum, just barely reaching
15:1 500 the violet
I
20000
PEAK O
ABOUT 28,000A
There is practically no radiation in the visible spectrum,
just _becoming visible is the dul_I red | |
4000 7000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40.000
WAVELENGTH (Angstrom Units)
Fig. I-I2. Relative intensity vs. wavelengths for different temperatures.
colors, an understanding of the Kelvin scale is very helpful.
When a body is made progressively hotter, it appears to the eye
rst as a dull red, then successively brighter red, orange-red, white,
and eventually bluish-white. The radiation from a heated object
contains many wavelengths for any given temperature, but is usually
richer in one color than in any others. The temperature of hot
bodies is usually measured in the Kelvin (or absolute) scale for
convenience. A temperature of zero degrees on this scale is the same
as 273 below zero centrigrade; thus, to nd the equivalent tempera-
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PIIOTOTUBES I9
ture of a body in C degrees, merely subtract 273 from the Kelvin
reading. For example: What is the temperature in degrees C of an
object heated to l500K? (Answer: 1500 - 273 = l227C)
An object heated to l000K emits mostly infrared and just a
little visible red light, (Fig. 1-12). As the temperature is raised to
that of a tungsten lamp (about 2500K) , much of the radiation
moves into the visible spectrum with most of it still in the reds and
yellows. Between this temperature and 4000K the light gradually
grows whiter until, at a Kelvin temperature of about 6500, the color
of sunlight is obtained.
Spectral Response of Phototubes
Cathode coatings. The fact that many different cathode coatings
for various color responses have been developed in recent years was
previously mentioned. The color response of a phototube is often of
great importance in a given industrial application. For example, a
ame control device for an oil burner requires a phototube with
high sensitivity in the yellow, yellow-orange, or orange portion of
the spectrum (possibly about 6000 A from a ame having a tempera-
ture of 1500K) . On the other hand, a black light burglar alarm
using an ultraviolet beam would call for a sensitivity high in the
near ultraviolet, possibly around 3500 A.
Three different cathode materials (Fig. 1-13) are now in common
use to obtain the required range of color sensitivity. The rst of
these, the Sl surface, provides high response in the red and infrared
and is suitable for radiant heat controls and infrared signalling.
(An S2 surface, very similar to the Sl, is also available for special
applications, but will not be discussed separately here.) The second
important coating is the S3 type. This possesses a spectral sensitivity
throughout the visible spectrum and peaks in the blue region. The
relative response of the S3 surface to light coming from colored
bodies is very close to that of the human eye. Finally, the S4 surface,
with high sensitivity in the blue and ultraviolet region, is useful
when the light source is daylight, carbon, or mercury arcs, or other
sources of short-wavelength light. The behavior of a given photo-
tube type with respect to color response is best shown graphically
in Fig. 1-14. Since manufacturers are constantly developing new
forms and shapes of phototubes, any attempt to present a complete
listing of tube numbers at this point would not be worthwhile. The
graphical story of the tube's capabilities is compared to the color
response curve of the human eye to help clarify the width of the
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20 Pl-IOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
\\\\//, CATHODE
\
\ INFRARED
TO RED
SOURCE
\\\
\ \\ \ ( ,/ CATHODE
\\\\I/
VISIBLE
SPECTRUM
SOURCE
1
( \ /I CAT HODE
1/.
BLUE,
\\\
ULTRA-
VIOLET
Sl TYPE PHOTOCATHODE
MADE OF SILVER AND
CESIUM OR OXIDE AND
CESIUM FOR HIGH
RESPONSE TO LONG
WAVES
S3 TYPE PHOTOCATHODE
MADE OF SILVER +
RUBIDIUM OR OXIDE +
RUBIDIUM FOR HIGH
RESPONSE TO MEDIUM
WAVELENGTHS
I
\
S4 TYPE PHOTOCATHODE
MADE OF ANTIMONY +
CESIUM FOR HIGH
RESPONSE TO SHORT
WAVES *
Fig. I-I3. Cathode materials for response to different wavelengths.
spectrum that the phototube covers. It is important to remember
that response, in the case of photoemissive tubes, is measured by
the quantity of the electrons ejected from the cathode under the
action of the radiation.
Basic Circuit Action of a Phototube
The simplest phototube circuit consists of a source of voltage such
as a battery, a phototube, and a sensitive current-indicating meter,
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOTUBES 2|
k
1
IVE SES_ITIVITYPER oEST
-h m o 6 5 3
o o o o o o
iiiiiEEEEE=
SPECTRAL
SENSITIVITY
5| PHOTOSURFACE
INIHIII
HIIIIII
My HIWIIII
IIII
IIHIIII
EYE RESPONSE
wlalmalllll
lnlnlnnlll
IIIIIIIIII
(_ 4000 8000 I2000
WAVELENGTH-ANGSTROM UNITS (Al
RELAT
RELATIVE SEolT|V|TYPER cam
-D G!
O O
III-I!
II!II 5
-!I-I--1
I
SPECTRAL
SENSITIVITY
S3 PHOTOSURFACE
I00
IMNIIIIIII
w IIIIII
w, IIIII
IIIII
IIIII
IIIII
lulllnllll
4000 8000 I 200,9
WAVELENGTH-ANGSTROM UNITS (Al
SPECTRAL
oEST
S4 PHOTOSURFACE
'nnmIIIllII
wHMmIIIIIII
ml IIII
IIII
IIII
RESPONSE
IHNIIIIII
Iulwnnllll
4000 B000 l2000 9
WAVELENGTHANGSTROM UNITS (Al
RELATIVE SEoITIVITY-PER
-b
O
IIII
IIIQQ
=I--
III.-
Fig. I-I4. Response curves for different photocathode materials (A) SI type,
(B) S3 type; (C) S4 type.
CHARACTERISTIC OF REPRESENTATIVE TYPES
868
920
IP40
lP4|
er-|ARA(;TER|51'| OF REPRESENTATIVE TYPES
926
IP29
SENSITIVITY
cHARA'|'ER|51'| 9|: REPRESENTATIVE TYPES
929
IPZI
IP39
558I
5584
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(Fig. 1-15). The positive terminal of the battery is connected
through the microammeter to the anode, or rod-like structure, in
the phototube. Connection is made through a tube prong on a
base that ts an octal socket, or another type of socket, depending
upon the phototube type. Some phototubes have screw base sockets,
while still others have cartridge ttings.
When the cell is kept dark, very little electron emission occurs
from the cathode to the anode. As radiation, to which the particular
i MICROAMMETER I
ANODE +
T VOLTAGE
T_ SOURCE
CATHODE
l ELECTRON FLOW I
Fig. I-I 5. Basic circuit of a phototube.
phototube is sensitive, is allowed to fall upon the cathode, electrons
are emitted by the cathode and are attracted to the anode. Due to
the positive battery connection at the anode, the electrons ow into
the positive terminal of the battery through the microammeter. If
the phototube is a vacuum type, the current indicated by the micro-
ammeter will be directly proportional to the intensity of light
incident on the cathode according to the Second Law of photo-
electricity.
A circuit of this elementary nature is capable of providing sur-
prisingly accurate measurements of light intensities. The current
obtainable in this way, however, is generally too small for control
applications involving electromagnetic devices such as relays or
solenoids.
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES or PHOTOTUBES 23
Effect of Gas in a Phototube
The current owing in a phototube can be increased substantially
for a given intensity of light by introducing a controlled amount
of inert gas, such as argon, in the tube envelope after the air has
been removed. Electrons emitted from the cathode are attracted
toward the anode. If a gas molecule lies in the path of a moving
electron, there is a good chance that a collision will occur and one
or more electrons will be knocked loose from the gas atoms, (Fig.
1-16). This has two immediate effects: new electrons have been
added to the cloud moving toward the anode, thus increasing the
current in the tube, and the atoms left behind after the escape of the
INCIDENT
LIGHT
(~
ESCAPES FROM (9%
GAS ATOM /
/
0 I G)? @/
+ 4 f
ORIGINAL
ELECTRONS
\
GAS
ATOM % x
%s ION SLAMS
INTO CATHODE
Q GAS '" 9 :5lRIE\E3lINf3;AlIl=IT?llJERS
MOVES TOWARD
CATHODE \|N THE FORM or
SECONDARY
ELECTRONS
V ANODE X
CATHODE
Fig. I-I6. Reasons for increased emission when gas is inserted in phototube.
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electron or electrons are positively charged. Normal atoms are
electrically neutral because they contain equal numbers of electrons
and protons with a consequent net cancellation of charge. When an
electron leaves an atom, the number of protons then exceeds the
number of remaining electrons, resulting in a net positive charge.
Such ions are attracted toward the most negative body in the photo-
tube that is, the cathode. The motion of positive ions in space
in one direction is the equivalent of the motion of electrons through
the same space in the opposite direction. Hence, ions arriving at the
phototube cathode react upon the external circuit just as though
that much more current were owing in the tube. A third factor
that causes a current increase is the secondary emission from the
cathode, produced by the impact of positive ions on this electrode.
These ions are quite massive and are endowed with an appreciable
amount of kinetic energy (ke) after gaining momentum within
the tube. ]ust as a rie bullet can make sparks y from a steel plate,
so can a heavy positive ion slamming into the atoms of the cathode
eject electrons from the photosensitive material. This action causes
a further increase in phototube current by increasing the emission
of the cathode.
Summarizing, the presence of gas increases phototube current as
compared with that of a vacuum type for the same amount of
incident light because:
a. Electrons are knocked out of gas atoms to provide additional
current carriers.
b. Positive ions left by the escaping electrons also act as current
carriers.
c. Secondary electrons ejected from the cathode by ion impact
provide another source of current carriers.
Gas Amplification Factor
In phototubes, the creation of new charge or current carriers is
the principal benet realized from the inclusion of gas in the tube.
In normal operation, the potential applied between the anode and
cathode is made much larger than that required to ionize the gas.
Assume that the gas used in a given phototube will give up electrons
freely when struck by electrons accelerated by a potential difference
of 25 volts. When the anode-to-cathode voltage is less than this, the
gas phototube current is no greater than that of an equivalent
vacuum type, as is to be anticipated. When the voltage is increased
slightly beyond 25 volts, only those electrons that have acquired the
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necessary velocity as they approach close to the anode will be able
to demolish the gas atoms. When this happens, due to the three-fold
multiplication of charge carriers, it can be expectedthat the gas
tube current will be three times as great as the vacuum tube current.
This turns out to be true.
On the other hand, if the cathode-to-anode potential is increased
to 50 or 55 volts, the gas tube current becomes considerably greater
than merely triple the vacuum tube current. The explanation is
quite simple: when the potential is that high, a single photoelectron
coming from the cathode may knock one electron from a gas atom
when it is only half-way to the anode, and then may accelerate suf-
ciently to repeat the process once more when it comes closer to the
anode. As the potential is further increased, three or four collisions
due to a single initial photoelectron may take place, accompanied
by a further increase in phototube current. However, this process
cannot be continued indenitely. A point is reached where the gas
maintains its own ionization as a result of the billions of ions ying
through it. Then the cathode is bombarded by too many high-
energy massive particles and is likely to disintegrate, and to ruin
the phototube. The practical limit of the ratio of gas-tube current
to equivalent vacuum tube current is of the order of 8 to 10 times.
This ratio is known as the gas amplication factor and may be
dened in mathematical shorthand as:
actual gas-tube current
equiv. vacuum tube current
gas amp. factor =
Vacuum Phototube Ratings
To compare the performance of vacuum phototubes with gas
phototubes, it is necessary to draw up a comparison between them
with respect to currents, voltages and sensitivities, as well as the
amplication factors. The more important ratings (Table 1-1) are:
Maximum anode current. This is the largest value of average
current that should be permitted to ow from the cathode to
the anode. This is not to be confused with the maximum peak
current which can be greater than this value. For example, the
maximum peak cathode current for a IP42 is 1.5 pa while the
R maximum average cathode current is 0.4 pa.
Maximum anode supply voltage, d-c or peak a-c. This is the max-
imum potential that may be applied between the cathode
and anode. Most vacuum phototubes have ratings of about
500 volts in this regard; some are rated as low as 150 volts.
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Sensitivity. Sensitivity is dened as the current in pa for each
lumen of light ux. For example, the luminous sensitivity of a
type 917 vacuum phototube is given as 20 pa per lumen, while
a type 929 is rated at 45 ua per lumen. Such sensitivity ratings
are valid only if the measurements are taken with some stand-
ard anode potential and ux intensity. In particular, the
ratings given above were made with a 250-volt anode supply
and a mean light input of 0.1 lumen.
Spectral response. Color sensitivity of various phototubes is gen-
erally presented in terms of the surfaces previously discussed.
TABLE I-I. VACUUM PHOTOTUBE RATINGS
S . . . Maximum .
ensitivity Avem e Maximum
T Spectral (ua/ lumen) C H, 5 Anode
ype Response 2870K Source ca O F Supply
0.'l Lumen Input Wren (volts)
(1/-0)
917 SI 20 I0 500
919 SI 20 10 500
922 SI 20 5 500
925 Si 20 5 250
926 S3 6.5 5 500
929 S4 45 5 250
TABLE I-2. GAS FILLED PHOTOTUBE RATINGS
Sensitivity M0Xl- Max;_
(pa/lumen) mum mum G5_
TYPe Spectral 2870K source Average Anode Ampli-
esponse mi? Cathode S I fication
0 cps ~k * 1 1300 Cplilqnt (V553 Factor
I P29 $3 40 35 31 5 T00 9
lP40 $1 T35 Ill l0l 3 90 I0
l P41 Sl 90 77 67 l.5 90 8.5
918 S1 150 I 20 105 5 90 7
920 S1 100 85 74 2 90 9
927 SI 125 l l0 I00 2 90 l0
930 SI I35 Ill I01 3 90 I0
Light input varies sinusoidally about a mean value from zero to a maximum
of twice the mean value. These sensitivities are the ratio of the amplitude of
variation in the current output to the amplitude of variation in the light input.
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cussrs AND PRINCIPLES or Pnororuus 21
Ratings of Gas-Filled Phototubes
The ratings of gas-lled phototubes (Table 1-2) differ from those
of vacuum phototubes in three signicant ways:
a. Gas phototubes are rated at lower cathode-to-anode voltages.
Vacuum phototubes are designed to operate with up to 500
volts between the two electrodes. Gas-lled tubes, on the other
hand, are never rated at more than 100 volts on the anode
with respect to cathode. Most of them are limited to 90 volts
of continuous potential. Any attempt to operate these at
higher-than-rated voltage encourages self-maintained ioniza-
tion which endangers the cathode structure even if it occurs
for a brief period.
b. Gas-lled phototubes are given a gas amplication factor
rating. As mentioned, this ranges from about 7 to 10 times.
Most manufacturers measure gas amplication factor by set-
ting up a ratio of current at maximum anode voltage (90 or
100 volts depending on type) and current at 20 or 25 volts
where gas ionization is not present.
c. The sensitivity of a gas-lled phototube varies somewhat when
the frequency of the light input is charged. Gas phototubes
may be operated with a steady light source, just as well as
vacuum types, of course. Some applications, however, involve
a uctuating light source (e.g., sound reproduction on movie
lm), and it is in this application where variation of sensi-
tivity with frequency becomes an important factor.
Saturation Emission
Phototubes are like thermionic electron tubes in many respects.
Actually a phototube is nothing more than a thermionic diode with
the heated cathode being replaced by a photosensitive structure.
Like its thermionic counterpart, the performance can be best pre-
dicted by drawing up suitable characteristic curves and load lines.
Before we can do this, however, we must rst examine several aspects
of phototube operation other than those already discussed. Import-
ant among these is the matter of saturation emission.
The Second Law of photoelectricity states that the number of
electrons emitted from a given photosensitive surface is dependent
only upon the intensity of the light falling upon it. The actual
number of electrons available as current carriers is thus xed by
the number of lumens reaching the cathode. Under normal condi-
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tions, the current available is so small that it does not take much
voltage between the anode and cathode to force all the photo-
electrically emitted electrons from the negative to the positive elec-
trode. Stated more succinctly, a phototube arrives at a condition
TYPE 925
IO i i i
; LIGHT FLUX-LUIVIENS 5
e
., s
I
LLI
O
O
Z
< 4
O.l
gal _ I
so ioo I50 zoo 250
ANODE VOLTS
Fig. I-'l7. Anode voltage and current characteristic curves for a type 925
vacuum phototube.
of saturation all available electrons being used as current carriers
with a relatively small voltage between anode and cathode. Any
increase in potential beyond this point produces no further increase
in phototube current. For example, when the cathode of a type 925
phototube is illuminated with a light ux equal to 0.5 lumens,
(Fig. 1-17), saturation is reached when the anode voltage reaches
about 50 volts. At this point, the anode current is in the vicinity of
9.8 pa. Even when the anode voltage is raised up to 240 volts or
more, there is no really appreciable increase of anode current. It is
also interesting to note at this point that saturation emission occurs
even more quickly when the illumination is reduced. At a light
ux value of 0.1 lumen, the type 925 saturates at about 25 anode
volts with a tube current of almost 2 pa.
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES or PHOTOTUBES 29
Role of the Load Resistor
Our sample phototube, the type 925, saturates when the anode
voltage is 25 volts at 0.1 lumen of light ux as we have seen. Yet
when we refer to the voltage rating for the 925 (Table 1-l), we
nd we can use an anode supply voltage as high as 250 volts. We
might well ask what good it would do to increase the anode voltage
to this gure, since the current will grow no larger after the 25-volt
point is reached. If the phototube were going to operate nothing
but a microammeter, it would do no good at all since we could
get as much current at 25 volts as at 250 volts. But if a suitable load
resistor is now connected in series with the anode supply voltage
and the phototube, the situation changes completely. At a given
luminous ux value, somewhere between 0.] lumen and 0.5 lumen,
with a load resistance of 25 megohms, we might very well nd the
250 volts of the anode source split up this way: voltage drop across
the phototube, 100 volts; voltage drop across the 25 megohm load
resistor, 150 volts. This would mean that the current owing
through the series circuit is 6 pa. This must be true because:
I_ E R _ 150 volts drop across the load resistor
_ / _ 25,000,000 ohms of resistance in the load
= 0.000006 ampere = 6 pa
Furthermore, from what we have learned of saturation emission, we
know that the phototube is saturated since 100 volts of the 250
volts must appear across the phototube under these conditions.
Now consider what happens when the luminous ux is increased.
More electrons become available as charge carriers; thus, the photo-
tube current can increase and more current can ow through the
load resistor. This is much the same as saying that the increased
light intensity reduces the resistance of the phototube in the series
circuit permitting a current increase in the load. Suppose that
the current increases to 7 pa. What then happens to the voltage
across the load? Using Ohm's law:
E = IR = 0.000007 X 25,000,000 = 175 volts across the load
This means that a relatively small increase in ux causes a large
voltage change across the load, a change from a former value of
150 volts to a new value of 175 volts for a change of 25 volts. A
change of this magnitude applied to the grid of a vacuum tube
amplier could produce a very large plate current change, more
than enough to operate a heavy-duty relay. _
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Thus, a phototube now behaves as a triode. In the triode, a
small change in grid voltage gives rise to a large change in voltage
across the load; in the phototube, a small change in luminous ux
produces a large change in voltage across the load. With this equiv-
alence clearly dened, we can now proceed to draw phototube
characteristic curves in exactly the same way as we construct the
same curves for triodes, except in this case the change of lumens
replaces the change of grid voltage.
Interpreting the Vacuum Phototube Characteristic Curves
Let us continue our study of the type 925 vacuum phototube. We
have redrawn the average anode characteristics (Fig. 1-18) of the
925. Its signicance is closely analogous to the average plate chara-
acteristics curves associated with the vacuum tube triode ampliers.
Two solid curves are shown; the lower one indicates the variation
of anode current in pa as the anode voltage is changed when the
incident light has an intensity of 0.1 lumen. The upper curve
TYPE 925
IO i I I
LIGHT FLUX-LUMENS -5
7 0.4
6 lg _ _ _i.
/
/
g 6! J '4 g _ 0.3
lg J_ /
O
Z / 02
4 4
I /-'-
/
2/ o.i.
/
50 I00 I50 ZOO 250
ANODE VOLTS
Fig. I-I8. Lines drawn in characteristics of 925 for values between 0.1 and 0.5
lumen.
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOTIIBES 3|
demonstrates the effect of anode voltage on anode current when the
luminous ux is 0.5 lumen. Note that the saturation points are
shown by the sharp curvatures where the anode current suddenly
attens out. For a ux of 0.5 lumen, anode current ceases to
rise when the anode voltage reaches about 50 volts; similarly, the
curves tell us that saturation at 0.1 lumen takes place in the vicinity
of 25 anode volts. Observe that the anode current does rise very
slightly after saturation for large voltages. This increase is so
minute, however, that it may be neglected in any kind of practical
work.
The dashed curves have been inserted to make the family com-
plete from 0.1 to 0.5 lumen. Comparing the complete diagram to
triode curves, it is seen at once that the various values of luminous
ux are analogous to different grid biases in the triode.
Construction of a load line
Additional information concerning the behavior of a phototube
may be obtained by studying the effect of the load resistor upon the
phototube with the help of the characteristic curves. Here again, a
graphical method is easiest to use and interpret. A construction
in which the load resistance is considered simultaneously with anode
characteristics is known as drawing in the load line.
A load line is constructed by considering two extreme conditions
in the operation of the tube. First let us see what the conditions
are in a normal circuit, [Fig. 1-19(A) ]. The phototube and the
load resistor form a series circuit with the battery so that the battery
voltage is distributed between the two in proportion to their resist-
ances. From basic laws of direct current we know that:
Es : Ea + IHRL
where E, is the source voltage (the battery) , E, is the anode voltage,
I, is the anode or circuit current, and RL is the load resistance. This
relationship is merely a shorthand way of saying that the sum of
the voltage drops around a series circuit must equal the source
voltage.
The rst extreme condition to consider is: suppose that the tube
were short-circuited and had zero resistance, [Fig.1-19 (B) ]. What
would the current and voltage conditions then be? With a short-
circuit, the tube's resistance would be zero and no voltage could
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NORMAL CIRCUIT
E
(A) +
EXTREME CASE N0. I
(SHORTED TUBE)
. . FIRST POINT for
Short Clrcurt 3 /_ condition in which circuit
1 current rs I0 uo due to
If I0 shorted tuba. AN_ODE
E v0Ito?e IS zero smce
g no vo tuqa con exist
E = 25MEG RL ER=25OV 5 ucross a short circuit.
E
IU
D
o
S
c>
(5) I + so I00 Is0 zoo 250
ANODE VOLTS
EXTREME CASE N0. 2
P (OPEN TUBE)
ES
Previously
/_ obtained
point
SECOND POINT for
cOr1dIiIOh where tube
Eu = 250V 25 MEG RL ER=0 IS open, Ia is zero,
and ANODE voltage
Qpgn circuit equals source voltage.
E3 = 250V
+
(C) _ o so mo |so zoo 2s0
ANODE VOLT5
SODE MICHOSMPER
Fig. I-I9. Conditions for determining load. line. (A) Normal circuit; (B) Photo-
tube shorted out; (C) Open circuit.
appear across it. Thus, E, would be zero and would drop out of the
equation entirely, giving us
Ea = IaRL
and if this is solved for I, in this particular case, we have
In : Es/RL
= 250 volts/25,000,000 ohms
= 10 ua
Thus, for the extreme case of a zero resistance tube, we know that
the current through the circuit would be 10 ua. This current ows
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when the anode voltage of the tube is zero, as stated previously.
With this information we can place a point on the characteristic
curve axis corresponding to 10 pa at zero anode volts.
The second extreme condition may be stated: now consider that
the tube has become open-circuited internally, developing an inn-
ite resistance [Fig. 1-l9(C) ]. The circuit current must now be
zero so that the I,RL part of our equation is also equal to zero and
drops out. This leaves:
E. = E.
which tells us that the anode voltage is now equal to the source volt-
IO
0.5
6 0.1
O
=-
3 6 0.3
O
z
<
4 0.2
LOAD LINE FOR
I RL I 25 MEG
2/ l l
50 I00 I50 200 250
ANODE VOLTS
Fig. I-20. load line shown for 25 megohm resistor.
age while the anode current is zero. Thus, we can enter a second
point on the characteristic curve axis.
These two points mark the beginning and end of the straight
line called the load line which may now be drawn in with the two
points as terminals, (Fig. 1-20) . Every point along this line has mean-
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34 PHOTOELICTRIC CONTROL
ing and one can take any luminous ux value within the response
range of the tube and predict three important things:
1. The circuit current that will ow
2. The voltage across the tube (E,)
8. The voltage across the load resistor (ER)
Interpreting the loud Line
Previously, in the discussion of the role of the load resistor, a
situation was discussed in which a given light ux produced a volt-
age distribution so that 100 volts appeared across the phototube
and 150 volts across the load resistor. The load line diagram can
determine what that given ux would have to be.
First, trace the 100-volt line upward until it intersects the load
line. Notice that this intersection occurs at the ux curve of 0.3
lumen (approximately). Since an anode voltage of 100 volts was
selected, then everything along the voltage axis to the right of the
intersection, that is, from 100 volts to 250 volts a total of 150
volts must represent the drop across the load resistance. This
must be true since the sum of the tube drop and RL drop must total
to the source voltage of 250 volts. The question is answered. To
get a tube drop of 100 volts and a load drop of 150 volts using a
925 phototube, the luminous ux must be 0.3 lumen. (Remember,
this is true only when the source voltage is 250 volts and the load
resistance is 25 megohms.)
In the same discussion it was said that the luminous ux is
increased so that the anode current is 7.0 p.a, the tube drop is 75
volts, and the load drop is 175 volts. What luminous ux will be
needed to do this? Examination of the load line shows that this
must occur at a light ux value of approximately 0.36 lumen,
because it is at this point that the anode current rises to 7 pa for
these voltage and load conditions. Observe that at this point the
tube voltage is now 75 volts, and the voltage drop across the load
resistance is 175 volts, exactly as stated before.
The problems that follow will illustrate the various ways in which
a load line can be used.
The previous discussion was based upon a load resistance of 25
megohms. What happens when the load resistance is reduced below
25 megohms? The same procedure is used as before, using the new
value of the load for determining the position of one of the points
on the characteristic curve. Suppose the load resistance is reduced
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to 15 megohms. If we now assume the tube to be short-circuited,
we nd that the anode current I, is
I, = E,/RI, = 250/15,000,000
= 17 pa (approx)
This locates the rst point on the load line diagram; a current of
17 pa falls so high on the current axis, however, that it is necessary to
extend the axis (keeping the divisions at the same scale) to locate the
point. This is very inconvenient, so we adopt an alternative method
for this example.
Let us arbitrarily select a condition [Fig. 1-21 (A) ], in which the
tube drop is 160 volts and the load drop is 90 volts. (250 160 =
90) What current will be owing in the circuit now? If the drop
across the load is 90 volts, and the load resistance is I5 megohms,
the current through the series circuit must be:
1, = 90/15,000,000 = 6 pa
This locates the upper load line terminal (point A) just as well
as the extreme condition cited above. We merely follow the 160-volt
line up until we reach the 6 pa line and place a point there. To
locate the second terminal of the load line, we assume that the
tube is open-circuited. Then, the full 250 volts appears across the
tube regardless of the size of the load resistor since, with no current
owing, the load cannot affect voltage conditions in the circuit.
We see, therefore, that the lower terminal of the load line is exactly
in the same spot that it was for the rst load. In the same way,
load lines can be drawn for various loads such as 10 megohms,
5 megohms, and l megohm, [Fig. 1-21 (B) ].
Characteristics of Gas Phototubes
While a vacuum phototube reaches saturation emission at rela-
tively low values of anode voltage, the gas-lled type shows increas-
ing anode current with increasing anode voltage right up to the
limit of permissible source voltage. Therefore, the characteristic
curves of gas tubes must differ signicantly from the others.
When we examine the family of average anode characteristics of
a typical gas-lled phototube such as the type 930, (Fig. 1-22),
several important ways in which these curves differ from their
vacuum tube equivalents become apparent.
a. At low values of anode potential, the anode current is sub-
stantially smaller in the gas-lled tubes than in the vacuum
types.
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TYPE 925
UPPER
LOAD LINE -_
TERMINAL
(RL= I5 MEG)
ANODE uu
-r-"7..<.
/
2___ _ .
/
50 IOO I50 200 250
(A) ANODE vours
TYPE 925
IO
0.5
I-
ril-
ANODE |.|cl
A Gt
2 / .
so |oo I50 zoo 250
(B) ANODE votrs
Fig. 'l-21. (A) location of upper loud line terminal when shorted current is not
on graph; (B) Loud lines for different loads.
Rt.
Rt
Rt
Rt.
Rt.
O I
LOAD
LINES
I MEG
5 MEG
IO MEG
I5 MEG
25 MEG
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b. The curves have a very denite curvature that makes them
depart from linearity.
c. The most rapid change of plate current with given changes
of anode potential occurs near the high anode-potential end
of each curve, i.e., where the curve is steepest.
The load line shown in the family of curves is that of a 1.0
megohm load resistor and a plate supply voltage of 90 volts. This
load line is obtained in the manner described previously for vacuum
TYPE 930
LOAD LINE
iii RL = IMEG
I4
Q
I2 -
O
1 .
ILI lo Q Q
2 ~ '
Z e g-\-
< 0/;
6 K q,_
-<V// -9
\/
3&4
20 40 60 80 I00
ANODE VOLTS
Fig. I-22. load line drawn on characteristics of a gas phototube.
phototubes and serves the same purpose: it enables the user to pre-
dict tube and load drops for given values of luminous ux as well as
anode current obtained directly from the curves. For example, how
does the voltage drop across the 1-megohm resistor change as the
luminous ux changes from 0.04 to 0.06 lumen? Referring to the
characteristics, at the intersection of the 0.04 lumen ux line and
the load line, the anode current is approximately 6.3 pa. When the
light input is 0.06 lumen, the anode current is approximately 8.9
pa. The change in anode current times the load resistance is the
required voltage drop. In this case, (8.9 6.3) pa times I megohm
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38 PHOTOELICT RIC CONTROL
yields a 2.6 volt drop. Thus, the load drop changes 2.6 volts for a
change in luminus ux of only 0.02 lumens. For a 925, a change
of this tiny magnitude in luminous ux would cause a load drop
that would be almost impossible to measure except with a very
sensitive instrument. This illustrates the improved sensitivity of
the gas type to small light variations.
Which to Use? Gus or Vacuum?
The selection of a specic phototube for a given application
depends upon the demands thatare to be placed upon the tube
and its circuit. Most circuit conditions, such as anode voltage and
load resistance, are under the control of the circuit designer. The
factors that he cannot always adjust or specify are light intensity
range of variation, initial light conditions, and environmental diffi-
culties. The choice of phototube can usually be intelligently made
on the basis of the answer to the following questions:
Is sensitivity the most important factor? If so, a gas phototube
should be used since it offers the possibility of increasing sensitivity
up to ten times in comparison to an equivalent vacuum tube.
Is stability of calibration the most important factor? If so, a
vacuum phototube should be chosen. Gas types tend to undergo
changes in sensitivity over long periods of time; hence, they should
not be used in sensitive measuring instruments or relay systems
that must remain stable for extended intervals.
Is there a chance that the anode voltage may rise above design
gures? If so, a vacuum phototube should be selected. Gas tubes
are easily damaged by excessive anode potentials, even if they last
only a few seconds. Vacuum phototubes are much more resistant to
damage on short overloads.
Multiplier Phototube Structure
The addition of gas in the envelope of a phototube increases its
sensitivity by the process of ionization. Gas amplication factors
up to about ten times are possible. There is another scheme, how-
ever, that makes possible amplications up to 2,000,000 times or
more! Such fantastic values seem impossible, yet they are realized
every day in multiplier phototubes. A typical tube is shown in Fig.
1-23.
This tube, looking down at it from the top, presents a*multi-
element appearance. Each of the elements is precisely shaped and
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DIRECTION OF LIGHT
Fig. I-23. A typical multiplier phototube. RCA.
spaced for reasons that will be clear shortly. The essential parts of
the multiplier phototube are:
1. The incident grill positioned at the window through which
light enters the tube.
2. The photocathode is similar to the photocathode of any other
tube. It may have any spectral surface, although the applica-
tions for which the multiplier phototube is best suited gen-
erally call for selective response in the low-frequency (or
infrared) portion of the radiation spectrum.
3. A group of 9 intermediate anodes called dynodes to distinguish
these from the output anode of the tube.
4. An output anode.
5. A mica shield to help prevent stray electrons from following
undesired paths.
The Action of a Multiplier Phototube
In operation, the incident light passes through the directional
grill so that it falls only upon the photocathode, (Fig. 1-24). The
electrons ejected by the photons from the cathode are then attracted
to dynode No. 1 which is made positive with respect to the emitting
element. The photoelectrons arrive at the dynode with sufficient
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energy to dislodge secondary electrons from its surface. Each photo-
electron must be counted upon to produce several secondary elec-
trons, otherwise the multiplication process cannot proceed; this
means that the potentials must be sufciently great to give the elec-
INCIDENT
UGHT
IIIIII _ _ _ _
+
GRRL 900V
TTWTFTH
CATHODE
OUTPUT
IOOOV
POWER
SUPPLY
Fig. I-24. How multiplier phototube action is obtained.
trons the kinetic energy they require for this action. Dynode No. 2,
at a higher positive potential than dynode No. 1, now attracts all
the secondary electrons. Each of these again releases several second-
ary electrons from dynode No. 2. This process is repeated up to
the ninth dynode with each of these elements successively higher in
positive voltage than the one preceding it. Thus, a swarm of second-
ary electrons from dynode No. 9 all due to a single initial photo-
electron, ultimately reach the anode which is the most positive
element in the tube. As the incident luminous ux is increased,
the number of photoelectrons from the cathode rises with a conse-
quent nal emission of billions of electrons from dynode No. 9.
The feeble light from the distant star Arcturus was used to rst
turn on the ground lights at the New York World's Fair in 1939.
Only the tremendous sensitivity of a multiplier phototube could
\/\\///\/ D I
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOTUBES 4|
have translated the all but invisible light stimulus from Arcturus
into heavy-duty relay operation.
Some Data on the Photovoltaic Cell
Although we have discussed the structure of the photovoltaic
cell, we have said nothing about its performance. These cells, not-
withstanding the fact that they are not as widely applied as the
phototube, are still utilized even in some types of newly designed
I00
\
.. A
\
/ \
/
l Pl-IOTOVOLTAIC
CELL
/
/ / . .
/ K
20 // \
Znumixu EYE \
\
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
ANGSTROM UNITS
RESPooE-PERoEST
-b at
o o
\
Q
__-
Fig. I-25. Spectral response for a typical photovoltaic cell compared to
response of the human eye.
equipment in industry. We are interested in two facets of their
performance: spectral response, and sensitivity.
Modern photovoltaic cells display a spectral response that
approximates that of the human eye in the visible region of the
spectrum, (Fig. 1-25) . In addition, such cells are capable of useful
output farther into the infrared than the human eye can go. This
makes them useful in heat and light response circuits in industry;
since they require no source of voltage, but may operate a sensitive
relay directly by the voltage they generate, photovoltaic cell units
are very useful in applications where the supply of voltage would be
inconvenient or otherwise undesirable.
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The sensitivities of two different photovoltaic cells are compared
in Fig. 1-26. Two items are of interest in these curves: rst, cell
construction among various manufacturers differs rather widely in
voltage output. Second, the voltage output is not linearly related
sso
soo y I V
(mu.|vou's)
N
(I
O
9
O/\
9/-
0
P
N
O
O
GENERATED POTENTIAL
5
O
K
/7 J
~
i ywlolc
G
o
50
O
0.5 l.O |.5 2.0 2.5
ILLUMINATION (LUMENSl
Fig. I-26. Sensitivities of two popular types of photovoltaic cells.
to the incident light value, but drops off rather sharply at higher
illuminations. This is a very denite shortcoming, especially for
illumination measurement purposes.
Outlines and Socket Connections for Phototube:
In designing any phototube system for industrial use, careful con-
sideration should be given to window arrangement (i.e., nondirec-
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CLASSES AND PRINCIPLES OF PIIOTOTIIBES 43
tional light acceptance, unidirectional acceptance, or other special
requirements) , space limitations which dictate the selection of maxi-
mum tube sizes, whether the tube is to be end-re or conventional,
type of socket needed, and the degree of leakage from photocathode
to photoanode that is permissible. When a very large load resistor
(25 megohms or more) is to be used across the phototube, it is
essential that the leakage resistance from cathode to anode be mini-
mized, otherwise the leakage resistance in parallel with the load will
cause the tube to see a much smaller resistance than is actually
FOR
CONNECTION
Fig I-27. Anode brought out as a cap on top of tube tor low leakage. RCA.
there. In one design, the anode is brought out of a cap at the
top of the tube, such as in the type 917, (Fig. 1-27) , making the
leakage path to the cathode very long along the outer glass of
the bulb; in another, the cathode is brought out to a top cap, such
as in the type 919.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish carefully between photovoltaic, photoconductive,
and photoemissive types of photosensitive devices. Know the
structure of each and the general principle of operation.
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44
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9.
10.
State the two laws of photoelectricity. Explain why the wave
theory of light cannot account for the First law in which the
energy of photoelectrons is related to the wavelength of incident
light. What is a photon? In what theory of light is this particle
encountered?
Dene candlepower, foot-candle, and lumen. How is the foot-
candle related to the lumen? If 10 lumens fall on a screen hav-
ing an area of two square feet, what is the illumination in
foot-candles?
A 120 candlepower lamp is placed 10 ft from a screen. Find the
illuminaton in foot-candles on the screen.
Explain why a tungsten incandescent lamp is often character-
ized as being visually ineicient. Use gures or graphs to help
in your explanation.
What in the structure of a phototube determines its spectral
response? Give examples of what you mean.
Discuss the effect of gas in a phototube. What are the relative
advantages and disadvantages of gas phototubes in comparison
with vacuum phototubes?
Explain carefully why a load resistor is an essential part of
any practical phototube circuit.
Using the load line in Fig. 1-20, (RL = 25 megohms; source
voltage = 250 volts), determine the change across the load
when the input is changed from 0.1 to 0.3 lumen.
Using the anode characteristic of the 925, (Fig. 1-18), what
would be the minimum amount of luminous ux necessary for
the anode current to be at least 4 pa? The anode supply voltage
is 150 volts and the load resistor is equal to l5 megohms.
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2. basic phototube relays
What Relay Circuits Do
Since the current owing in the anode circuit of an illuminated
phototube is limited to just a few pa, it is evident that auxiliary
devices are needed to set up a photoelectric control system. We
have seen how the tiny phototube current Rcan cause large voltage
drops across the load resistor; we have also mentioned that changes
in load resistor voltage may be used as grid input to a vacuum tube
to control relatively large changes of plate current. The question
now is, What do we do with these plate current changes?"
The answer, of course, is the use of a relay, [Fig. 2-1 (A) ]. A relay
is an electromagnetic device that consists of a coil of wire wound
around a magnetic core so that a magnetic force will appear when
a current ows in the coil, [Fig. 2-1 (B) ]. By using coils with many
turns, it is possible to produce a substantial electromagnetic force
with very little current. In this way, large pieces of magnetic
material can be moved by the ow of small currents such as those
associated with the plate circuit of a vacuum tube. These moving
parts are then made to serve the function of a switch that can turn
on or off devices of much greater power.
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46
PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
COIL
I
V IIIIIIIIIIIIIII III
5 o
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
B
. / VOLTAGE
PIVOT
POINT
2
EXTERNAL
TERMINALS
INTERNAL ELEMENTS
CONTACT
POINT
%
CONTROLLED
ARMATUNE CIRCUIT
/
SUPPLY
EXTERNAL
TERMINAL
Fig. 2-I. (A) A typical rela P
y. otter and Brumfield; (B) Construction and
schematic symbol of a relay.
LIGHT
~0
LOAD VACUUM
RESISTOR TUBE
DC VOLT
SOURCE FOR
PHOTOTUBE
Fig. 2-2. Blo
AMPLIFIER To
CONTROLLED
DEVICE
AGE
ck diagram of a phototube amplifier circuit.
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IASIC PIIOTOTIIBE RELAYS 47
The power handling ability of a relay is determined principally
by the size of the contacts that control the external circuit. To
have a relay operate consistently on currents like those owing in
phototubes (a few pa), very light and delicately balanced contacts
must be employed. This at once prohibits the control of high-
powered devices directly from such relay contacts. Thus, although
direct control of a relay is possible if the latter is made sensitive
enough, virtually all industrial applications of phototubes (Fig.
2-2) make use of vacuum tube (or gas tube) ampliers between
the phototube and the controlling relay.
Direct Control of Relay by Photosensitive Device
Photoemissive tubes (phototubes) are seldom, if ever, employed
for the direct operation of a relay without an intervening amplier.
On the other hand, the photovoltaic cell and the photoconductive
type of light-sensor have both been applied in this manner. For
INTENSE
LIGHT
\\ FIXED
METER f CONTACT
RELAY
T0 CONTROLLED
PHOTOVOLTAIC |-my-I CURRENT
CELL MOVING CIRCUIT
CONTACT
||||||
24V
Fig. 2-3. Meter relay circuit using a photovoltaic coll.
example, one modern small photovoltaic cell, measuring only 1 cm
X 2 cm in surface area is capable of generating 20 ma of current
through a 50ohm resistance at an illumination equivalent to the
noonday sun. Thus, any ordinary milliammeter with a coil resist-
ance not exceeding 50 ohms could be converted into a relay that
would work directly from the cell. This is shown in Fig. 2-3, where
the needle becomes the movable contact, with the xed contact
placed at any desired point on the scale. With such a circuit, there
is no reason why it cannot control a heavier relay which is connected
to the on-off terminals of a high-current circuit.
New photoconductive cell operation with direct relay connection
International Rectier type S1020 solar cell.
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(Fig. 2-4) is even more impressive. For instance, one typical unit
can operate an inexpensive (10,000-ohm coil) relay directly with
an illumination of only l0 ft-candles. A circuit such as this can
handle up to two amperes of contact current for the controlled
circuit without recourse to vacuum tubes or other types of ampli-
I20 VOLTS
DC
H T NDUCTIVE
P OCCCQLL IO ooo. i0
eoit
TO CONTROLLED
DEVICE
K (Up to 2 amperes)
= 4mo)
Fig. 2-4. Direct relay control circuit using a photoconductive cell.
ers. Of course, the photoconductive type requires a source of
power while the photovoltaic cell generates its own. The power
requirement can sometimes be a disadvantage, particularly in port-
able industrial equipment. Thus, each kind of cell can be utilized
in applications that t its specic qualications and advantages.
Basic Vacuum Tube Relay Circuit
Forward action circuit details. In general, a vacuum tube ampli-
er may be connected to a phototube in such a manner as to cause
relay closure either by an increase in the amount of light or a
decrease in light intensity. When a relay is pulled-in by an increase
in light we refer to the circuit as forward-acting; when the opposite
is true we call the arrangement one that produces inverse action.
Let us study the forward-acting circuit rst (Fig. 2-5). In the
basic circuit there are three sources of power: battery Bl is selected
to apply the rated anode voltage to the phototube through resistor
R (90 volts for gas tubes, 250 500 volts for vacuum phototubes) ;
battery B2 provides negative bias for the triode electron tube; and
battery B3 is the source of relay power. The relay itself is gener-
ally designed to have a rather high coil resistance from 2500 to
10,000 ohms signifying that it has many turns of ne wire and
can be energized by a few ma. The amplier tube may be a triode
' Hupp Electronics Co. type CDS-I0.
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IASIC PHOTOTIIBE RELAYS 49
or a pentode although we shall refer only to triodes for the present.
It should have a relatively large transconductance so that its plate
current will undergo substantial changes for small voltage differences
at its grid.
The bias battery B2 provides just enough voltage to bring the
triode plate current down close to cut-off where possibly only 1 or 2
ma of static plate current ows through the relay. We assume that
the relay will not pull in with this current owing through its coil.
io>
VACUUM
PHOTOTUBE TR IQDE To
CONTROLLED
CIRCUIT
%k ANODE
VERY
WEAK
LIGHT
B
Fig. 2-5. Forward action, phototube, vacuum tube relay circuit.
CONTROLLED
CIRCUIT
uem I'll llll Ill
an B2 as
Fig. 2-6. Action of circuit shown in Fig. 2-5 under intense light condition.
Forward-action circuit operation. The conditions shown in the
Fig. 2-5 apply when the phototube is dark. For this situation, the
internal resistance of the phototube is very high since virtually no
emission takes place from the cathode. Bias battery B2 applies cut-
off voltage to the grid of the vacuum tube, and the plate current
is too low to energize the relay.
Now when light impinges on the photocathode, (Fig. 2-6), emis-
sion from the cathode renders the phototube a closed-circuit,
and current ows from the minus side of the Bl, up through R,
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through the phototube and back to the positive battery terminal.
This current produces a voltage drop having the polarity shown in
the diagram. Note that the drop across R opposes the potential
from the bias battery B2. This opposition subtracts from the nega-
tive bias voltage causing the net bias applied to the grid to become
less negative than previously. If the bias was originally adjusted
to permit 1 ma to ow in the plate circuit of the triode, a reduction
of this negative voltage must result in an increase of the tube's plate
current. Since this current ows through the relay, if the rise is
large enough the relay will be energized. Thus, an increase in
luminous ux in this circuit causes the relay to pull in, so this is a
forward-acting circuit.
Inverse-action circuit operation. The inverse action may be ob-
tained by reversing the positions of the resistor R and the phototube.
Study the inverse-action circuit (Fig. 2-7). As long as light of suf-
cient intensity falls on the phototube, there is enough emission from
STRONG
UGHT
I I SMALL PLATE
R _ I I I /cuRRENr
(RELAY DEENERGiZEDl
-o>
+
TO
CONTROLLED
CRCWT
lihilcrs
Ii|| i||| |||| open
Bl B2 B3
Fig. 2-7. Inverse action circuit. Interruption of light will cause relay to be
activated.
the photocathode to permit a reasonably large current to ow
through R. Now the voltage drop across the resistor has a polarity
such that the grid of the triode is negatively biased to the extent
that virtually no plate current ows through the relay. Hence, with
enough light, the relay remains de-energized.
When the beam of light is interrupted, or the intensity of the
light is diminished by some other means, the phototube current
decreases simultaneously. The drop in potential across R likewise
decreases. This means that the right end of R is no longer as
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IASIC PHOTOTUBE RELAYS 5|
negative as it was previously, and since the grid is connected directly
to this point, it, too, becomes less negative, thereby allowing more
plate current to ow.
The voltage sources must be chosen carefully in this circuit to
assure reliable operation. In a later section, we examine circuits
in which a single voltage source, rather than three separate ones,
is used to provide similar operation. Thus, a decrease in luminous
flux in this circuit causes the relay to pull in, so this is an inverse-
action circuit.
Structure of a Small Thyratron
There is a strong tendency among designers of photoelectric
equipment to incorporate a thyratron rather than a vacuum tube
amplier in their relay circuits. To help appreciate the differences
between these two types of tubes, let us examine the structure of
a typical small thyratron such as that shown in Fig. 2-8.
ANODE CAP
GASI ARGON,
HYDROGEN, OR
MERCURY VAPOR
VIIIIIIIIIII A N O D E
CONTROL gII-jj:EFLLDEGRID
GRID CAP->
CONTROL GRID
SHIELD GRID
BAFFLE
MAIN BODY OF
SHIELD GRID
CATHODE
HEATER
SYMBOL
P
G
K DO
SIGNIFIES
GAS
Fig. 2-8. Structure of a shield-grid thyratron and symbol.
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52 PIIOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
A thyratron is a gas-lled tube. Common gases used in small
thyratrons are argon, hydrogen, and mercury vapor. In the center
of the element structure is a heater and a thermionic cathode as in
a vacuum tube, but the remainder of the design differs appreciably
from a vacuum triode or tetrode. The cathode is completely sur-
rounded by a cylindrical shield called the shield grid although it
bears no resemblance whatsoever to the grid in a vacuum tube.
The control grid, a ring-like structure, is placed inside a pair of per-
forated baffle plates that form part of the shield grid. Outside and
above the baffles is the anode which is placed directly in line with
the perforations in the baies and the hole in the grid ring. From
the vantage point of the center of the anode, one would be able to
see the cathode directly; thus, there is an unobstructed passage-
way through which thermionic electrons can move from cathode to
anode.
Action of a Thyratron
Thyratrons have many varied applications; some of the circuits
in which they are encountered are very complex. In photoelectric
relays, however, they generally serve one purpose - that of a grid-
controlled switch. Whereas a vacuum tube's plate current rises
CRITICAL GRID
POTENTIAL
I
<.__.
I/
PLATE ANODE
CURRENT CURRENT
eg + - eg +
VACUUM TUBE THYRATRON
Fig. 2-9. Plate and anode current curves for a vacuum tube and thyratron
compared.
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IASIC PIIOTOTUBE RELAYS 53
smoothly as the control grid is made less and less negative, (Fig.
2-9), the anode current of a thyratron is either zero or maximum
for the circuit, depending upon the grid potential. Thyratrons are
often called all-or-nothing tubes.
With a few volts of negative grid bias applied to a thyratron
connected in a relay circuit like those previously described for
triodes, the anode current is effectively zero. If the grid is now
made less negative in very small steps, a point is reached where
the thyratron suddenly goes into full conduction in its anode circuit,
just as though a switch had been closed. The value of grid potential
at which anode current starts is called critical potential. Once the
anode current begins to ow, the grid loses control completely.
The magnitude of the anode current under these conditions is
determined by the resistance in the plate circuit. In the conducting
condition, the voltage drop across the tube is only a few volts so
that the tube behaves as a closed switch with little resistance.
The all-or-nothing action of a thyratron stems from the behavior
of ionized gases. Before critical voltage is reached, the gas is not
ionized and is, therefore, a nonconductor. At the critical voltage,
the gas suddenly ionizes and becomes quite conductive. Once con-
duction begins, the only way to stop the anode current is to remove
the anode voltage, or at least drop it so low that ionization cannot
be maintained. A switch in the B supply circuit may be used as
a de-ionizing device. Or, as we shall see, ac may be used on the
anode; in this case, the anode voltage drops to zero and then
becomes negative once during each a-c cycle as the sine-wave sweeps
across each a-c cycle. Thus, in an a-c- circuit, a thyratron can be
made to stop ring merely by increasing the negative grid potential.
When the grid is more negative than the critical voltage, the ioniza-
tion is extinguished the rst time the anode voltage dips to zero
in the a-c supply.
Line-Operated Thyratron Photoelectric Relay Forward-Action
Circuit Using Vacuum Type Phototube
The fundamental nature of the thyratron photorelay necessitates
a rather careful approach to the study of the complete circuit. Let
us build it up in a series of steps, making certain that the function-
ing of all the components is understood in each individual step.
Step I. Using an a-c line cord to the 120-volt, 60-cycle line, let
us connect a relay, a 2050 shield grid thyratron and a current limit-
ing resistor (R1) as shown in Fig. 2-10. The 2050 heater is rated
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TO
CONTROLLED
CIRCUIT
IZOVAC |
CURRENT RI
.tt"_';.'ss
Fig. 2-IO. Step I in the construction of a line operated forward action, thyratron
photoelectric relay.
at 6.3 volts; hence T is a ll7-volt to 6.3-volt step-down transformer
used to heat the cathode. Since the 2050 is rated at a maximum
of 200 ma cathode current, the resistance of the relay plus R1 should
be sufciently high to limit the current to a gure well below 200
ma, when the 2050 is conducting. Suppose that the relay we have
available has a coil resistance of 1000 ohms and pulls in when 20 ma
ows through the coil; assume that R1 is 1000 ohms. Then the
current owing when the 2050 conducts is:
I = E/R = 120/2000 = 0.060 ampere = 60 ma
This shows that there is more than enough current to activate the
relay and that the current does not exceed the thyratron rating.
The current owing through the relay is pulsating dc. The
thyratron acts as a rectier because it conducts only when the anode
is positive with respect to the electron-emitting cathode. If the relay
is intended for d-c operation only, it tends to chatter when the
pulsating current ows through it. To avoid relay chatter, it is cus-
tomary to connect a capacitor across the relay coil. A capacitor of
fairly large capacitance (I-2 pf) stores energy during tube conduc-
tion time. When tube current ceases the capacitor starts to discharge
through the relay coil. This maintains a fairly steady coil current
and prevents relay chatter. Thus, we have set up a conducting
==.,_.-_ _9--_-
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BASIC PHOTOTUBE RELAYS 55
(closed~switch) thyratron in series with a relay, a current limiting
resistor, and a source of alternating voltage so that the relay pulls in.
Step 2. The circuit changes in this step consist of the addition
of the R2 in series with R1 so that both resistors are now directly
across the a-c line, and the change of R1 from a xed resistor to a
variable one with the grid connected to the wiper arm of the
potentiometer, (Fig. 2-1l). What do these modications accomp-
lish?
The combination of R1 and R2 now form a voltage divider (ratio
1:20) across the a-c line. With the cathode returned to the junction
TOP
TO
CONTROLLED
GRCUW
QOVAC jj
B
RI
I00On
A
BOTTOM
Fig 2-I I. Step 2 in the construction of a thyratron photoelectric relay.
of these two resistors, and the grid to a point lower down on R1
than the cathode-return point, every time the top leg of the line
goes positive and the bottom leg negative, we have the following
relationship of potentials: anode - most positive; grid - negative
with respect to the cathode; cathode positive with respect to grid
but negative with respect to anode. Of course, on the next half-
cycle of the incoming ac, the anode goes negative so that no current
can pass through the thyratron under any circumstances; hence, we
are not interested in these negative half-cycles.
To see how the circuit behaves thus far, consider that we are
observing it when the wiper of R1 is down as far as it will go to point
A. The grid will now be about 6 volts more negative than the
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cathode. (Total voltage = 120 volts, voltage divider ratio approxi-
mately 1:20, so that 1/20 X 120 = 6 volts across R1 with grid at
the most negative point.) This is below the critical ring potential
and the anode swings through to the end of the positive half-cycle of
the a-c input.
As the wiper is slowly moved upward toward point B, the grid
voltage begins to approach more closely to the cathode potential;
i.e., the grid is becoming less negative. At about 11/1 or 2 volts of
negative grid voltage, the critical potential is attained. At this
instant, the thyratron res, the current rises in the anode circuit all
at once to about 60 ma, and the relay is energized.
If the wiper is now backed off toward A once again, the thyratron
will extinguish when the critical potential is passed in the negative
direction. As mentioned before, this occurs when the grid is slightly
more negative than critical potential and the anode swings through
zero voltage with the a-c sine-wave. As de-ionization occurs at this
instant, the grid regains control so that although the anode now
rises positively to the peak line voltage (120 X 1.41 = 169.2 volts),
the tube cannot re.
Step 3. The nal step (Fig. 2-12) in assembling the photorelay
circuit is the addition of a vacuum phototube such as the 917 and
resistor R3. R3 is inserted between the control grid of the thyratron
and the wiper R1; the phototube is connected so that its anode goes
UGHT
TOP
@J
20.000; CIRCUIT
9|?
PHoToTUBE
oURRENT
I2OVAC I
ioooR.I
BOTTOM
Fig. 2-I2. Final circuit for forward action, thyratron photoelectric relay.
, T0
R2 CONTROLLED
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to the upper leg of the a-c line and its cathode to the control grid
of the 2050.
Let us rst imagine that we have covered the phototube with
an opaque light shield to keep it completely dark, thereby limiting
its cathode emission to virtually zero. For this condition, the cur-
rent through resistor R3 is very close to zero, since neither the photo-
tube nor the grid circuit of the thyratron supplies a current path.
This means, of course, that the voltage drop across R3 is negligible
and that the wiper of R1 may be adjusted so that the thyratron is
just short of attaining critical voltage. With this adjustment, the
2050 is very close to the point where it will re, but has not yet
reached it.
Now we uncover the phototube allowing light to impinge upon
the cathode, causing electrons to be emitted. During each half-cycle
of the applied ac, when the upper leg of the line goes positive, the
phototube anode will also go positive and attract photoelectrons
causing a current to ow in the phototube circuit. This current
ows upward through R3 producing the voltage drop shown in the
drawing. The polarity of the drop in potential, it will be observed,
is such as to buck the bias voltage on the thyratron grid. The photo-
tube current then causes a voltage drop that subtracts from the
near-critical grid bias, making the grid less negative than before.
This enables the bias to rise above the critical value in a positive
direction, the thyratron res, and the relay is activated.
When the upper leg of the line goes negative, all dynamic action
ceases because both the anode of the phototube and the plate of the
thyratron are now negative with respect to their cathodes. If C is
large enough, however, the current it supplies to the relay during the
negative half-cycle will be sufficient to hold the relay in. For each
a-c cycle the process repeats: on the positive (upper leg) half-cycle,
the thyratron conducts, activating the relay and charging the capaci-
tor; on the negative half-cycle, the thyratron becomes an open circuit
while the capacitor keeps the relay energized.
Thyratron-Phototube Circuit for Inverse Action
Industrial control applications of phototube relays often call for
a system in which the relay is energized by a decrease in luminous
ux. For example, a safety device which removes power from a
machine when the worker's hand goes beyond a previously selected
safe point might be activated by the hand interrupting a beam of
light. In this case, the failure of light to reach the phototube
would pull-in a sensitive relay that would instantly operate a circuit-
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,

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breaker to bring the machine to an immediate stop. Burglar alarms
that ring an alarm bell when a light beam is interrupted are based
upon the same sequence of actions.
The basic forward-action circuit is easily changed to an inverse-
action arrangement by the method shown in Fig. 2-13. The photo-
tube and its associated resistors (R3) are interchanged in position.
mi TO
R2 t CONTROLLED
500011 CIRCUIT
T
PHOTOTUBE
CURRENT Fig. 2-I3. Inverse action photoelectronic relay, using a thyratron.
I20 VAC I
IOOOIII g
In addition, R1 is made xed while R2 is made variable and
changed in value from 20,000 ohms to 5000 ohms.
In use, the phototube is placed in the beam of light whose
decrease or interruption is to operate the relay, and R2 is adjusted
so that the thyratron approaches the ring point, but does not reach
it. Due to the relative positions of the grid and cathode connections,
the grid would be more positive than the cathode in this circuit
if the phototube were not passing current. But the relatively large
phototube current in the illuminated condition ows up through
R3 causing a voltage drop so that the grid is made more negative
than the critical potential, preventing the thyratron from ring.
Thus, the potential difference produced across R3 by the phototube
current more than balances the normal positive bias established
by the setting of the wiper of R2.
When the beam of light is cut off, the phototube becomes an
open circuit and the current through R3 ceases to ow. The nega-
tive cancelling voltage disappears, the grid of the thyratron goes
slightly positive so that the tube res and energizes the relay.
Should illumination be reestablished, the beyond-critical negative
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3
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#
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BASIC PIIOTOTUBE RELAYS 59
potential again appears on the thyratron grid. As soon as the a-c
anode potential sweeps through zero, the tube extinguishes and
the negative grid regains control. This keeps the thyratron non-
conducting until the light is again interrupted or decreased.
Modifications of Forward-Action Circuit to Permit
Use of Gas Phototube
The circuit of the forward-action relay circuit developed in three
steps in a prior section (Fig. 2-12) indicates that it would be entirely
possible to apply full line voltage to the phototube by moving the
wiper of R1 all the way down to the lower end. Since peak a-c volt-
age is 1.41 times the rms value, assuming an rms a-c line of 120 volts
would yield a peak voltage of close to 170 volts applied to the tube.
This is well within the rating of a vacuum type where from 250 to
500 volts is permissible, but it lies outside the safe range for gas
tubes.
Thus, the use of a gas-lled phototube in the thyratron relay
circuit to obtain forward action mandates the addition of one
resistor and a change in value for another, (Fig. 2-14). Instead of
returning the anode of the phototube directly to the upper a-c line,
6 A"
2' R4
, I0,000n.
" A"
R3 '
900011 S GAS
PHOTOTUBE ITO
T VOLTS
|2O VAC j j (MAXIMUM)
ITO VOLTS
T0 GRID OF
THYRATRON PEAK
RI
IO0O.n 4
2 V L
Fig. 2-I4. Modification of circuit shown in Fig. 2-I2 to permit use of gas
phototube.
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1
3
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60 PIIOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
it is connected to the junction of R2 and an additional resistor R4
as shown in the diagram. Now, the maximum voltage that can
appear across the phototube may be found from the voltage drop
across both R1 and R2 in series. Maximum voltage is obtained
when the wiper of R1 is run down as close as it can go to the lower
a-c line.
With the values of parts given, the maximum drop across these
two resistors is simply determined from Ohm's law. Since R2 and
R1 together make up 10,000 ohms, and since this is half the total
resistance across the line, then the drop across the R1-R2 series
combination is one-half of 170 volts or 85 volts. This, of course,
is satisfactory for gas-lled tubes normally rated at 90 volts.
Modifications of Inverse Action of Circuit to Use Gas Phototube
The inverse action circuit (Fig. 2-13) is modied in a similar
manner to permit the use of a gas phototube in the thyratron photo-
relay, (Fig. 2-15). The maximum voltage that can appear across
the gas phototube is limited by:
1. Adding R4, a 3000-ohm resistor, in series with R2, the sensi-
tivity potentiometer.
2. Changing the value of R2 from 5000 ohms to 2000 ohms.
r
R4
3000n
It
R3
'20 VAC R2 g T0 GRID OF no votrs
2000n THYRATRON PEAK
no
"_ T VOLTS
(MAXIMUM)
Rl P GAS
moon PHOTOTUBE
; v_
Fig. 2-15. Modification of circuit shown in Fig. 2-I3 to permit use of gas
phototube.
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BASIC PHOTOTUBE RELAYS 6i
In this case, the maximum line voltage appears across the photo-
tube when the wiper of R2 is up as high as it can go. For this
condition, the phototube is effectively connected across a series
resistor combination that adds up to 3000 ohms (R1 + R2). Since
R4 is also 3000 ohms, then the phototube is connected across half
the total resistance across the line; hence, the voltage drop that
develops across it is again one-half of 170 volts peak or a maximum
of 85 volts. With normal line voltage variations, the applied voltage
across the phototube can never exceed its rating (90 volts) .
Other Photorelay Circuits Use of a Beam Power Tube Amplifier
One of the most interesting photorelay circuits that does not
involve a transformer of any kind makes use of a type ll7L7GT
beam power tube. The novel circuit design (Fig. 2-16) makes for
lat
R | R3 500011
50K 250K
R5
250K
II7L7GT II7L7GT
RECTIFIER BEAM
SECTION POWER
SECTION
I20 VAC
Fig. 2-I6. A transformerless beam power photorelay.
reliable and sensitive operation. A 1l7L7GT tube contains two sec-
tions: a half-wave rectier and a beam-power amplier. Both of
these sections are activated by a common heater that may be con-
nected directly to the a-c lines.
Let us analyze the circuit action by considering the rectier por-
tion rst. With the connections shown, the line voltage is rectied so
that pulsating dc ows down through R1 and R2. Since the grid
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of the beam power section of the ll7L7GT is connected to the wiper
of R2 through R4, and the cathode of the same section goes to the
bottom of R2, the grid is capable of being made more negative
than the cathode by moving the wiper up from its lowermost
position.
R2 is rst adjusted so that the plate current of the beam-power
section is too small to energize the relay. For this adjustment, the
phototube is kept dark. When light is allowed to fall on the photo-
cathode, the phototube conducts causing a voltage drop across R4.
This drop is such as to cancel a part of the initial bias voltage, allow-
ing greater plate current in the beam-power tube with consequent
activation of the relay.
R3 and R5 form a voltage divider to assure a maximum of half
the peak line voltage applied across the phototube, exactly as in
the previous circuits. Cl helps maintain the bias across the R2
constant. Capacitor C2 has the same function as in the previous
circuits, namely, to prevent relay chatter by passing hold-down
current into the relay on negative half-cycles of the line voltage.
Improving Photoreloy Circuit Performance
Use of Large Load Resistors
The discussions of photorelay circuits given thus far have shown
that the voltage drop change across the phototube load resistor due
to variations in luminous ux is responsible for triggering the relay.
In the transformerless beam power relay circuit, R4 is the load resis-
tor for the IP40 phototube; when the current through R4 rises due
to increased light on the IP40, the voltage drop across it also rises
in such a direction as to cancel part of the grid bias on the 1l7L7GT.
This causes the latter to conduct heavily enough to pull in the
relay. Similar action occurs in the thyratron circuits as well, whether
they are forward-acting or inverse-acting. It is reasonable to con-
clude, moreover, that greater sensitivity to small light variations
would be obtained if the load resistor were made larger in resistance
in any of these circuits. For large values of RL, the increase or
diminution in voltage drop would be greater for any given variation
in light intensity.
This can be seen more easily, perhaps, by reexamining the load-
lines in Fig. 1-21 (B). Note how the angle between the load line
and horizontal axis decreases as the value of the load resistance is
increased. Thus, for any given change in light intensity, the voltage
across the load varies over a greater range for the larger values of
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load resistor. Why then do we not simply make the load resistor
1000 megohms or more when we want very high sensitivity?
Precautions in Using Large Load Resistors
The answer to this question lies in the effect that a large load
resistor has upon the vacuum tube amplier that follows the photo-
tube. Receiving tube manufacturers warn the tube users that the
maximum resistance to be placed in a grid circuit is limited to about
1.0 megohm.
Amplier tubes cannot operate with excessively high grid resist-
ances ordinarily because gas currents and grid emission tend to
cause trouble. Assume that we have tried to get high sensitivity
by making the load resistor very large, (Fig. 2-17) . Electrons from
POSITIVE
ION
FLOW
BIAS PLATE
SOURCE SUPPLY
Fig. 2-I7. Circuit demonstrating why the grid resistor in a vacuum tube can-
not be of too large a value.
the cathode collide with residual gas atoms and ow down through
the load RL to the bias source. The voltage drop even for minute
currents across a large load may be sufficiently great to cancel the
bias of the battery and make the grid go positive with respect to
the cathode. This would result in excessive current. As the current
increases, the collisions increase in number; more positive ions ow
downward, and this process may continue until the tube burns out.
The same effect occurs when the grid gets hot enough to emit elec-
trons. Even if there is no plate runaway, the tube may act erratically
under these conditions, making the relay circuit unreliable.
G
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There is a way to use large load resistors, however, without these
dangers. By operating the amplier tube under reduced plate and
screen voltages, gas ionization becomes unlikely and gas currents
are thereby reduced below the danger point. Secondly, by heating
the lament to approximately 60% of its normal temperature, the
grid of the tube is kept cool so that grid emission does not occur.
In the circuit to be discussed next, the heater is operated at approxi-
mately 4 volts instead of 6, and the phototube amplier is run at
very low plate voltage.
A Two-Tube Photorelay Using a Large Loud Resistance
This photorelay circuit (Fig. 2-18) utilizes a series lament
resistor for the amplier following the phototube to keep the heat-
ing effects down to the point where grid emission does not occur;
also, the use of a 1.5 megohm plate resistor in series with the 6]5 plate
C
+250 -?O
VOLTS D I
1
PHOTOTUBE I
CURRENT I
VACUUM
PHOTOTUBE
3 1
J=_ GRD
O
6.3 VOLTS
Fig. 2-I8. A two-stage photorelay circuit, using o large loud resistor.
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circuit does not permit the plate voltage of this tube to become
sufficiently high to allow gas current to be dangerous. Having
taken these precautions, it becomes feasible to connect a 25-megohm
resistor in series with the phototube to serve as a load.
To follow the operation of this circuit, consider the action to
occur in several steps:
1. With the phototube dark, the 100 K potentiometer is adjusted
so that the 6]5 plate current is large enough about 100 pa to
allow the entire B voltage to appear across the 1.5 megohm resistor.
This brings point A to a potential that is slightly more positive
than ground; hence, the grid of the 6F6 will be slightly positive
with respect to ground at the same time. RK is now adjusted so
that the bias on the 6F6 is just negative enough to keep the tube's
plate current from attaining the relay operating level.
2. The phototube is now exposed to light. The current ows
through the 25 megohm load causing the anode voltage of the
phototube to decrease and thereby making the grid of the 6_]5 highly
negative, thus, cutting off the plate current of the 6]5.
3. Since 6]5 is at cut-off, point A will assume a larger positive
potential than before.
4. This produces an increase in the 6F6 plate current and the
relay is energized.
Use of Cathode Followers
Industrial specications often call for the phototube to be located
at some point that is quite remote from the relay it is to operate.
Since a phototube is a high-impedance device, an attempt to couple
it directly to its amplier through a long high-impedance line would
lead to serious diiculties. As in the case of other high-impedance
sources such as crystal microphones, long lines of this nature are
subject to pickup of stray voltages (hum, and line transients) that
would certainly react upon the grid of the amplier at the remote
end of the line.
To avoid this, the output of the phototube is transformed from
a high to a low impedance through the medium of a cathode fol-
lower, (Fig. 2-19). Long transmission lines may then be connected
across the cathode resistor as shown in the diagram, to terminate
across the grid circuit of the distant relay amplier. In an arrange-
ment of this kind, no voltage gain is to be expected from the cathode
follower. It serves merely as an isolation device or a resistance-
transformer," permitting a good impedance match between the high-
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+3OOV
CATHODE
FOLLOWER
LONG
TRANSMISSION
T LINE
l l
L_______J
RELAY
AMPLIFIER
Fig. 2-I9. A cathode follower used to operate an amplifier which is remote
from phototube.
impedance phototube and the low impedance line. As in audio
work, a low-impedance transmission line is substantially more im-
mune to disturbances from the outside than a high-impedance line.
Power Supply for Multiplier Phototube
When the relay is to be operated from an extremely small amount
of light, a photomultiplier tube may be substituted for an ordinary
phototube. The action of this tube was described in the previous
chapter where it was shown that successive dynodes are operated
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#
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at increasing voltages, usually differing from each other in potential
magnitude by approximately 100 volts.
When only relay operation is desired, a very simple power supply
(Fig 2-20) suffices. The 120-volt supply is stepped up to a gure
somewhat greater than 1250 volts, and is then rectied by a high-
voltage rectier such as the 1B3GT. The rectied output is then
TRANSFORMER
|B3GT
VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER
ANODE
snap up
CATHODE
IZOVAC :~ T__.
us:-rr
TENSTEP_/
BLEEDER
Fig. 2-20. Power supply for multiplier phototube.
ltered by a single choke and capacitor network, after which it is
applied across a 10-step bleeder from which the various voltages
are taken.
When operating with 100 volts difference of potential between
each dynode, the amplication of a type 931A or its equivalent is
approximately 200,000. Should the interstage dynode voltage now
drop to 90 volts a change of only 10% the gain of the multiplier
tube drops to the vicinity of 100,000. This may be surprising at
rst glance. When you consider, however, that this tube is a multi-
plier in which the output of each stage is multiplied by the next,
a 10% reduction in voltage per stage may very well result in a 50%
reduction of over-all gain. For this reason, multiplier circuits used
for precise measurements require carefully regulated power sup-
plies; unregulated supplies are commonly utilized in connection
with relay circuits.
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as PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
How to Get the Most from a Light Source
The best photoelectric relay circuit is worthless if the light source
used to activate it is improperly selected or designed. Optical
systems used for photorelay operations are generally quite simple.
Single lens arrangements are based upon the optical principle that
a point source of light placed at the principal focus of a convex lens
produces an emergent beam composed of parallel rays. To appreci-
ate the importance of directing a beam where it will perform its
function without losing light in other directions, consider what
happens when we place a phototube 5 ft from a light source radiat-
ing with equal intensity in all directions. If we could picture
the light waves spreading outward from the source we would see
a sphere having a radius of 5 ft along whose surface all the avail-
able light energy is distributed. This sphere would have a surface
area of 45,216 sq in. Assuming that the cathode of the phototube
has an area of just about one sq. in, then about l/45,000 of the avail-
able luminous energy is being used. That is, we are forced to
generate more than 45,000 times the actual light needed by the
phototube for normal operation!
By concentrating much of the available light into a more or
less tight, parallel beam - especially by using a large diameter
lens which catches more of the light emerging from the source
the optical system becomes much more efcient.
Use of a Lens on Phototube Mount
If a reasonably good lens is used to project a beam of parallel
rays from the light source toward the phototube, the beam will
arrive at its destination without having converged or diverged
appreciably. For example, assuming that a point source feeds its
light through a lens having a diameter of 3 in, the diameter of the
cylindrical beam as it reaches the phototube will not be too dif-
ferent. The cross-sectional area of the beam, determined from 1tr2,
will therefore be approximately 7 sq in. The phototube having a
surface area of about one sq in placed in the path of the beam
will intercept only l/7 of the total light available.
To make use of all the light in the projected beam, a second lens
is usually used. This is placed on the phototube mount and is
separated from the photocathode by a distance that is slightly
greater or slightly less than its focal length. The incident cylinder
of light is thereby converged with insignicant loss on the sensitive
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surface. Instead of using 1/7 of the light, all of it is made available
for use in activating the cell; this amounts to a light gain of 7 times.
The phototube cathode is not placed right at the focal point
of the second lens because this would bring the light to a pinpoint
focus on the surface. For extended phototube life and consistent
operation, it is not advisable to have a very small area on the
cathode do all the emitting.
Objections to d-c Amplification
The photorelay systems we have discussed thus far make use of
the abrupt change from one steady value of light ux to some
other steady value. As we have seen, amplication is generally used
to convert the one-step light ux change to an equivalent current
change that can operate the relay. In either the on or off state,
however, the amplier must translate a steady, unvarying light ux
into a steady current magnitude. This is called direct-current ampli-
cation or d-c amplication.
D-c ampliers are inherently unstable devices. If the gain of the
amplier tube is high as it should be for good sensitivity a
slight random variation of grid voltage is apt to change the plate
current sufficiently to trip a delicate relay. Similarly, changes in line
voltage are sometimes guilty of spurious relay triggering especially
in systems where the useful light intensity is small.
If more than one tube is to be used, direct-coupling must be
employed between stages, since a capacitor or transformer cannot
transfer a d-c component from one tube to another. Thus, direct-
current ampliers of more than one stage must also be direct-
coupled ampliers, so that the abbreviation d-c in this application
may refer to either hyphenated term. Direct-coupled ampliers tend
to drift; that is, they undergo plate current changes as temperature
varies and, for this reason, are undesirable in relay systems that
depend upon minute light uctuations for operation. Light is
fundamentally a d-c phenomenon, however. We want very sensitive
relay systems without the accompanying instability of d-c amplica-
tion. Can this be done?
Using Modulated Light Sources
There is another reason why steady light sources are often use-
less in photorelay work. Suppose we wanted to make a relay respond
to changes in a source of light that is a quarter of a mile away. At
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this distance, the light ux from the source is much weaker than
daylight. The light reaching the phototube is, therefore, a combin-
ation of the activating illumination plus predominating daylight
so that the source light is lost.
Now consider what happens if we chop the light up into on-and-
off pulsations with a repetition rate of about 1500 cycles per sec.
Even if daylight is present, the worst it can do is produce a steady
plate current in the rst amplier tube that is, the one following
immediately after the rst phototube. Superimposed on the steady
light is the uctuating one, very much like an audio signal super-
imposed on an r-f carrier wave. If the rst tube is coupled to the
second through a capacitor or transformer, the steady-state plate
current will have no effect since it cannot transfer through either
of the coupling devices, but the uctuating signal can get through
to act upon the following grid. In this manner, we can add several
stages of amplication that will help the relay respond to weak
light coming from long distances.
Light choppers are generally placed in one of two categories:
mechanical, [Fig. 2-21 (A)} or electrical, [Fig. 2-21 (B) ]. A mechan-
ical chopper can be a toothed wheel or a motor-driven shutter; the
electrical type involves the use of a gas discharge tube in which the
glow is modulated by applying an oscillatory voltage to its elec-
trodes so that the tube turns on and off at a very rapid rate. A com-
mercial modulated light source is shown in Fig. 2-21 (C) .
A commercial amplifier circuit. Once we have a light chopper in
operation, the next requirement is an amplier that will respond to
the modulated light and not to the steady ambient light that hap-
pens to be present. Many circuit designs are possible for this type
of amplier. The particular circuit illustrated (Fig. 2-22) is de-
signed to respond to a light beam having a modulation frequency
of about 800 cps. For reasons to be discussed, this circuit will not
trigger for steady light input, or for light modulated at frequencies
different from 800 cps. That is, should the light source icker at a
frequency of 200 or 2000 times per sec, the relay will not be activated.
Such selectivity is often desirable when other light sources of vari-
able strength are present.
Features of the amplifier circuit. In most respects, this is a stand-
ard amplier circuit such as one nds in audio systems; 800 cps is,
of course, a representative audio frequency. Except for the special
features described, the system functions just as a straightforward
audio amplier.
1. The phototube is a type 930 (gas-lled). The anode voltage
must, therefore, be reduced to 90 volts or less. This is accomplished
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#
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LIGHT _ T0 OPTICAL
F SYSTEM FOR
LONG DISTANCE
PROJECTION
TOOTHED
WHEEL
(A)
LIGHT TO
OPTICAL
POWER CYCLE gwqqrssm FOR
SOURCE OSCILLATOR '5TA"E
(DC) SOURCE PROJECTION
DISCHARGE
TUBE
\\\\
Fig. 2-21. Modulated light sources. (A) Mechanical type; (B) Electronic type;
(C) Photograph of light transmitter, mounted and unmounted. General Electric.
by the voltage divider comprising R1 and R9, with Cl serving as a
lter capacitor to remove the residual a-c ripple that might other-
wise appear on the phototube anode.
2. The 6]7 stage is a high-gain voltage amplier arranged as a
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#
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straightforward RC coupled stage. R10 and C5 are components
of a de-coupling network to stabilize the amplier.
3. The 6SH7 is a broadly tuned voltage amplier with C8 and L
selected to resonate at 800 cps. Since C8 and L form a parallel
resonant circuit, the combination presents a high impedance to
+250
votrs C
4-0
RELAY TUBE
~) CIRCUIT
SJ
-[c| R
HLTER '
CAPAGTOR
Fig. 2-22. A commercial modulated light phototube amplifier. General Electric.
an 800 cycle signal and relatively low impedance to frequencies that
depart appreciably from this gure. Thus, only signals in the vicin-
ity of 800 cycles can produce a substantial voltage drop across the
parallel resonant circuit. This voltage drop is transferred to the
left triode unit of the 6SN7 through C9.
The relay tube circuit. The signal passed on to the left-hand
triode unit of the 6SN7 will then be an 800 cycle voltage that has
been considerably amplied as compared to its intensity produced
in the phototube that receives the modulated light. _
In the redrawn gure (Fig. 2-23) illustrating the relay tube
circuit, it is clearly seen that V1 (%6SN7) is connected as a diode
since the plate is connected directly to the grid. As the alternating
voltage appears at the plate of V1 from C9, rectication of positive
peaks occurs so that a unidirectional current ows through R7
causing a voltage drop to appear across this resistor. C10 charges
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IASIC PHOTOTUBE RELAYS 73
to approximately the peak voltage that appears across R7 with the
polarity shown, applying, therefore a positive voltage to the grid
of V2 (the other half of the 6SN7) . Thus, an 800 cycle signal pro-
duced by the phototube ultimately results in a positive potential
on the grid of V2 which tends to increase this tube's conduction.
The values of R14 and R8 are so chosen that the voltage between
the cathode of V2 and ground makes the cathode sulliciently positive
+ 250V
O
Fig. 2-23. Reluy tube circuit of Fig. 2-22 redrawn to illustrate operation
to just cut off the V2 plate current when no signal is produced by
the phototube. As explained, when a signal is received, the signal
causes the grid of V2 to be driven in a positive direction, so that
the tube can conduct enough plate current to pull in the relay.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
R1. Explain why most phototube relay circuits require an amplier
between the phototube and the relay. What modern photo-
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#
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74
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ll
12
sensitive devices may be used to operate a relay directly without
an amplier?
Draw a basic forward-acting photoamplier circuit. Describe
the changes you would make to convert this circuit into one
that can provide inverse-action.
Explain the signicant differences between a thyratron and
a vacuum tube. Why is a thyratron often referred to as a relay
tube?
What is meant by critical grid potential as applied to thyra-
trons?
Draw a schematic diagram of a forward-action thyratron photo-
relay and discuss the function of each component.
Why is it desirable to use a large value of resistance as the load
on a phototube? What factor (s) limits the size of this load?
If two or more amplier stages are to be used in an amplier
system for photoelectric equipment, why must these stages be
directly-coupled when the light source is a steady one?
What is a cathode-follower? What are its gain and impedance
characteristics? Under what specic conditions is it used in
photoamplier systems?
Draw a diagram of a power supply that would be satisfactory
for operating a multiplier phototube at rated voltage and
current.
What are the objections to direct-current ampliers, especially
when they consist of more than one stage?
What is meant by modulated light? What range of frequencies
is customarily used for this kind of modulation?
Give the details concerning the advantages of modulated light
photosystems as contrasted with steady-source types.
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#
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3. measurement and indication
by phototubes
Industrial Applications
Measurement of illumination. The current that ows from the cath-
ode to the anode of a phototube varies with the intensity of the
light ux reaching the photosensitive surface. This behavior at
once suggests the possibility of using a phototube circuit for measur-
ing the amount of illumination incident upon any area. Obviously,
a phototube could be interposed between the light source and the
area in question and the current read on a meter calibrated in foot-
candles. What qualities must such a circuit possess? What kind
of phototube would logically be selected for this task?
First, the combination of the circuit and phototube must be such
as to provide the necessary amount of sensitivity. This does not
mean maximum possible sensitivity because there are many measure-
ment applications where the light source is intense to start and
where an ultra-sensitive system would respond by an over-deection
of the measuring instrument.
Second, the system should be linear. This means that the incre-
ments in meter readings should be proportional to the increases in
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#
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light ux. A nonlinear phototube or amplier would require a
meter scale that would be crowded on one end and spread out on
the other. Such scales are inconvenient, difcult to duplicate, and
hard to read accurately.
Third, the system should be stable over long periods of time, mak-
ing it unnecessary to recalibrate each time the instrument is used.
Fourth, the color response of the phototube must be taken into
account. A different phototube is needed for measuring the in-
tensity of blue light as compared with the type employed for meas-
urements on red or infrared illumination.
Colorimetry. In the paper and ink industry, in the manufacture
of fabrics for clothing and decoration, and in the entire eld of color
photography, the problems of color matching a new run of material
PHOTOTUBE
NQI
,_ WHITE
REFLECTOR INDICATOR
UGHT
BALANCED
AMPLIFIER
STANDARD
on SAMPLE
cotoa FILTER -/l
RED,GREEN
OR BLUE
PHOTDTUBE
No.2
Fig. 3-1. Block diagram of one type of color matching system.
to a standard are very common. Photoelectric equipment saves
manufacturers hundreds of thousands of dollars yearly by removing
the human factor in judging when a perfect color match has or has
not been obtained.
In general, the light reected from the surface of a sample to be
tested is compared as to color with the light reected from the
standard piece of paper or cloth by means of a pair of balanced
phototubes, (Fig. 3-1) . The light from a white source is rst passed
through a red optical lter and permitted to fall on the photo-
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MEISUREMENT AND INDICATION BY PHOTOTUBES 77
sensitive surface of one of the balanced phototubes. The same
red light is reected from the standard into the second of the photo-
tubes. Provision is made to balance the light intensities by trans-
mission and reection so that an indicating meter reads zero with
the standard paper or fabric in place. The sample to be tested is
then inserted in place of the standard and the test repeated. If the
needle shows no deviation from zero, the sample and the standard
are correctly matched in the red portion of the spectrum.
The same procedure is applied using green and blue optical
lters. This kind of measurement indicates not only when a mis-
match exists, but the portion of the spectrum in which color identity
is not obtained.
Densitometry. Densitometry is the general name given to the sci-
ence of measuring or comparing optical densities of gases, liquids,
transparent or translucent solids. The specic applications of this
type of work are legion. To mention only a few of the more familiar
ones we have:
1. Exposure timing in printing photographs. This is unusually
important in printing from color transparencies where exposure
time is the most critical single factor.
2. Determining the turbidity of prepared solutions of chemicals
and medicines. Turbidity is often used as an indication of chemical
concentration in certain suspensions.
3. X-ray inspection processes often employ phototubes for locat-
ing areas on the lm where the density is very slightly different
from other portions. These small differences cannot always be seen
by visual inspection and sometimes make the difference between
correct and incorrect diagnosis.
4. Smoke detection equipment, so successfully employed on naval
vessels for early re warning, depends upon the increase of turbidity
of the air in vent ducts and other air passages due to the presence of
light-absorbing smoke particles. Such increases in opacity are
quickly sensed by photoelectric equipment and may be indicated on
meters or may be used to trip alarm relays directly.
Sound reproduction. One of the most important applications of
photoelectricity is the reproduction of sound on lm. A sound
track on movie lm consists of a moving mask [Fig. 3-2 (A) ], that
determines how much light can pass through the lm from a light
source to the phototube. The mask is comprised of horizontal strips
of light and dark photographically deposited material that cause
the transmitted light ux to vary in intensity in proportion with
the original frequency and amplitude of the sound to be reproduced.
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Joiwvllilir%@
HIGH PITCH tow PITCH
(5) (
CONSTANT <
MOVE AMPLITUDE
FILM
fiiiimni
$I[l]I
SOFT
LOUD
ii
(C)
CONSTANT
PITCH
SOUND
TRACK
Fig. 3-2. (A) Soundtrack on film; (B) Film when frequency is varied; (C) Film
when amplitude is varied.
With constant amplitude, [Fig. 3-2 (B) ], the sound track would
consist of very narrow, alternating strips of nearly-transparent and
nearly-opaque deposits; a low-pitched sound, on the other hand, is
reproduced by a track in which the alternating strips are wider with
greater spaces between them.
If the frequency of the tone is held constant while the loudness
is varied, [Fig. 3-2(C) ], the width of the individual bars would
remain the same for either a loud or a soft sound, but their relative
opacity would vary. The loudest sound would be produced by a
track in which the strips varied from very opaque to very trans-
parent in alternating sequency. A soft sound would be characterized
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MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION BY PHOTOTUBES 79
by alternating light and dark bars with little variation in opacity
(or transparency) .
The varying light signal is then impressed on a phototube which
converts the illumination changes into pulsating electrical current
whose frequency is determined by the width and spacing of the lm
deposits, and whose loudness depends upon the relative transparency
of the alternate strips.
Measurement of invisible radiation. As We have described, photo-
tubes having different cathode coating display varying sensitivities
to different portions of the radiation spectrum. Of major interest
in many phases of industrial electronics are applications involving
the measurement of infrared or ultraviolet intensities. For example,
temperature measurements of hot ore on a conveyor belt may be
easily made by calibrating a current-measuring instrument activated
by an infrared sensitive phototube, such as 868 or 924, in terms
of degrees. Other special phototubes that respond almost entirely
to invisible radiation are also available. (The Cetron CE-1 is an
example.)
At the other end of the spectrum we nd devices for measuring
ultraviolet intensity. For example, certain gases absorb ultraviolet
radiation in proportion to their concentration so that, by deter-
mining the amount of ultraviolet transmitted through a gas sample,
it is possible to detect two or three parts per million of the material
mixed with air. Percentage concentrations may be determined quite
precisely by such methods. As a second example of the import-
ance of ultraviolet photometry in industry, we might mention instru-
ments used for making surveys of radiation intensities where the
predominant wavelength is in the vicinity of 2400 A. Low-pressure
mercury-vapor lamps used for germicidal purposes must provide a
certain minimum illumination to be effective; by using a phototube
with a pure tantalum cathode, it is possible to develop equipment
with negligible sensitivity to wavelengths above 3000 A. Thus, ultra-
violet intensity determinations may be made in the presence of
appreciable daylight or other visible light sources.
Application Methods
Plate Current Change of a Tube. The measurement of light ux
intensity, whatever its purpose, is generally accomplished by trans-
lating the current output from a phototube into a meter reading.
The use of a direct connection between the phototube and a meter
is seldom feasible because phototube currents are in the order of
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a few p.a. This would necessitate a very sensitive, highly-delicate
meter movement. To avoid the expense and fragility of such an
indicator, most measurment designs involve the use of one or more
amplier stages between the phototube and the meter.
Among the simplest methods of connecting a meter into a photo-
tube-vacuum tube circuit is that of taking plate current readings
directly. If a vacuum tube is biased close to cut-off, a milliammeter
in its plate circuit will read nearly zero; now if a phototube con-
nected in the grid circuit can provide a bias-cancelling voltage pro-
portional to the light falling on its surface, the changes of plate
current will indicate the intensity of the light. Such meters can be
calibrated directly in foot-candles.
To use such a system most effectively, the output phototube cur-
rent should be strictly proportional to the illumination; further-
more, the plate current of the amplier tube should vary in a linear
fashion with the applied grid bias. If both of these conditions are
met, the meter calibrations will also be uniform.
When the response curves of various phototubes are studied,
[typical curves are shown in Fig. 3-3 (A) ], it is found that only
vacuum tubes provide the required linearity. This makes the gas-
lled tube unsuited for precision work unless rather extensive cir-
cuit modications are to be attempted. Also, as we have pointed
out before, gas tubes do not retain consistent characteristics through-
out their useful life; meter recalibration would therefore be manda-
tory if a gas tube is used in a measuring circuit.
Even when a vacuum type phototube is employed, however, the
designer must be careful that he does not use too high a load resist-
ance or too small an anode voltage supply. Either of these mistakes
results in nonlinearity of phototube current with incident light, as
shown in Fig. 3-3 (B) .
Finally, although no vacuum tube, however it may be operated,
has an absolutely linear dynamic transfer curve (E8-ID curve), if
the range of plate current put to use is small, satisfactory linearity
is obtained for all but the most rigorous requirements.
Thus, our measurement circuit using the variations of plate cur-
rent of a triode as an indication of light intensity must make use
of the facts we have just learned.
1. The phototube should be a vacuum tube for long-term reli-
ability and linearity.
2. The load resistor must not be too large in the phototube circuit.
3. The supply voltage for the phototube must be large enough.
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MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION BY PHOTOTUBES BI
4. The triode amplier must be operated on the most linear por-
tion of its dynamic transfer curve. The circuit shown in Fig.
3-4 provides very acceptable linearity for light input values which
20 )-
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ACTUAL /<Il>EAl.
RESPONSE / RESPONSE /
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(B) LUMENS
Fig. 3-3. (A) Response curve Comparison for vacuum and gas phototubes; (B)
Response curve of a vacuum phototube showing nonlinearity when load resistor
is too large.
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yield a range of phototube anode currents from zero to 1.0 p,a
using a type 917 vacuum phototube.
One of the principal drawbacks to this circuit is that the plate
current ows all the time, even when no light input reaches the
phototube. Measurements, then, have to be made by observing a
change of meter reading rather than an absolute value of current.
Furthermore, zero light input cannot possibly coincide with the
+2OOV
MILLIAMMETER $
6J5
TRIODE
|500n
VACUUM
PHOTOTUBE
27,000.11.
I T B-
Fig. 3-4. A basic one-tube triode omplier circuit having good linearity.
zero of the meter. A third undesirable feature of this arrangement
is that the meter must have a full scale calibration somewhat greater
than the steady plate current that ows through it, so that there
is still some scale space that can be used for the measurements. In
our example, the steady plate current might be 3 ma, leaving 2 ma
for reading increased light values. But suppose that the increase
in light is very small resulting in a tiny current change; in this case,
the instrument is much too coarse to provide an answer with any
degree of precision.
Thus, we are hampering ourselves by starting with a circuit that
demands a 0-5 milliammeter, most of whose range will measure
nothing of interest! The answer to this dilemma is a circuit which
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compensates for the steady plate current, enabling us to utilize a
very sensitive meter that will respond to tiny variations of light ux,
and will not be called upon to register gross values of steady tube
plate current. A circuit using bridge principles can be useful.
RI R2
O
E
O
R3 R4
Fig. 3-5. Basic Wheatstone
bridge.
Tube bridge principle. A circuit, based on the familiar Wheat-
stone bridge arrangement, can be set up to eliminate the problems
of the preceding circuit. The basic bridge consists of the circuit
shown in Fig. 3-5. It will be recalled that the sensitive meter (M)
can be made to read zero even though a sizable voltage is applied
at E, provided that the resistances are selected so that the following
proportionality is obtained:
R1/R2 = R3/R4
For this condition, the bridge is said to be balanced. When any one
of the resistances is changed, a meter reading proportional to the
change will occur.
In applying the Wheatstone bridge principle to our photoelectric
measuring device, (Fig. 3-6) , we merely substitute an amplier tube
for R3 and adjust R4 so that the bridge is in balance. In this case,
the required proportionality is:
R1/R2 = (1500 + rp )/R4
where rp is the plate resistance of the triode.
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|jOOij
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Fig. 3-6. Changing circuit shown in Fig. 3-4 from a simple plate current
instrument to a bridge circuit.
Since this resistance depends upon the grid bias, any change in the
latter produced by current owing through the phototube load
resistors will produce a deection of the meter. With careful selec-
tion of resistance values, the deection can be made quite linear
for various values of illumination. We shall investigate a practical
circuit of this nature later.
Photoelectric comparators. As a last method of application of
photoelectric measurements, we shall consider matching or compari-
son techniques. In general when photometric quantities such as
source candlepower or the turbidity of solution are to be compared
with a standard, two phototubes are employed. Although there
are various methods utilizing a matching circuit, most of these have
denite procedures in common. In the balanced comparator, the
standard source illuminates one phototube, while a comparison
source illuminates the other. The circuit is then balanced so that
its indicating instrument such as a microammeter reads mid-scale.
The standard source is then replaced by the source under test and
the indicator reading is compared with its original value. If the
unknown source provides exactly the same light value as the stand-
ard, the meter reading will not change. A very tiny difference of
ux, however, will result in substantial deviation of the meter indi-
cation as compared with the standard.
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Extremely simple d-c circuits for light comparison are now avail-
able, especially if the use of a sensitive microammeter can be tol-
erated in the equipment. To apply the comparator principle to a-c
circuits and to eliminate a microammeter as an indicator, the circuit
takes on a greater complexity.
A Circuit for the Measurement of Illumination
The bridge circuit given in Fig. 3-6 can be made to perform well
if the components are wisely selected. When the bridge circuits are
utilized in photoelectric measurements, however, it is considered
advantageous to use two triodes, (Fig. 3-7), one in each leg of the
p"%#t R3
HO 0 u E moon
R4
860011
+ .
gm
_ 5MEG
lO5V
ins
>_ 200011
R6
l0,000n
:: Q
Fig. 3-7. Illumination measurement by a two-tube bridge circuit of medium
sensitivity.
lower portion of the bridge. A circuit of this design tends to be
more stable over a long period of time because any thermal drift
that may occur in one of the tubes also tends to occur in the other,
if the tubes are well matched. The use of a dual-triode such as a
6SN7GT encourages such long-term stability. In addition, a bal-
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anced bridge of this type is more immune to line voltage variations
than a single-tube bridge because each tube reacts equally to changes
of grid and plate potentials, cancelling out the other's effects.
With the phototube dark, R5 is adjusted until the microammeter
(M) reads zero. This adjustment makes the grid potential of V1
of such value as to ba1ance the bridge;" to all intents and purposes,
the voltage drop across the meter is now zero. When light reaches
the phototube, the current through R1 increases causing a voltage
drop across this resistor which increases the potential on the grid
of V1. This upsets the balance, causing the meter to show a deec-
tion that is very closely proportional to the intensity of the incident
light. The meter may be calibrated in foot-candles to make the
instrument direct reading.
A Circuit for Measuring Ultraviolet Intensity
As was previously described, a phototube with a pure tantalum
cathode (WL775) does not respond signicantly to wavelengths
LMEASURE
O IGGG
~ SWI
CALIBRATE
l\_<>+>-
SW3
BIAS
CELL
B3
IOOO
Bl
zsv B2
|||| 3 Q; c ||||||9"
Fig. 3-8. A circuit for measuring ultraviolet intensity. After Rev. Sci. Instru-
ments.
___-__-_ __.
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above about 3000 A. Such a tube is well-suited to ultraviolet meas-
urements in the region of 2500 A. The instrument illustrated (Fig.
3-8) was developed to measure the ultraviolet content of low-pres-
sure mercury vapor tubes used for germicidal purposes. Since the
equipment must be portable for convenience, the use of a battery-
type tube (lG6G) as a bridge amplier and a battery-power supply
becomes mandatory.
For operation, switches SW2 and SW3 are closed, and switch
SW1 is moved to the calibrate position and R1 is adjusted until the
microammeter reads a pre-determined standard current. This adjust-
ment assures a standard value of current through potentiometer R2;
it is important that this standard current be preset each time the
instrument is used.
SW1 is then set on measure, the wiper of R2 is moved to zero
(point A), and R3 is adjusted with no radiation on the phototube
to bring the meter to zero by balancing the plate currents of the
two halves of the lG6G. The ultraviolet to be measured is then
allowed to fall on the photocathode. This upsets the balance,
causing the meter to read. Finally, R2 is readjusted to buck out the
voltage on the grid in the phototube current. With R2 previously
calibrated in terms of intensity units, the strength of the ultraviolet
radiation may then be read off its dial.
Sound-on-Film Reproduction
Single phototube. A single phototube sound-on-lm reproduction
system is so closely analogous to a public address system operating
from a high-impedance microphone that not much need be said
about the circuits employed. Specically, a lm reproduction
arrangement makes certain demands which must be met if the sound
is to be a faithful replica of the original studio input. Assuming
that the sound track is distortion-free, our major concern is that
we obtain sufficient signal output, low noise voltages, and a mini-
mum amount of distortion.
To assure a good level of signal output, we start with a gas
phototube designed for sound reproduction such as the 868, 918,
921, 923, 927, or 930. Reduction of noise lies more in the realm
of amplier design than it does in the phototube circuitry. On the
other hand, the use of a push-pull phototube and corresponding
amplier circuits can do much to reduce the noise level to an
absolute minimum.
Phototube distortion, wherever it exists, can almost always be
blamed on the incorrect choice of load resistor. While larger load
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88 PNOTOELECTRTC CONTROL
TRIODE
Cc
AS
PHOTQTUBE
5, 1_ it I-ii_
+9OV
MAX
Fig. 3-9 Elements of a single phototube sound reproduction input system.
resistors yield increased signal output, they also increase distortion.
Thus, most phototube load resistances lie within the range from
1 to 5 megohms. Elements of a simple single phototube sound
input system are shown schematically in Fig. 3-9. The phototube
feeds a triode for reduced noise level.
Twin phototube. The twin-phototube method of sound reproduc-
tion has enjoyed great popularity over the last few years. Among
its advantages is its completely balanced input system. Push-pull
circuits can be more readily freed of noise than single ended systems
and, in addition, can supply more power with smaller tube types.
The circuit shown (Fig. 3-10) is a resistance-capacitance coupled
type, but interstage transformers of correct design may be used
instead. The variable resistor R2 is adjusted to balance the sensi-
tivities of the two sections of the 920 phototube. Once this adjust-
ment is made, it need not be touched throughout the useful life
of the phototube, since both units operate in the same gas atmos-
phere and their respective sensitivities remain in the same ratio
as long as the tube operates. Note that relatively small load resist-
ances are employed one megohm on each side of the coupling
capacitors for each unit of the phototube.
The sound track required for the push-pull reproduction system
shown is a double one. The same light source is used for both in the
projector, however, to assure equality of energization for each of
the phototube units.
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. __ _ .a
Measurement of Very Small Values of Illumination
When the measurement of illumination of low light values
such as one nds in photo-nishing plants, or in the measurement
of absolute magnitudes of stars in astronomy a conventional
phototube measuring circuit is generally unsatisfactory. For such
applications, we again turn to well-designed bridge circuits for the
answer.
This circuit (Fig. 3-1 l) can be depended upon to measure illum-
inations so small that only 0.000000000l ampere ows in the photo-
tube loadl Because it is a bridge circuit, it does not show measurable
l g OUTPUT
R2
500K;
+9OV
WIN
R3
T
PHOTOTUBE
SOOK
F ALL CAPACITANCES O.| pf
T Rk DEPENDS ON TRIODES USED
OUTPUT
Fig. 3-IO. Elements of a twin-phototube, double sound track system.
instability due to line voltage uctuations; the utilization of a
regulated screen supply maintains constant sensitivity despite pos-
sible changes in supply voltage. A tiny hearing aid battery can be
used in the phototube anode supply because the current drain from
it is only a fraction of a pa.
In operation, the microammeter is rst set on its 0-1000 scale and,
with the phototube completely dark, the meter reading is reduced to
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3 9+25OV
gee
TYPE TYPE
6J7-GT \6J7 GT
OC3/VRlO5
22.5 V
I|l|lll
VACUUM TYPE
I 63) T PHOTOTUBE
IIYVAC
RI = |ooo OHMS, IWATT R9 = soo onus, IWATT
R2, R3 = 50,000 OHMS, IWATT RIO = I400 OHMS, IWATT
R4, R5 = smzsonms c|,c2 = 0.0: pf
R6 = sooo OHMS, 4WATTS M = MULTI-RANGE MICROAM-
R7 = |o,ooo OHMS, IWATT METER. 0-I0. 0-I00.
Fig. 3-'l'l. A photometer for measuring very small values of illlumination. RCA.
zero by adjusting rst R7 and then R1, a ne control. The photo-
tube is then exposed to the illumination to be measured. The
intensity may be read directly from the microammeter scale which
must be calibrated beforehand. The linearity of this instrument
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MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION BY PHOTOTUBES 9|
is so good that calibration may be done at fairly large illuminations
and then extended to small values by extrapolation. Leakage must
be kept to a minimum.
The operation of this circuit is as follows. Basically, the circuit
is a typical bridge circuit containing two pentodes in two of the
balanced arms. The control grids of the 6]7GT tubes are returned
to ground (zero voltage reference level) through R4 and R5, both
5 megohm resistors. The cathodes, however, return to a negative
point on the voltage divider (to the bottom of R9) placing the
grids temporarily at a potential that is slightly positive with
respect to the cathodes. As plate current ows through R10, how-
ever, the voltage drop across this cathode resistor compensates for
the positive bias, returning the grids to approximately zero volts
with reference to the cathodes.
With the phototube dark, the current owing through the load
resistors R4 and R5 may be considered as zero, so that no voltage
drop appears across these two series components. Hence, the plate
current of each pentode is the same; adjustment of R7 permits
the operator to compensate for any other inequality in the two
pentodes and even for a small residual phototube current, by
reducing its screen voltage just enough to make the 6]7GT's internal
resistance identical. Then, perfect bridge balance is easily obtained
by adjusting R1.
When light falls upon the phototube, a voltage will develop across
the R4-R5 combination, making the grid of the right-hand tube
positive and that of the left-hand tube negative determined by the
amount of light. This upsets the bridge balance and causes a pro-
portional deection of the microammeter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State three fundamental requirements to be met by all photo-
metric devices used for illumination measurements.
2. What is a densitometer? Give several applications in which
densitometers play an important role.
3. Present in detail the steps required to change the lm density
variations on the sound track of a motion picture lm into
reproduced sound.
4. Draw an input system that would be satisfactory for feeding
the audio amplier of a sound-on-lm system from the photo-
tube pickup.
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9:
5
6.
7
8
9.
10
Why is a tantalum~cathode phototube desirable for ultraviolet
radiation measurements?
Why are vacuum-type phototubes preferred to gas types for use
in photometric equipment?
Explain why a bridge type of measuring assembly is generally
more satisfactory than a straightforward plate-current type.
What is a photoelectric comparator? Explain its basic prin-
ciples.
Write a complete explanation of the circuit action of the bridge
in Fig. 3-11. Include a description of the bridge as a whole and
the parts played by all of the components.
Give three different applications for phototubes in industry, as
well as the circuitry for one of them.
-~
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4. light-sensitive semiconductor
devices
What Are Semiconductors?
In your study of basic electricity you learned that conductors, such
as metals, allow an electric current to ow through them under the
action of a potential because there are free electrons present to act as
charge carriers. In good insulators such as bakelite and rubber, the
electrons that are present are tightly bound within the atoms, and
cannot break loose to become charge carriers except under unusual
circumstances. A small current can be made to ow through the
best insulator if the applied voltage is high enough.
Occupying a status midway between conductors and insulators
are the semiconductors. Such substances as copper oxide, ger-
manium, selenium, silicon, silicon carbide, lead telluride, and
indium antimonide are examples of semiconductors. Of these,
germanium and silicon are nding the greatest use in industrial
transistors, while copper oxide and selenium have long been used
in the manufacture of rectiers. Other semiconductors including
cadmium sulde and cadmium selenide are now widely used in
photoconductive cells.
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The semiconductors that exhibit the property of photoconduct-
ance normally have very high electrical resistances. When light is
incident upon them, they become better conductors and may be used
as the starting point for the construction of a photoconductive cell.
How Photoconductance Takes Place
The electrical properties of crystalline semiconductors can be
explained in terms of a unied concept called the energy band
theory. According to this theory, different groups of electrons in
the crystals exist in different states of motion. The characteristic of
each of these states is the amount of energy present. In addition,
no electron can have an energy different from one of these bands;
that is, electrons cannot exist in the gaps between bands.
The electrons that go into the making of the crystal atoms are
called valence electrons and occupy the so-called valence energy
band. When such a band is lled, as it is in insulators, it has the
lowest energy level. The nearest empty band has such a high
energy level that electrons cannot make the transition necessary
unless placed under great electric stress.
Semiconductors differ in this respect from insulators. Although
their valence bands are nearly lled, the nearest empty band does
not have as much energy as that of the insulator. Hence, when
energy is added to a semiconductor in the form of a beam of light
(or heat in some cases) , electrons cross the gap between the valence
band and the next empty one to become charge carriers for an
electric current. For this reason, the charge carrier band in semi-
conductors has come to be called the conduction band. It has also
been found that the gap between bands can be narrowed by the
addition of certain impurities, a process common in transistor manu-
facture.
Commercial Cadmium Sulfide Photocells
In general, cadmium sulde (CdS) photocells are manufactured
in two styles: large surface area or window measuring about 1/2 X
1/; in and small window types in which the light-entry area is about
IA; sq in. The difference between these varieties is usually a matter
of sensitivity. To a great extent, the ability of a photocell to operate
a relay directly without the aid of an amplier depends upon light
exposure surface area and the maximum safe voltage that may be
applied across the cell in its dark condition. On the other hand, the
cell having the larger power handling ability (large window type)
I
1
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LIGHT-SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 95
cannot be counted upon to retain exactly the same characteristics as
the smaller cell throughout its useful life.
For sheer simplicity of photorelay circuits, it would be diicult
to nd a cell better than the larger surface type, as circuits described
later will show. For miniature equipment, however, particularly
where we want to select a pinpoint of light for measurement or
relay actuation, the small window photocell is far superior.
With respect to voltage ratings, the large surface cell used as an
example (CL-505) can operate safely with as much as 250 volts dc
or peak ac applied across its terminals; under these conditions, the
cell can dissipate a maximum of 500 milliwatts continuously when
used with a heat sink. Although the small surface cell is rated at a
somewhat higher voltage 300 volts maximum its dissipation
rating is only 75 milliwatts. Obviously, the large cell could operate
a reasonably husky relay directly, while the smaller one would be
limited to a very small, delicate relay, if direct operation without
amplication is to be attempted.
Sensitivity of Large Surface CdS Photocell
Various manufacturers spell out their photocell ratings in dif-
ferent ways. For instance, one satisfactory method involves a state-
ment as to the resistance of the photocell under various conditions
of illumination, and for different applied voltages. Another com-
mon procedure is to give the photocell short-circuit current for
various illuminations and applied voltages. Obviously, if the cur-
rents and voltages for each case are known, the cell resistance can
also be determined quickly from Ohm's law.
Study the rating chart (Table 4-1) for a typical large-surface
photocell. The values of illumination selected by this particular
MILLIAMMETER
"P%lfE
VOL
PHOTOCELL (Dc)
Fig. 4-I. Circuit used to obtain ratings of a Cd$ photocell.
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manufacturer range from a very feeble source (1 ft-candle) to a
rather bright one (100 ft-candles) . For each of these light intensities
the minimum current that any assembly-line mass-produced cell
will provide, as well as the mean or average value of a large number
of cells selected at random, is given. This listing is offered for
three commonly available d-c voltages: 6 volts as obtainable from
4 dry cells or a 3 cell storage battery; 22.5 volts from a radio-type
B battery; and 90 volts that could be expected from the a-c lines
after rectication. The circuit used to determine the ratings is
shown in Fig. 4-11.
Characteristics of Small Surface CdS Cell
Spectral response. The usefulness of a photocell in specic ap-
plications must be at leasRt partially determined by a study of
its spectral response. If we know the cell's reaction to changing
RELATIVE PERCENT
(EQUAL ESERGY)
Fig. 4-2. Spectral response
curve for a CdS photocell.
R After Clairex Corp.
4000 sooo sooo 1000 eooo
wnvetzuernl
wavelengths of radiation, we can at least decide in advance whether
or not it can be used for our purpose; with accurate data, we can
even predict the behavior of our circuit before it is constructed.
The graph (Fig. 4-2) shows the relative sensitivity (current for
a xed voltage) for equal energy irradiation in the visible spectrum
for a typical small-surface CdS cell. The curve is drawn for three
conditions: low, high, and medium impedance of the nished cell.
Important in the interpretation of the graph are these considera-
trons:
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1. The photocell peaks at about 5500 A. This is in the green
portion of the spectrum at about the point where the greatest
sensitivity of the eye occurs.
2. There is a very rapid decline of sensitivity on the red side of
the peak. Thus, this cell is not particularly sensitive to light from
incandescent lamps and other heat sources.
3. The drop-off rate on the blue side has the same shape as
on the red side; however, the drop-off is not as great in the violet
region, making the cell effective for uorescent lights.
Light vs. current. In this curve, (Fig. 4-3), the sensitivity of the
photocell is dened in terms of the current amplitude (pa) for
l0,000
AVERAGE LIGHT CURRENT
C S
HARACTERISTIC
IOOO
MICROAMPERES
I00
IO
20V ACROSS CELL
AMBIENT TEMP.-256
0.! I I I
0.0l 0.l I IO I00
LIGHT INTENSITY - FOOT CANDLES
Fig. 4-3. Light current characteristics of a small surface CdS photocell. Aftc'
Clairex Corp.
a given luminous intensity at a specic voltage across the cell. It
should rst be observed that both the voltage and the ambient
temperature are held contant in deriving the coordinates for the
graph. This tells us immediately that the current in this photocell
is a function of three variables: voltage, temperature, and light
intensity. To determine the effect of one of these in this case, the
luminous ux upon photocell current, the other two must not
be permitted to change.
Notice that even at 100 ft-candles of illumination we obtain
barely one ma of current. Comparing this with a typical large-
surface CdS cell, (Table 4-1) , it is clear that this type would require
some amplication if we want to operate a relay with it.
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\
TANT SEooDS
.
I
So
TIME
o.o| - ~ -
O.l
I IO I00
LIGHT INTENSITY FT-CANDLES
Fig. 4-4. Time constant curve for a CdS photocell. After Clairex Corp.
Time constant. One of the most serious weaknesses of crystalline
photosensitive materials as compared with phototubes is the time
constant effect. In a phototube, the increase of current resulting
from an increase in light intensity is almost instantaneous. In photo-
sensitive semiconductors, however, there is a tendency for a time
lag to occur between the instant of light increase and the time the
photocell current reaches its nal gure.
Since the time response of a good CdS cell resembles that of an
RC circuit, it is convenient to dene it in terms of such a circuit.
Thus, the time constant shown on the graph (Fig. 4-4) is the time
required for the current to build up to 63% of its nal value after
TABLE 4-1. VOLTAGE RATING CHART FOR PHOTOCELL
Illumination 6 volts 22.5 volts 90 volts
(H-candles) minimum mean minimum mean minimum mean
1 0.12 0.18 0.41 0.9 2.3 3.6
10 0.7 1.2 3.2 5.2 R 19.1 26.1
50 2.1 3.1 11.2 16.1 67.2
9
j
100 3.8 19.2 27.2
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being excited by a sharp increase in light. The time constant shown
in the graph applies specically to average-impedance cells. Those
of higher impedance have a smaller time constant, while those of
lower impedance have a larger time constant. Hence, unless they
are used with special compensation circuits, CdS photocells are not
suited to applications in which the source of light is modulated at
even moderate audio frequencies. The time-constant effect prevents
them from responding to any rapid variations of light intensity.
Temperature effect. It has been previously mentioned that temper-
ature has a denite effect upon the performance of the cadmium
sulde photocell. Although we may not anticipate using a photocell
in extremes of temperature, it is important for us to know just how
serious the temperature effect is. This applies especially to precise
measuring equipment used outdoors winter and summer.
The graph (Fig. 4-5) shows the relative sensitivity (current for
a xed voltage, and light intensity) for a small surface CdS as a
function of temperature. In this particular curve, the relationship
has been normalized at approximately 25 C (77 F) . This means
that the photocell current at some xed voltage and luminous
intensity is said to be unity at this temperature and all other meas-
urements taken by comparing the current at other temperatures
with the current at the normalized point.
For example, suppose that the current at 25C through a test cell
2.0
RELATIVE
SENSITIVITY
G
\\ ,_,/
'75 60 40 20 O 20 40 60 80 I00
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
Fig. 4-5. Temperature sensitivity curve of o CdS photocell. After Clairex Corp.
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having these temperature characteristics is 10 pa. This might be
obtained with 20 volts applied to the cell when it is illuminated by
1.0 ft-candle. At what temperature or temperatures would the cell
current rise to 12.5 pa? This current is 1.25 times greater than the
initial value, so that we refer to the temperature characteristic curve
and locate relative sensitivity of 1.25 on the vertical axis, following
it until it intersects the curve. It will be observed that this occurs at
two temperatures: -12.5 degrees and 95 degrees.
The Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) Photocell
Spectral Response and Time Constant
Several manufacturers are currently offering photoconductive
cells employing cadmium selenide (CdSe) as the sensitive material
rather than cadmium sulde. In some respects, the selenide cell
has superior performance characteristics, especially for industrial
applications involving incandescent light sources. A typical CdSe
photocell, as the spectral response curve indicates (Fig. 4-6), has a
current output peak in the region of 7500 A as contrasted with
IOO
/\
4000 5000 6000 7000 8900 9000 I0,000
WAVELENGTH A
ENERGY)
8 3
RELATIVE RESPoSE (EQUAL
OI (I It
o o o o
N
O
Fig. 4-6. Special response curve for a CdSe photocell. After Clairex Corp.
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LIGHT-SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 1O1
5500 A for the sulde unit. The high sensitivity in the orange-red
portion of the visible spectrum explains why this cell is well-suited
for use with incandescent lights since these are rich in red rays.
The selenide photocell also offers an advantage in terms of time
constant. The CdS cell has a time constant of approximately 37
msec for l0 ft-candles, (Fig. 4-4) . Compare this with a time constant
of only 4 msec for the same illumination for the CdSe photocell. A
short time constant like this makes it possible to use the selenide
cell in circuits where the light is modulated at a faster rate than
in the case of the sulde cell.
Barrier Layer Photovoltaic Cells
Structural details. Modern sun" batteries are generally of the
so-called barrier layer type discovered in 1924 by Dr. Grondahl of
the Union Switch and Signal Company. Although his work was
chiefly with copper oxide cells, improvements in manufacture and
design have more recently standardized selenium and silicon as
the semiconductor materials that provide the most desirable response
characteristics and greatest long-term stability for industrial appli-
cations. Let us rst examine the general structural pattern used in
all barrier layer cells to discover why they are called by this name.
A typical selenium barrier layer cell utilizes an iron baseplate on
which is deposited a thin layer of crystalline selenium. A spray
coating of semitransparent silver is then laid down on the face of
the selenium, or as is done in some cells, the silver is plated along
one edge to allow the light to reach the face of the cell. Contact
is made either by spring contact or bonded lead to the silver coating
on one side and the baseplate on the other.
An alternating voltage is then connected across the contacts in the
so-called forming process. In a short time, a thin layer the
barrier layer of iron selenide forms between the semiconductor
selenium and the baseplate. Light incident upon the selenium will
cause electrons to ow through the resistor, as shown in Fig. 4-7.
Operation of cell. Photovoltaic cells depend for their operation
on the fact that an electromotive force is internally generated by the
action of radiant energy. This is an example of a direct conversion
of radiant into electrical energy; the photoelectric effect in general
(i.e., the setting in motion of electrons by radiation) is one of the
bulwarks of the quantum theory.
The barrier layer is the point of origin of the electrons set in
motion by the received radiant energy. Due to the internal electrical
forces released by the incidence of photons on the barrier layer,
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ELECTRON
FLOW
tmnr ,
PLATED
CONTACT
LAYER I
CRYSTALLINE
SEteN|um _
(ore $|LlCON)> +
BARMER
LAYER R
BASEPLATE
-~
Fig. 4-7. Structural details of a selenium sun cell.
electrons move from the semiconducting selenium (or silicon)
layer, through the barrier layer, and into the metallic baseplate.
Such a cell is called a back-wall type because the light must pene-
trate the semiconductor material in order to reach the barrier layer
which, so to speak, forms the back wall of the cell.
Front-wall cells (Fig. 4-8) are also in use. In this form, the barrier
layer lies right under the semitransparent metal electrode with the
semiconductor below it. In general, front-wall cells have greater
sensitivity because the light reaches the barrier layer without rst
being partially absorbed by the semiconducting material above.
Note that the direction of the emf generated in the front wall cell is
opposite to that of the back-wall type. This gives rise to an
electron current opposite in direction.
Performance Curves for Solar Cells
Voltage and current vs. illumination. The construction of data
curves showing the performance of sun batteries or solar cells has
become a new art in itself. Each manufacturer selects methods of
displaying the characteristics of his product which, he feels, demon-
strate important factors of its performance. Although we cannot
R._-_-,__..-
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LIGHT-SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES I03
hope to discuss every possible graphical representation in current
use, we can cover a few of the more prevalent ones.
One of the most informative approaches to a study of solar cell
characteristics is the one in which open-circuit voltage and short-
circuit current are shown at various high illumination levels. Since
the solar cell is primarily intended for the generation of usable
power under direct solar radiation, high light values are used in
ELECTRON
LIGHT
FLOW
iv
SEMITRANSPARENT
SILVER LAYER
BARRIER
LAYER
SELENIUM
IRON
BASEPLATE
Fig. 4-8. Front-wall type photovoltaic cell.
drawing up performance curves. This set of curves in Fig. 4-9 shows
the reaction of a selenium cell for illumination levels ranging from
zero to 10,000 ft-candles. For instance, should we want to determine
the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current to be expected
from a typical cell when the illumination is 6000 ft-candles, we
would merely trace the 6 X 1000 vertical line upward, noting where
it intersects each of the solid line curves. In this case, the open
circuit voltage would be 0.55 volt and the short circuit current
would be 17 ma for each sq in of photocell surface exposed to this
radiation. The dashed-line curve shows that for an optimum cell, the
short circuit current woud be about 23 ma at the same illumination
level.
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ILLUMINATION SOURCEI PHOTOFLOOD LAMP AT 3400K
A 0.7 / 35
in / .-
5 O (5 I I / I
o R 30 |_ u
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE Z5
IT LTAGE
9 .<> .0
()| -O U1
\
5 8 3
oIRoUIT cunee
PERES PER so.
(v
Vo
L? HORT CIRCUIT
S
CURRENT
I
I I I
y TYPICAL CELL
CHARACTERISTICS
~ OPTIMUM CELL
CHARACTERISTICS
| | I . |
0 | 2 3 4 5 e r s 9
ILLUMINATION INTENSITY (Foorc/motes x iooo)
oPES oIRoU
0 .
O '- m
\\
\ \
\
6 O oi 6
SHoRT
(MILLIAM
Fig. 4-9. Open circuit voltage and short circuit current curves for a typical sun
battery cell. International Rectifier Corp.
Spectral response. There has been much improvement in the
fabrication processes used for manufacturing silicon cells in recent
years. These cells are now being widely used in all types of military
equipment as well as in civilian applications. In addition to having
a denitely greater power output than selenium types for the same
W I I I I APPROMATE SOLAR
Q SELENIUM PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL ENER(;y D|$TR|BUT|QN
\ j_ |
SILICON
l// SOLAR
.8 K CELL
.6
I
' STANDARD
oesenven
RELATIVE SPECTRAL RESEO
to la '0
2000 4000 5000 6000 7000 80000 9000 |0,000 ll,OO0 12,000
WAVE LENGTH A
Fig. 4-IO. Relative spectral response curves for different cells, approximate
solar energy distribution, and human vision. International Rectifier Corp.
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surface area and equal illumination, the spectral response of the
typical silicon solar cell is considerably broader and displays excel-
lent performance well into the infrared region.
These curves (Fig. 4-10) illustrate the relative spectral response
of silicon solar cells of typical design as compared to the selenium
cell, the human eye, standard observer, and the distribution of solar
energy over the radiation spectrum. As may be seen from the curves,
the selenium cell peaks at about the same place as the human eye
(between 5000 and 6000 A), while the silicon type has a much
broader peak ranging from approximately 7300 to 8800 A.
Although the curves in this case do not point it out, the modern
tendency is to give the characteristics of solar cells at an illumina-
tion level of one sun. A unit sun level is dened as 100 milliwatts
of solar power falling on l sq cm of surface. This is approximately
the equivalent of the illumination in the temperate zones of the
earth at noon on a cloudless summer day.
light-Powered Circuits
Simple broadcast receiver. The advantages and limitations of
solar cells as power-supplying devices may be better appreciated by
examining some simple circuits of this nature. One of the most
interesting and practical applications of solar cells is a battery-less
radio of the type shown in Fig. 4-11. A single selenium or silicon
unit supplies all of the power required for local reception of
broadcast stations. The antenna, a ferrite-loop having an 18-in
length of antenna wire, receives the radio-frequency energy from
CRYSTAL
ANTENNA RECTIFIER
I1
HEADPliI%%%S
L BROADCAST C -365
LOOPSTICK
SELENIUM OR
SILICON SOLAR
CELL
Fig. 4-'|'l. Solar powered radio receiver
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all nearby stations. By varying the capacitance of the tuning
capacitor, parallel resonance is established for one of these stations
so that a signicant voltage for this frequency develops across the
LC combination. The crystal diode then recties and demodulates
the received signal, passing the audio-frequency component on to
the base of the transistor. Connected as a common-emitter ampli-
er, the transistor then builds up the intensity of the audio modu-
lation and supplies it to the headphones. In most locations, one or
two broadcast stations are clearly and loudly received; in large cities
four or ve station and are easily tuned in at more than adequate
volume.
In this circuit, the photocell supplies the power only for the
transistor amplier, since demodulation occurs due to the power
inherent in the received wave. About 100 ft-candles of illumination
are required for good volume; at an illumination of 1 sun, this little
set can drive a 4-in speaker to a fairly audible level!
An LC audio oscillator. A very interesting oscillator variation
may be set up (Fig. 4-12) using a solar cell as a power source to
drive a transistor oscillator whose frequency is a function of the
illumination level. With a light intensity of about 100 ft-candles,
oscillation is self-sustaining at a rather high audio frequency. As the
illumination is increased, the frequency drops proportionately.
Among the uses for a device of this kind is an audio-light meter
2000.0
PHONES
006pf
AUDIO INTERSTAGE
SELEMUM OR 3:1 TRANSFORMER
SI L
LICON CEL
Fig 4-I2. Oscillator circuit in which frequency is determined by illumination.
_~ -
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which indicates the intensity of the luminous ux falling upon it
by means of the pitch of the tone produced.
Oscillation occurs in this circuit as a result of positive feedback
by the transformer from the output signal appearing at the col-
lector terminal of the transistor. When the cell is illuminated, a
small current ows through the secondary of the transformer and
the collector-emitter circuit. An induced voltage then appears
across the primary winding which drives a current through the
base-emitter circuit. If the phasing of the transformer is correct,
the base current will cause the collector current to increase which,
in turn, results in a further increment in base current by induction.
This build-up continues until the transistor saturates; then the
reverse process starts as in a vacuum tube oscillator producing a
waveform that is essentially sinusoidal.
Series Connection of Solar Cells
just as chemical cells may be connected in series to form batteries,
so may solar cells. There are certain signicant differences between
the two types of emf generators that must be taken into account to
realize the best efficiency from them.
If dry cells are series-connected, we can count on a xed internal
resistance which does not change substantially regardless of the use
of the battery. This is not true of solar cells since its internal resist-
ance drops severely at high levels of illumination. Another interest-
ing difference between series-connected solar cells and chemical cells
is that should even one solar cell of a series string be in the dark,
the output of the entire string will be close to zero due tolthe block-
ing resistance of the nonilluminated cell. Therefore, we must plan
for nearly even illumination on all cells when they are series-con-
nected.
When solar cells are to feed high input impedance devices such
as the grid circuits of vacuum tubes or a common-collector tran-
sistor amplier stage, they should be series connected so that maxi-
mum power transfer can take place. This, of course, is merely an
attempt to match the impedance of the generator the solar cell
string to the load to obtain as much power in the load as possible.
Determining Solar Cell Resistance
Solar cells resemble chemical generators when connected in
parallel. Parallel connection results in an increase of current output
directly proportional to the number of cells in parallel only if the
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LOW
RESISTANCE
~ METER
SOLAR
CELL ~ Rs I_T RL
Fig. 4-I3. Circuit for measuring the resistance of a solar cell using the half-
scale deflection method.
external load resistance is low. Hence, for circuits involving direct
connection of solar batteries to low resistance devices like meters,
small d-c motors, and common-emitter transistor ampliers, solar
cells should be parallel for increased output at low-to-moderate
illuminations.
As we have pointed out, the resistance of a solar cell drops when
illuminated by an intense source. The internal resistance may
become so low that even the loads mentioned above may take on
the appearance of high resistances by comparison. For such appli-
cations, it may be necessary to connect cells in series-parallel for
impedance matching purposes. In any case, it is desirable to know
the true internal resistance of a single cell under specic illumina-
tion conditions if we wish to design the best possible arrangement
of series and parallel connections.
The main component of the resistance of a solar cell is in the form
of a shunt resistance (R, in Fig. 4-13). An indirect, but simple
method of determining its resistance is shown in the diagram. A
low resistance meter is connected in series with a variable resistance,
RL. R1, is rst reduced suiciently to produce a large deection on
the milliammeter (or microammeter) while the cell is illuminated
at the desired level. For this condition, most of the cell's current
ows through the meter and RL, if the latter is small enough. Then
RI, is increased until the meter reads one-half of its former deec-
tion. This means that equal currents are now owing through R,
and RL and, with the same voltage applied across each from the solar
cell, it is safe to assume that they have the same resistances. The
resistance of RL may now be measured on an ordinary ohmmeter
and R, is taken to be the same value.
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Phototransistors
The photocells that have been discussed in the earlier portions
of this chapter are like variable resistors whose resistances are
governed by the intensity of the light striking them. Cadmium
sulde and cadmium selenide are by far the most important
materials used in their manufacture.
The phototransistor, an important member of the transistor
family, is very similar in action to the photoconductive cell. When
thin wafers of P-type material and N-type material are brought
together to form a junction as in an ordinary transistor, the unit
becomes light-sensitive. Greatest sensitivity is obtained when the
light shines on the junction itself, but respectable output is available
in properly constructed phototransistors even when either end of
the wafer is illuminated.
As in standard transistors, germanium is an important material.
As we have seen in discussing photoconductive cells, light can
impart enough energy to electrons in the valence band to raise them
to the conduction band. The severance of the valence bonds in-
creases the supply of current carriers (electrons and holes) so that
the resistance across the unit is reduced.
In the form of cell shown in Fig. 4-14, an end-re action can be
obtained if either the p or n germanium is made thin enough to
allow a reasonable amount of light to reach the junction.
The Point-Contact Principle in Phototransistors
Practical phototransistors may also be made using the point-
contact rather than the more familiar junction design. In one type
that is now in use, a sharp springy phosphor-bronze wire (Fig.
4-15) is placed in contact with an extremely thin (less than 0.005 in)
n-type germanium wafer. When a forming current is passed through
the unit, the area immediately beneath the point-contact takes on
p characteristics, thus producing a p-n diode similar to those used
in r-f rectiers.
\'Vhen this phototransistor is biased in the reverse direction, only
a very small current ows exactly the same situation as we
nd in crystal rectiers. This is the dark current; then, when
light reaches the germanium wafer, the resistance of the circuit
decreases causing the current (with constant voltage source) to
increase proportionally.
Point-contact transistors are also substantially more sensitive
when the light impinges on the germanium wafer in the immediate
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I I0 PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
CASE
Q
r
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WINDOW
I I I I I I
PN
GERMANIUM
CONNECTING
LEADS
Fig. 4-I4. Structure of a p-n iunction plwtotransistor.
IEEKIPAL INSULATOR
METAL CASE
PHOSPHOR - BRONZE
_
WIRE
L TERMWAL
|__T*~ IcLLEcTRI Noe
s-->- co
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PTYPE
GERMANWM
GERMANIUM
WAFER
Fig. 4-I5. Point contact phototransistor.
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LIGHT-SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES I I I
vicinity of the point where the collector point contacts the surface
of the germanium. This action is explained by the fact that elec-
trons and holes produced at a distance from the p-n junction tend
to recombine before they can serve as charge carriers. The closer
they are to the junction when freed by the light, the better is the
possibility of avoiding recombination.
Characteristic Curves of Point-Contact Transistor
A family of curves that provides detailed information on the
performance of the photodiode is shown in Fig. 4-16.
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80 -60 -' 40 ~20 0 20 40
COLLECTOR VOLTS
Fig. 4-I 6. Characteristic curves for a polnt contact phototransistor.
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We print this gure to help make some signicant observations
relating to the ways in which transistor curves differ from those of
vacuum tubes. Starting at the intersection of two zero axes (zero
applied voltage, zero resulting current) , a forward bias gives rise to
a sharply rising current even for small voltage values. This portion
is of no interest except that it represents an action that must be
avoided! In the negative collector voltage region - and this is the
region in which the phototransistor is operated the collector cur-
rent is indicated as a minus value that increases in magnitude as
we descend the vertical axis. This is not a negative current in the
usual sense of the word, it merely indicates that the current is
opposite that of the forward bias direction.
Note also that the collector voltage is shown as negative to the
left. This practice is conventional, as we know from vacuum tubes.
These curves tell us that the increase of current is fairly linear for
small increases in illumination at any given voltage, and that only
for the dark current is the increase of current with voltage a
strictly linear relationship.
Some Examples in the Use of the Phototransistor Curves
To help you understand the applications of these curves, suppose
we try a few examples in which they are involved.
1. How much current will ow for an illumination level of 10
millilumens and a collector potential of -60 volts? Solution: Locate
the intersection of the 10 millilumen curve with the -60 volt line.
Follow this intersection to the left until it intercepts the collector
ma axis. This occurs at a current of 5.9 ma.
2. What light intensity will be required to produce a current of
4 ma at a collector potential to -20 volts? Solution: Locate the
intersection of the 4 ma horizontal line and the vertical -20 volt
line. This intersection falls on the 20 millilumen curve, so the
answer is 20 millilumens.
3. How much collector voltage would be required if we wished
to obtain a current of 7 ma with an illumination level of only
5 millilumens? Solution: Follow the 5 millilumen line downward
until it intercepts the 7 ma horizontal line. Since this takes place
at -90 collector volts, this potential would be required.
Load Line Construction
Suppose we now use this photodiode with a load. This might be
a relay or some other device, rather than a resistor. With the aid of
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LIGHT-SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES II3
a load line we shall see the effect. Since sensitive relays with coil
resistances of 10,000 ohms are easily obtained, let us assume that
the load has this value.
Since the battery voltage must be known before load line con-
struction can begin, we shall assume that a potential source of 100
volts is to be employed. The voltage across the collector circuit
depends upon the illumination as well as upon the battery potential
and the load resistor; thus, two conditions must be considered, in
order to construct the load line. Suppose the illumination were
such as to make 40 volts appear across the collector circuit, then
what current would ow? If 40 volts appears across the collector,
a drop of 60 volts must be across the load. Since this is 10,000 ohms,
then the current would be I = 60/10,000 = 6 ma. Hence, the
rst coordinate for the 10,000-ohm line is Point A, in Fig. 4-17.
Next we might ask what current would ow if the collector volt-
age became 100 volts. Since this is the full battery potential, there
could be no drop across the load, and the current must be zero.
This gives us the second coordinate as point B. A and B are now
connected, and the line is extended until it intersects both axes.
With the aid of this load-line we can determine the illumination
necessary for this relay to operate. Suppose the pull-in current for
this relay is 5.0 ma, what would be the required illumination?
First, trace the 5.0 ma line to the right until it intersects the load
line. This occurs just as the load line crosses the 10- millilumen
curve. Thus, for a battery potential of 100 volts, a relay resistance
of 10,000 ohms, and an illumination of 10 millilumens, the circuit
current will be 5.0 ma just enough to cause pull-in action. For
this condition, the voltage drop across the relay will be 50 volts.
For practical purposes, it is best to avoid such borderline action
with relays. That is, it would be better to have the current rise to
5.5 ma when the phototransistor is illuminated to assure positive
action. If we now trace the 5.5 ma line across to the load line, we
nd that the intersection occurs at 15 millilumens. Hence, an
illumination of this intensity will assure us of denite relay opera-
tion for the conditions we have outlined.
N-p-n Phototransistor with Sensitive Base
A junction transistor of the n-p-n variety having a thin base sec-
tion that is sensitive to .light has also enjoyed some commercial
use. In such a transistor, (Fig. 4-18), a voltage is applied across
the n-type sections with no connection being made to the base. As
in any n-p-n transistor, the section connected to the negative term-
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I I
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\ LOAD LINE
\R - IO ooost
\
COLLECTOR MA
I
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-5
. //
_, / /
/A5 /
COLL ECTOR VOLTS
Fig. 4-I7. Load line drawn on the characteristics of a point contact photo-
transistor.
inal of the battery serves as the emitter, while the other n-type
portion is the collector. With zero base bias, the emitter-collector
current is minute, since the transistor in this case behaves just as
any other transistor does with an open base circuit; i.e., it possesses
an extremely high resistance. When light reaches the thin ger-
manium section, however, holes are formed in large numbers, per-
mitting recombinations to occur freely. This results in a relatively
large emitter-collector current ranging up to 5 or 6 ma. If the
load is a relay, and the battery large enough, direct operation is
entirely possible.
The sensitivity of the n-p-n phototransistor can be varied by
R.-1-?
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II LIGHT-
? UGH-r____> B SENSITIVE
u E - ' +
BATTERY
RELAY
COIL
LOAD
TH
Fig A-I8. Sensitive base type, n-p-n phototransistor.
changing the applied voltage within the rating limits of the
transistor. In this manner, the potentials may be adjusted as that
the relay remains open under dark conditions and is pulled-in
when the light intensity reaches the preselected value.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. VVhat is meant by photoconductance? How is this property of
semiconductors utilized in the manufacture of photorelays?
2. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of large
and small-surface photoconductive cells in industrial applica-
tions?
3. What can be learned from spectral response curves of photo-
cells? Give examples.
4. Which type a CdS or a CdSe cell is better suited for a circuit
which is to closely follow the response of human vision? Ex-
lain.
5. lllxplain why CdS photocells have never become important as
light pickups in the reproduction of sound-on-lm.
6. What improvement does the CdSe cell offer over the CdS cell?
Give some applications where the CdSe cell would be preferred.
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I I6 PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
7
8.
9.
10.
Explain how a photovoltaic cell differs from a photoconductive
cell. What is the one signicant advantage _of the photovoltaic
type?
Under what circumstances is series-connection of solar cells
desirable? Parallel connection?
In what way (s) does the phototransistor diode differ from
other photoconductive cells?
In general application of a phototransistor diode, what is the
normal bias arrangement? For what purpose?
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5. industrial photocontrol devices
Flame Failure Causing Fuel Cut-Off
When the ame of an oil bumer goes out due to an incorrect
nozzle adjustment, temporary fuel cut-off, due to dirt in the line,
or any other cause, the fuel must be stopped from entering the
combustion chamber as soon as possible. Flame failure with con-
tinued pumping may result in disastrous explosions or, at the very
least, overpowering oil fumes throughout the building. Many
Rmethods have been devised for cutting off the fuel when the ame
fails. Among these, photoelectric control is one of the most reli-
able and most widely used, particularly in industrial burners.
Amy photocontrol of this _natu_re must respond only to the light
of the ame a rather intense yellow source. Unless the circuit
is properly designed there is appreciable danger that the cell will
respond to the radiant energy coming from the walls of the_hot
fumace. Thus, a cell having a response peak in the high end of the
visible spectrum is needed. I The cell must give little or no response
to infrared; for this reason, phototubes with an S-4 surface (i.e.,
those that peak in the blue and blue-green) are generally selected.
An example of such a phototube is the 929 vacuum type.
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I I8 PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
A commercial ame control circuit of unusual dependability is
shown in full (Fig. 5-1) for preliminary study. We shall analyze
the operation of the circuit in several steps. The entire relay con-
sists of two triodes (which may be in the same envelope as a
l2AU7) , a special transformer with three separate secondary wind-
ings, a relay, a phototube of the type previously described, and
several small resistors and capacitors.
Consider rst the input circuit to tube 1 (Fig. 5-2). As long as
the ame is present, sufficient light falls on the phototube P to cause
a small current to ow from one end A of secondary l, through
the relay coil, through R1 and the phototube, and down through
R2 to return to the other end of the secondary winding, point B.
The electron current direction is shown by the arrow.
This current causes a voltage drop across R2 having the polarity
shown. A few seconds after the circuit is turned on, capacitor C2
then takes a potential equal to the drop across R2. This voltage
maintains the grid of tube 1 negative with respect to its cathode,
TUBE I OALTUBE 2
@ _
if =1-.. I1
C
CI
SEC I SEC 2 I SEC 3 j
INPUT
I
1.
O
U
II
Fig. 5-I. Flame control circuit. Interruption of flame causes relay to shut valve.
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INDUSTRIAL PHOTOCONTROI. DEVICES I19
FLAME ruse I
Fig. 5-2. Analysis of flame control circuit.
cutting it off and preventing the ow of plate current in this tube.
This action takes place when end A of secondary l is negative with
respect to end B. Since the photocell conducts only when its anode
is positive and its cathode negative, conduction does not occur when
A is positive and B is negative. Also, the current for the conditions
explained in the foregoing text is not suicient to pull in the relay.
When the a-c cycle reverses (Fig. 5-3) , both secondary 1 and 2
become positive on their respective right sides. If tube 1 could
conduct which it cannot, since it is cut-off by the voltage produced
by the phototube current and the consequent charging of C2 the
current would ow as follows: starting from end B of seondary l,
through the tube 1 cathode to anode circuit, down into end D of
secondary 2, out of end C, down through R4, and back into end A
of secondary 1. If this condition did occur, then there would be a
voltage drop across R4 which would make this resistor negative at
the top and positive at the bottom.
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I 20 PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
TUBE I TUBE 2
I if
SECEI E-Ec 2
LAC O
INPUT
Fig. 5-3. Analysis of flame control circuit when input reverses polarity.
These, however, are not the true conditions. Tube 1 is not con-
ducting, and therefore behaves as an open circuit, preventing any
current from owing through R4. For the true situation, then, R4
is positive at the top, making the grid of tube 2 positive, while the
cathode of the same tube is negative. Note that with no voltage
drop in R4, grid and cathode are effectively connected across second-
ary 1.
For the conditions initially proposed the ame causing tube
1 to be in a cut-off state - tube 2 grid is more positive than its
cathode. Hence, tube 2 conducts heavily in its plate circuit, the cur-
rent taking the path shown by the arrow (Fig. 5-4). The electrons
ow out of end B of secondary 1, through tube 2 cathode-to-plate
circuit, into terminal F of secondary 3, out of end E, through the
relay coil, and nally back into end A of secondary 1. The second-
aries (1 and 3) are phased to form a series-aiding circuit so that their
voltages add up and the sum is applied as anode potential to tube 2.
This heavy conduction causes the relay to pull in and keep the oil
valve open for free ow of fuel. You must remember that the
initial conditions permit this sequence of actions to take place. We
might recapitulate by tracing through the steps covered thus far:
1. The flame is on, cutting off tube 1.
2. This results in zero current through R4, keeping the grid of
tube 2 positive to make it conduct heavily.
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INDUSTRIAL PHOTOCONTROI. DEVICES I21
3. The plate current of tube 2 holds the relay energized so that
the fuel valve remains open.
Now note what happens when the ame goes out. First, the
phototube becomes a high resistance due to the absence (or severe
diminution) of electron emission from its cathode. This causes the
current through R2 to approach zero. C2 begins to discharge
through R3 and R2 and, as it does so, the potential of the grid of
tube 1 begins to approach that of the cathode.
Current begins to ow in the cathode-to-anode circuit of tube 1.
As mentioned before, when this happens a current also ows (down-
ward) through R4 producing a potential drop having such polarity
that the top of R4 becomes more negative than the bottom. Effec-
tively, this produces an increasing negative grid bias that reduces
the plate current of tube 2.
Since the tube 2 plate current is the current that keeps the relay
energized, the relay must now drop out and cut off the fuel supply.
One might ask, Why use so complex a circuit when a single
amplier tube in a relatively simple circuit can do the same job?"
The answer is that this circuit is not at all complex, even though
the explanation has required some detail. Once the triple-secondary
ruse 2
-_> I
i
E secs F
+
AC INPUT
Fig. 5-4. Diagram of circuit when Tube 2 conducts.
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transformer has been designed, the circuit can be trouble-free for\
and capacitors Furthermore, its sensitivity 1S substantially greater
than single tube relays since both tubes play a part in the amplica-
years, since it does not depend upon critical values of resistorsk
tion process.
Step-Wedge Densitometer for Photographic Negatives
The preparation of photographic enlargements or contact prints
in commercial nishing plants almost always involves some form of
exposure-determining instrument. Photographic step-wedges in the
form of a calibrated series of negative strips having gradually in-
creasing densities are inexpensive and easily obtained. An electronic
circuit may be devised which compares the density of an unfamiliar
negative with that of the calibrations on the step-wedge.
This method of determining enlarger exposure is considered to be
superior to direct readings of a meter because it cancels out such
variable factors as changes in amplier tube characteristics, voltage
variations, and lamp blackening.
In operation (Fig. 5-5) the portion of the negative to be measured
is placed over a small aperture with a light above it. The light
passes through the negative and the aperture to a phototube
mounted directly below, and a reading on a milliammeter is noted.
Then the negative is replaced by the step-wedge which is shifted
until the same milliammeter reading is obtained. The density is
read directly on the portion of the step-wedge over the aperture.
The light source of the densitometer is a small lamp with a con-
densing lens cast integral with the glass envelope. This little lamp
is mounted above the measuring aperture over which the negative
is placed. As mentioned before, the phototube is just below the
aperture in position to receive light through the negative.
The power supply is a voltage doubler, regulated by an OD-3 gas
tube. The arrangement is standard. A 117Z6GT rectier is used to
build up the 115-volt line potential to approximately 250 volts
under load. The 8 pf capacitor connected across the output voltage
divider serves as an additional lter unit. The 5000-ohm resistor
drops the output voltage to a value suitable for the 150-volt regu-
lator tube.
The full output voltage of the power supply is fed to the plate
of the 6F5G (or any similar high-gain triode) through a 0-1 mil-
liammeter, while the output of the voltage regulator supplies the
proper bias voltages for adjustment and measurement.
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INDUSTRIAL PHOTOCONTROL DEVICES I23
~-I
0%
222
LENS
IIIIJ EIIII
APERTURE I/4" /T
927
I/2 IITZG-GT
C
+ R5
5000
l5OV
5+ '\/\/\. ( I
I/2|I7Z6-GT (25Vl
Fig. 5-5. Circuit for a photographic densitometer.
The operation of the circuit is somewhat easier to follow when
the diagram is drawn to show the applied voltages and the photo-
tube equipment, as in Fig. 5-6. The equipment is turned on and
allowed to heat for about 5 min. A separate switch is provided
for the exciter lamp to save the batteries during warm-up and idling
time. The use of dry-cells is advisable here so that constant illumin-
ation is assured during the short period of the measurement. Then
R4 is adjusted to give a full-scale reading of the milliammeter.
This adjustment merely changes the grid bias so that a reference
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Fig. 5-6. Phototube circuit of the densitometer shown in Fig. 5-5.
current of one milliammeter is permitted to ow in the plate circuit
with the exciter lamp off and the phototube in complete darkness.
The portion of the negative to be measured is then placed over the
aperture and the lamp turned on. This will cause the plate current
to drop for the following reason: phototube current ows in the
direction shown by the arrows due to the emf applied across it
by the portion of the 50K resistor (R4) in the circuit. This current
produces a voltage drop across R1 that makes the grid more negative
than it was before. The meter reading is recorded, and the negative
replaced by the calibrated step-wedge which is then shifted until
the same reading is observed. The negative density is then read
from the step-wedge.
Safety Control for Industrial Machinery
An immense number of industrial machines, in which lies some
inherent danger for operating personnel, are now equipped with
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photoelectric protective devices. Sewing machines, lathes, and
presses may be made immeasurably safer by automatic braking
mechanisms that stop the machines instantly if a careless worker
reaches too close to moving parts, or otherwise imperils himself by
allowing any part of his body near dangerous portions of a machine.
It is good engineering practice to make the photocontrol devices
used in such applications as simple and compact as possible. Such
design insures trouble-free operation over long periods of time and
O AU
IZO V
A C 6.3 V
LINE
O
Fig. 5-7. Simple industrial machine protective photorelay.
effective response when it is most needed. A simple circuit, similar
to that shown in Fig. 5-7, may be used in other ways than described
above. For example, in one clothing-manufacturing plant, the
approach of a worker's hand near the needle causes a raucous bell
to sound in warning; in another factory, the approach of unauth-
orized persons to the danger zones surrounding heavy-duty milling
machines results in an intense, ashing red light above the machine.
The injuries prevented and lives saved by such devices are incalcul-
able. In some states, statutes have appeared making it mandatory
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to incorporate safety devices of photoelectric nature in many dif-
ferent operations.
This remarkably simple circuit, or minor modications of it, has
been widely used as a protective device for industrial machinery.
Operating directly from the same a-c line that runs the machines, it
closes a relay when a light beam is interrupted by an opaque
obstacle. The light beam is directed across the danger zone and
the relay is connected either directly or through additional relays
to the alarm or brake mechanism. The 6.3-volt transformer ener-
gizes both the laments of the 6K6 and the lamp in the sight source.
Circuit operation is similar to other circuits previously described.
With light shining on the phototube, a small grid current ows
which selves to bias the 6K6 control grid so that plate current is
below the pull-in demands of the sensitive relay. The electron cur-
rent direction is shown by the arrows and the biasing voltage drop
across R4 indicated by the signs for this condition. When the light
beam is interrupted, the 868 ceases emitting so that the grid circuit
appears open. This action is instantaneous since there are no
capacitors in the grid circuit. With a oating grid, the 6K6 plate
current increases sufficiently to operate the relay which may Tsound
an alarm or operate a brake. Capacitor C must be kept as small
as possible to avoid time-delay; at the same time, it must have suf-
cient capacitance to prevent relay chatter.
Automatic Exposure Control for Photographic Enlargers
The application of photocontrol to better and faster picture-
making is not limited to measurements of negative density as pre-
viously described. By combining the functions of measurement and
control, it is possible to design a machine that will behave as a
fully automatic servomechanism for producing uniformly good
enlargements, photostats, and microphotographs. The circuit shown
(Fig. 5-8) measures exposure by sensing the change in voltage across
a capacitor in series with the phototube. Actually, after proper
calibration, it determines the product of intensity and duration of
the illumination on a phototube, thus measuring the exposure of
the paper or lm. When the exposure has reached the desired value,
a relay is automatically de-energized; the opening of the relay con-
tacts turns off the exposing source.
Let us rst study the circuit as a whole. The heaters of the two
tubes are conected in series across the line. Correct voltage is ap-
plied to them with the aid of series resistor R1 and shunt resistor
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INDUSTRIAL PIIOTOCONTROL DEVICES I21
R2. A rotary switch (SW2) is used to select the proper value of
capacitor for the timing interval desired. This is determined by
the speed of the lm or paper being used. The voltage change that
appears across the capacitor is equal to the time integral of the
u7v:D: sooon
Ac ICOIL
cI
0.001
Rz
H2
5 >(6F5GT)
Fig. 5-B. Circuit of an automatic exposure control.
current owing into it through the phototube. Since the phototube
current is proportional to the intensity of the light incident upon
it from the lm or paper, the change of capacitor voltage is also
proportional to the exposure time of the lm.
Turning our attention rst to the heater circuit, let us determine
why the resistors shown have been selected. The upper resistor is
280 ohms. In series with this is the 25L6GT heater rated at 25 volts
for a current of 0.3 ampere. When operating, this heater has a
resistance:
R = E/I = 25/0.3 = 83 ohms (approx)
The 6F5GT heater, rated as 6.3 volts and 0.3 ampere, has an oper-
ating resistance of approximately 21 ohms. Parallel with this heater
is a resistance of 50 ohms, so that the joint resistance of this parallel
circuit is:
VACUUM cg_l_ E p RE
t PHOTOTUBE Limgsu
r
\ SWI R|
' Z309.
Hl
(Z5L6 GT) I
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I28 PHOTOELECT RIC CONTROL
S W I %
R4
6F5GT 5000.Q.
+
IITV
AC
R5
5000!).
OPEN
INO CURRENT)
Fig. 5-9. The charging circuit of the exposure control.
r1r2
R = = 15 ohms (approx)
Adding resistances to obtain the total series resistance we have:
280 + 83 + 15 = 378 ohms
Since 117 volts are applied across 378 ohms, the total series current is:
I = E/R = 117/378 = 0.3 ampere
Thus, these resistances provide the correct heater current for the
25L6GT. On the other hand, the 0.3 ampere that reaches the
parallel circuit divides between the 50-ohm resistor and the heater
of the 6F5GT in the ratio of their resistances. With a little manipu-
lation of the gures, this comes out to be about 0.21 ampere through
the heater and the remainder (0.3 - 0.21 = 0.09 ampere) through
the resistor. Thus, the cathode of the 6F5 is kept cool to prevent
grid emission and residual gas currents that might result if the
cathode were heated to normal temperature. It is still hot enough
for satisfactory emission.
In operation, the switch SW3 is rst opened, (Fig. 5-9). For
this condition, the grid of the 6F5GT acts as the plate of a rectier.
When the grid is made positive with respect to the cathode of the
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tube that is, when the phase of the a-c input cycle is such as to
produce this voltage polarity electrons ow from the cathode to
the grid into the upper plate of the capacitor C1. Electrons then
move out of the lower plate, leaving it positively charged, following
the arrows through R5, R4, and back into the positive terminal
of the supply.
With SW3 open, capacitor Cl soon charges to peak line voltage,
in this case approximately 165 volts. Note that if SW3 is closed, the
voltage to which the capacitor would charge would be determined
by the position of the wiper on potentiometer R5. If the wiper
should happen to be all the way up, then the voltage applied to
the capacitor would be exactly half the peak line voltage; for any
other position, the voltage would be determined by the setting of
the wiper. Thus, SW3 performs the function of xing the voltage
to which C1 charges every time the device is used. This sort of
constancy is absolutely necessary for any kind of repeatable cali-
bration.
Assuming now that capacitor Cl has been fully charged, and that
the phototube is (temporarily) in the dark, let us see what happens
when switch SW3 is closed, (Fig. 5-10).
The positive side of Cl is joined to the cathode of the 6F5GT
I
ZERO
PHOTOTUBE cuaaeur, ZERO
R3 ZERO ems 25L6GT
DROP \
ll7V
Ac CI z
Fig. S-'lO. The effect of closing SW3.
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I3O PHOTOELECTRIC CONTROL
triode by closing SW3 as shown by the dark lines in the drawing.
Since there is no grid current because of the highly negative voltage
across Cl, there is no drop across R5, which forms part of the com-
plete circuit. With the grid highly negative, the plate current of
the 6F5GT is completely cut off so that no current ows through
R3. This means that the voltage drop across R3 is zero at this
instant. If no difference exists across R3, then the grid bias of the
25L6GT must also be zero since the bias voltage is obtained directly
from this resistor.
Thus, the plate current of the 25L6GT will be large; just how
large it is depends upon the setting of R6 (Fig. 5-8) . This potentio-
meter is merely a voltage divider used to control the screen-grid
voltage of the tube. It will be remembered that the plate current
ENLARGER T PAEISGIIQI5
runousn
SW1 / NEGATIVE
O
|2ov
AC
O
\TH|N
OPTICAL L
PHOTOTUBE GLASS
LIGHT
FOR ELECTRON
EXPOSURE FLOW -)
~l 5w3
(A) EASEL
Fig. 5-II. (A) Position of the optical glass for activation of the phototube, as
well as for exposure of film; (B) Intensity of the light controls the period of
exposure.
of a pentode or beam-power tube is a function of the screen-grid
voltage and may be fully controlled in this manner. This is one of
the advantages of using a beam-power tube such as 25L6 in this
circuit. Maximum plate current the current for the zero-bias con-
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INDUSTRIAL PIIOTOCONTROL DEVICES I31
dition can be pre-adjusted so that it does not exceed the rating
of the tube or the relay coil.
When the SW3 is closed, the relay latches in and turns on the
enlarger light. This is the beginning of the exposure interval. Let
us now see how the light from the enlarger controls the period of
exposure and the part played by the density of the negative in
this process.
A thin sheet of optical glass [Fig. 5-1l(A)] placed at an angle
between the enlarger lens does not affect the light passing on to the
easel carrying the sensitive paper or lm, but does reect about
6% of it onto the phototube. If the negative is very dense, the
phototube receives little illumination; if the negative is under-
exposed or developed, the illumination is correspondingly greater.
Considering the condition in which a comparatively large amount
of light reaches the phototube, [Fig. 5-1l (B) ], we can see by the
arrows that current will ow upward through the phototube gradu-
ally discharging the capacitor. As this occurs, the control grid
becomes less negative and current begins to ow in R3. Referring
to Fig. 5-10, current in R3 causes a voltage drop across this resistor
which begins to apply an increasing negative bias to the control
grid of the 25L6GT. The plate current of this tube now decreases
to the point where the relay drops out, thereby extinguishing the
enlarger lamp and ending the exposure period. As the relay de-
energizes, the enlarger lamp extinguishes ending the exposure
period. For a denser negative and less phototube illumination, the
discharge process takes correspondingly longer, thus increasing the
time of exposure.
You will have noticed the presence of selector switch SW2 and
the capacitors all lumped under the symbol C1. Since this device
is to be used for all sorts of sensitized materials having vastly dif-
ferent photographic speeds, selection of C1 constitutes a coarse tim-
ing control for the particular material used. R5 is a ne control for
the same purpose. Both of these are precalibrated and noted, so that
they may be reset each time the same material is used.
Adjustment is handled in the following manner: the wiper of R6
is rst set so that the relay current is slightly larger than the pull-in
value when the control grid of the 25L6GT is connected to its
cathode instead of to the plate of the other tube. Do this once in
the life of the device. It is now necessary to adjust the screen voltage
so that the maximum 25L6GT plate current never exceeds a safe
value for relay operation. .
The control grid is then reconnected to the 6F5GT plate, and
the control is now ready for calibration. A series of photographic
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test strips are run through to determine correct exposure time for
various papers and lms, using both normal and abnormal nega-
tives. The required combination of Cl and R5 must then be
determined by trial and error, the goal being to obtain these
exposure times automatically. Once calibration is nished, test
strips need never be made again since the control will produce
uniformly good prints automatically.
High-Speed Photoelectric Counters in Industry
All counting operations involve the triggering of a relay or
solenoid that actuates the mechanism performing the operation.
In most industrial machinery, speed is of paramount importance,
so that a very fast acting photorelay must be employed. On the
other hand, positive operation generally calls for at least two
stages of amplication between which coupling circuits are required.
When coupling circuits are mentioned, one immediately thinks of
capacitors; yet capacitors tend to produce time-delay action that
ruins the speed of the relay response.
Let us study a three-stage, positive, high-speed photorelay (Fig.
5-12) that does not contain a single capacitor. Although this is not
the only design possible, it points out how engineering ingenuity
can overcome problems which seem at rst insuperable.
First study the complete circuit with a view to obtaining a general
idea of its constituents. It is d-c operated; that is, a power supply
capable of yielding 250 volts at about 75 ma is required. The circuit
is based upon the use of a sensitive, gas phototube - the 927 - so
that care must be taken to see that the rated anode voltage of this
tube is not exceeded.
A medium-mu double-triode such as the 6SN7GT or the
l2AU7GT is employed as a cathode-follower and as a control
amplier, each of the two sections performing one of these functions.
The relay tube is a beam-power, receiving-type 6V6 with a grounded
grid. As you inspect this portion of the circuit you will note that
the screen grid rather than the control grid acts as the triggering
electrode; this is rather unusual, of course, but will be explained on
the basis of the absence of capacitors in any part of the circuit. The
relay coil is the plate load for the relay tube and its armature, and
contacts may be connected to any extemal load to provide either
forward or inverse action.
The analysis of this circuit can be simplied by rst determining
the conditions that exist when the phototube is removed from its
socket.
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First, we can see that the control grid of the cathode follower is at
ground potential because of the connection to B through R4. The
plate currents of both triodes ow through the common cathode
resistors R5. This drop forms the bias for the cathode follower as
well as part of the bias for the control amplier. The constant
drop across R7 (by voltage division 10/260 X 250 = 9.6) of 9.6
volts completes the bias for the control amplier. Under these
TO
COUNTER
PHOTO CATHODE CONTROL
B, ruse FOLLOWER AMP
C 1
+250
V
IOOK
RI l/2I2AU7GTtr
25K I/2l2AU7GT
B_.
Q
Fig. 5-I2. High-speed photocounter circuit.
conditions, the control amplier will almost saturate, resulting in
the plate voltage drop of around 50 volts.
Due to the direct connection from the plate of the control ampli-
er to the screen grid of the 6V6 relay tube following it, the screen
potential with respect to B must be 50 volts.
As is evident from the circuit, the control grid of the relay tube
(6V6GT) is directly grounded. The cathode, on the other hand,
is given a positive bias by the voltage divider consisting of R9 and
R10 and also by the drop caused by the plate current of the tube
owing through R10. This action gives rise to a potential of about
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ll volts on the cathode of the 6V6GT. With only 50 volts on the
screen grid, a bias of 11 volts nearly cuts off the 6V6GT. Thus, the
relay cannot operate.
When the phototube is replaced in its socket and illuminated,
current ows up through R4 making the grid of the cathode-fol-
lower more positive. The resulting increase in plate current in the
left triode section of the l2AU7 produces a larger voltage drop
across the cathode resistor R5. This increased drop is of such
polarity to cause the control amplier to have sudden cut-off of
plate current.
When the control amplier cuts off, the voltage drop across its
plate load resistor R8 drops to zero causing the plate voltage to
approach full B+ value. Similarly, the screen of the relay tube
becomes very positive compared to its initial voltage value; a highly
positive screen means a large plate current for the bias conditions
present at the 6V6. Hence, the relay pulls in and the controlled
device operates. The absence of capacitors in this circuit makes
this circuit so fast in operation that its speed is limited only by the
inertia of the relay armature!
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why must a phototube used in a ame failure cut-off control
have little or no response in the infrared?
2. What is the function of a step-wedge densitometer? Give some
applications of this device other than those involved in pho-
tography.
3. Explain the operation of the step-wedge densitometer shown
in Fig. 5-5, as well as the steps in taking a reading.
4. Give the function of each of the resistors in the circuit of the
simple industrial machine protective photorelay, (Fig. 5-7) .
5. T/Vhat is the purpose of the 10K potentiometer in the 25L6GT
circuit of the automatic enlarging exposure control. (Fig. 5-8) ?
6. Give the operating details of the exposure control circuit start-
ing with the operation of switch SW3.
7. What are some important applications of high-speed counters
in industry? Referring specically to photoelectrically operated
counters, name some uses where high speed is extremely im-
portant.
8. Explain why the potential of the cathode of the 6V6 in the high-
speed counter (Fig. 5-12) must be xed at some small positive
voltage.
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Alarm relays, 77
Angstrom unit, 12
Anode characteristics, 35
Applications, Industrial. 75- 77
Automatic braking mechanisms, 125
Automatic exposure control for
photographic enlargers, 126
Back-wall cell, 102
Barrier layer cells, 101
Basic circuit action of a phototube, 21-22
Basic vacuum tube relay circuit, 48-51
Black light, I9
Bridge principle, 83
Burglar alarms, 58
Cadmium sulfide photocells, 94-95
Candle power, 15
Cathode:
coating, 19
follower, 65
structure of phototubes, 7
Charge carrier band, 94
Circuit for measurement of
illumination, 85-86
Circuit for measurement of ultraviolet
intensity, 86-87
Calorimetry, 76
Comparator, 84
Conduction band, 94
Conductors, 93
Copper oxide cells, 101
Critical potential, 53, 56, 58
Current carriers, 24
Densitometry, 77
Dynamic transfer curve, 81
Electromagnetic:
devices, 22
spectrum, 15
Energy band theory, 94
Exposure:
control circuit, 126
interval, 131
period, 131
timing, 77
index
Flame failure control, 117-121
Foot-candles, 15
Forward action circuit, 48
modifications of, 59-60
operation, 50
Frequency, 11
Front-wall cells, 102
Gamma rays, 15
Gas:
amplification factor, 25-26, 38
phototubes characteristics, 35-37
tube amplifiers, 47
tube current, 25
Heat response circuit, 41
High-speed photoelectric counter, 132-134
Hold-down current, 62
Incident light, 9
Infrared, 1
Intensity of illumination, 17, 97
Inverse action circuit modifications, 50,
60-61
Insulators, 93
Junction transistor, 113
Kelvin color scale, 18-19
Kinetic energy, 24
Light-catching surface, 7
Light:
choppers, 70
intensity, 17, 22, 29, 38, 86
propagation axis of, II
resistance, 4
response circuits, 41
vs current, 97
waves, 1 0-1 2
Light wave measurements:
amplitude of vibration, 11
Angstrom unit, 12
frequency, 11
velocity, 1 1
wavelength, I1
Load line, construction of, 31-34, 112-113
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I
DATE DUE
I36
it-/1'v
Longitud'
Luminou
I
Low-freqi. _
lumen,1< \ gllyqa .
5 .. .
phototube, 66
Maximum
Maximum
7.wt
Mea su ren
Mechanic_
I
Microwav
Millimicra
Modulate
Multiplier
"__ .\j _i .__
B
action, T """o _T _ _ F
structur
N-p-n phc
N-p-n phc
base,
OI
7
Optical sy
Oscillator,
dS
Photocath
Photocon
JUl_18Ill9I5
tteristics, 96-98
d
Photocond
chara II
c
spectral
temperc
time cor-_
Photoelect
campan
Eb, 42-43
07- I 08
I1, ..
control I
effect, 1
Photoelect
Photoemiss
cell, 5
tubes, 2|
trhotog raphic
|
I
I
Photogene
Photograp
Photorelay
circuits,
spurious
Photosensil
PIIOIOITGTISI
53, 57, 58
Phototube:
basic cir~
construct
clistortioi
emission
gas amp
gas, 23
GAYLORD
....4|uLi=|ia||\.e, 1
lification factor of, 24
ratings, 25, 27
saturation emmission of, 27
sensitivity, 26
spectral response, 19
vacuum, 20
Photovoltaic cell, 3, 47
back-wall, 102
front-wall, 102
performance curves, 102-104
Point-contact transistors, 109, 111-112
Positive ions, 23
PRINTEDINU s A II 3'6
Ultraviolet photometry, 79
Unit sun level, 105
Use of cathode followers, 65
Use of lens on phototube mount, 68-69
Use of phototransistor curves, 112
Using modulated light sources, 69
Vacuum phototube characteristic
curves, 30-31
Vacuum phototube ratings, 25-26
Vacuum tube amplifiers, 47
Valence electrons, 94
Wave concepts, 10
Wavelength , 11
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HARVEY POLLACK
Long a popular writer on physics and electronics, and presently a teacher
at Forest.HiIls High School, New York, Harvey Pollack is giving the benet
of many years experience in the writing of this book, PHOTOELECTRIC
CONTROL.
Mr. Pollack received a B.Sc. degree from Brooklyn College in 1934 and
followed this by an M.A. degree in physics from Columbia University in
1938. He did graduate work at Clarkson College of Technology (physics
and chemistry) in Potsdam, New York, Wesleyan University (physics and
geology) in Connecticut and South Dakota School of Mines (physics), Rapid
City, S. D.
Mr. Poliack has taught, in addition to Forest Hills High School, at
Hunter College, New York, Queens College, and the New York Institute of
Technology. ile is the winner of three top awards in three Science Teacher
Achievement Recognition contests. The 1956 award was for an Electronic
Demonstrator for Uniformly Accelerated Motion; in 1957 for a new ap-
proach to laboratory physics; and in 1959 for an Electronic Review Moti-
voting Automaton (a teaching machine
Mr. Pollack is a member of the Notional Science Teachers Association,
the National Education Association, and the Physics Teachers Club of New
York. He is the author of more than 100 full length technical articles in
physics and electronics appearing in popular technical magazines.
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC., NEW YORK
d division of HAYDEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
4
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Rider - Photoelectric Control - Harvey Pollack

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