Exp.No.

2
Tensile Test

Introduction

Universal Tensile Machine is one test using which one can determine various mechanical
properties of a material like Youngs Modulus, Toughness, resilience, ductility of a material,
yield strength, ultimate tensile strength etc.,. Specimens used in this test are chosen as per the
ASTM standards.

Once the test is being conducted in the UTM,
the stress vs. strain curve can be plotted. A
typical tensile test curve for the mild steel is
as shown.

The salient points are indicated in the
diagram. The curve in solid line is called as
the engineering stress strain curve and the
curve in the dotted line is called the True
stress strain curve.

Engineering stresses are computed on the
basis of the original area of the specimen;
such stresses are often referred to as
conventional or nominal or engineering
stresses and the resulting curve is called
engineering stress strain curve.

True stress Strain Diagram:

Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always
takes place. Thus, the stress calculated by dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual
area of the specimen at the same instant gives the so called true stress.

SALIENT POINTS OF THE GRAPH:

(A) Form the graph stress is proportional to strain or elongation is proportional to the load giving
a straight line relationship. This law of proportionality is valid upto a point A or we can say that
point A is some ultimate point when the linear nature of the graph changes or there is a deviation
from the linearity nature. This point is known as the limit of proportionality or the
proportionality limit.

1
(B) For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in the sense that the
deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The limiting point B is termed
as Elastic Limit.

(C) and (D) - Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally
recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when load is removed.
These two points are termed as upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress at the yield
point is called the yield strength.

(E) A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the
metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the load at
the ultimate strength. The highest point E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength
of a material.

(F) Beyond point E, the specimen begins to forms aneck. The load further falls from this
maximum until fracture occurs at F.

Modulus of elasticity: The slope of the curve in the
linear region will give the Youngs modulus or
modulus of elasticity.

Resilience and toughness: The area under the stress
strain curve within the elastic region gives the
resilience of the material and the area until the
fracture point gives the toughness of the material.

The stress strain curve for a rigid material is a line
along the x axis passing through the origin. For a
perfectly elastic material, the stress strain curve shall be a straight line inclined to x axis with
small deviation about the strain axis.

The Fig (a) shows the fracture of highly ductile fracture, Fig (b) shows moderately ductile
material and Fig (c) shows fracture without any yielding.

Based on this behavior, the materials may be classified as
ductile or brittle materials

Ductile Materials:

If we just examine the earlier stress-strain curve it can be
noticed that the extension of the materials over the plastic range
is considerably in excess of that associated with elastic loading.
The capacity of materials to allow these large deformations or
large extensions without failure is termed as ductility. The
materials with high ductility are termed as ductile materials.
Ductile materials fail after they plastically deform. A warning


or indication (formation of neck before the material fails) is the characteristic property of a
ductile material. The same is illustrated in the figures from Fig (a) through
Fig (e) is displayed.

Once the specimen breaks, a cup and conefracture of the specimen is form
as displayed.

Brittle Materials:

A brittle material is one which exhibitsrelatively small extensions or
deformations to fracture, so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test
graph is much reduced. This type of graph is shown by the cast iron or steels
with high carbon contents or concrete.

The Fig (b) below depicts the straight face of the fractured surface due to
brittle fracture

Conditions Affecting Mechanical Properties:

Factors that affect the mechanical properties

(1) It has been established that lowering the temperature or increasing the
rate of deformation considerably increases the resistance to plastic
deformation. Thus, at low temperature (or higher rates of deformation), metals and alloys, which
are ductile at normal room temperature may fail with brittle fracture.

(2) Notches i.e. sharp charges in cross sections have a great effect on the mechanical properties
of the metals. A Notch will cause a non-uniform distribution of stresses. They will always
contribute lowering the ductility of the materials. A notch reduces the ultimate strength of the
high strength materials.

The tensile test is the most widely used test to determine the mechanical properties of materials.
This test is carried out by Universal Testing Machine (UTM) which is shown in Fig. (2.1). On
this UTM compressive, bending, cyclic loading and torsion tests can also be performed.


















13

Grippers

Electricpanel

Figure2.1: Universal Testing Machine in MT-2 (Mech) lab

In this test a piece of material called specimen is held between two grippers and load is applied
along the axis of the specimen called axial load. Here the load is applied to the specimen by
pulling at one end till it fractures. During the test, the specimen deformation elastically first, then
under goes plastic deformation and finally specimen fails by fracture. Load applied and
elongation of the specimen are measured while test. Stress and strain are calculated from these
values and used to construct a stress-strain curve. From this curve, the elastic modulus and yield
strength are determined. The highest load in the tensile test gives the ultimate strength. After
fracture final length and final width, thickness of specimen are measured and used to calculate


14
the perce
ductility
true strai
propertie

Electric p
consists o


Operation

To start t
button on

This UTM
(i) C
(ii) P

Test sequ


Switc
Load
differ
Selec
Up /
direct
Selec
Enter
dimen
Press
Enter
Now
Fix th



ent elongatio
of the mate
in are calcul
es of a mater
panel of UT
of
I. M
II. Up
III. Po
IV. Dr
V. Dri
VI. M
VII. Sp
nal Procedu
the machine
n the side of
M can be op
Control Panel
C control m
uence for con
ch on the con
d and displac
rent control
ct required te
Down arrow
tion.
ct preload va
r the specime
nsions.
s * key to qu
r speed by pr
press the pu
he specimen
on and perce
erial. By usin
lated from th
ial can be ob
TM mounted
Main Supply O
p / Down sel
ower indicati
rive on green
ive off red pu
Manual /off/ a
peed setting
ure
e, switch the
f the machine
erated in two
l mode
mode
ntrol panel
ntrol panel w
cement are d
switches.
est key by pr
w key is us
alue (Fv) as p
en details by
uit this and co
ressing FN a
ush button to
n in the gripp
ent reduction
ng the actua
he load and
btained.
d at right sid
ON/OFF sw
lection switc
ion lamp (R
n push butto
ush button
auto selection
multiturn po
power supp
e-mounted e
o ways:
mode
which is mou
isplayed on
ressing TEST
ed to decide
percentage o
y using FN a
ome to norm
and 3 no. Ke
o drive gets t
pers by manu
n in area, re
al length and
elongation.
de of the mac
witchon the ri
ch.
ed)
on
n switch
otentiometer
ply on from
lectric panel
unted on the
respective w
T key at left
ed direction
of full load. D
and 8 no. key
mal display.
ey.
the supply an
ually operati
espectively.
d cross-secti
Thus, from
chine on ped
ight side of t
r for manual
main socket
l to ON.
table beside
windows as s
side of the p
of the test.
Default valu
y. Enter Sr.
nd machine r
ng through e
These quan
ional area, th
m one test va
destal as sho
the panel.
mode opera
t on the wal
e the UTM.
shown in Fig
panel.
For Tensil
ue is 0.1%
No, Gauge l
ready to ope
electric pane
tities indica
he true stres
arious mecha
own in fig. 2
ation.
l and turn th
g 2.2. It is ha
e Test it is
length, Spec
erate.
el.
te the
ss and
anical
2.1. It
he red
aving
Up
cimen
15
After
for th
Now




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contr
When
Now
peak
Note
Plot
conne


















r fixing the s
he test.
w tare the loa
F
drive will st
load and di
rol panel.
n load drops
see the test
load (F
p
),
all these val
t key on pan
ected to a pr
specimen in
d, displacem
Figure2.2. C
tart applying
splacement
to 75% of p
t results by
and displac
lues and tabu
nel is used
rinter. Dot m
the grippers
ment and pres
Control pane
g load and sp
gradually in
peak value, t
pressing PA
ement at pe
ulate.
to take the
matrix printer
s set the UTM
ss START k
el for UTM
pecimen defo
ncrease whi
test stops aut
ARA key w
eak load (D-
e print of th
r LX-300 or
M auto mod
key from con
in MT-2 (M
orming.
ich can be
tomatically.
which is betw
-F
p
) and dis
he load Vs D
equivalent i
e. Now the s
ntrol panel.
Mech) lab
observed in
ween displa
splacement a
Displacemen
is required to
set up is read

n the window
ay windows.
at rupture (D
nt graph if
o connect it.
dy
ws of
Find
D-F
p
).
it is
16

Switc
For th
green
Brin
(or un
The
ensur
Swit


Curr
panel
speci
Now
opti
again
Once
Selec












ch on the ma
he movemen
n color butto
ng the test
nloading) th
grippers can
red that the s
tch on the Co
ent values o
l of the Co
men.
w open the T
ions display
nst Load, Dis
e the mode
ct Test Typ
Te
achine by op
nt of gripper
on.
mode to
e specimen.
n be moved
specimen is l
ontrol Panel.
of load and d
ontrol Panel
TNE software
yed on the f
splacement a
is taken to P
e from the
est sequence
perating the O
rs and fixing
Manual
Up or Dow
loaded, the t
.
displacement
l. These are
e in the PC.
front panel.
and Speed ar
PC control,
Test Setup
e for PC con
On/Off swit
g the specim
and operat
wn with the c
test mode sh
t are displac
e the values
PC control
The figure
re set to defa
the test data
p menu on th
ntrol mode
tch on the rig
men, switch o
te the grip
control swit
hould be oper
ced on the re
that are di
is made by
below show
ault values.
a is fed thro
he top left.
ght side of th
on the powe
ppers manua
tches on the
rated to Au

espective wid
splayed due
clicking the
ws the same
ough the fol
he machine.
er by pushin
ally for lo
panel. Once
uto.
dows on the
e to fixing o
e PC and
e. Now the v
lowing proc
ng the
oading
e it is
e front
of the
Tare
values
cess.
17

A
m
C























T










As we are go
mild steel bar
Click Ok butt
The specimen
oing to condu
r, select the t
ton
n type is sele
uct a tensile
test type as
ected as Fla
test by plott
Load Vs Di
at because t
ting a load v
isplacement
the specimen
vs. displacem
t and Tens
n is a flat sam

ment curve fo
sile radio bu
.
mple.
for the
utton.
18

F
V


W
gr
th




Feed the test
V4=V5=125m
When the te
raph. Key in
he upper lim
t speed as V
mm/min. Sel
st is running
n the X and Y
its can be 50
1=V2=10 m
lect the Low
g, an online
Y axis limits
0mm for both
mm/min and
w Gear opt
display can
s for this. Th
h.
V3 as 125m
tion and click
n be made a
he lower lim
mm/min and
k Ok.
available thr
it for X and

the return sp

rough the on
Y axes are 0
peeds
nline
0 and
19

N
th
B
p
th
re
co


T
L
b
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Next the inpu
he ASTM E
Batch numbe
arameters th
he Initial w
espectively.
onducted.
The Preload
Load Cell d
eing conduc
Now Ok butto
ut data has t
E 8 standard
er and Serial
hat need to b
width, Orig
The Final l
d, the load
details (100k
cted in the lo
on is clicked
o be fed thro
ds. Enter the
Number are
be keyed in
ginal thickn
ength is left
required by
kN) are ente
ower zone,
d to confirm
ough the scr
e Batch Nu
e unique. As
after the tes
ness (as per
t blank and
the grippers
ered as the U
Lower Zon
the details.
reen that pop
umber and
s the % elon
st, these field
the ASTM E
should be e
s to grip the
UTM uses 10
e is being s
ps up. These
d the Seria
ngation, final
ds remain to
E 8 standard
entered once
specimen, i
00kN load c
selected from

e details are a
al Number
l diameter ar
o be empty.
ds) as 9 and
e the test is
is set a 0.1%
cell. As the t
m the drop d
as per
. The
re the
Enter
3 mm
being
%. The
test is
down.
20

T
d
ar
,
M
L
F
by



The selection
isplayed onc
re Ultimate
Maximum
Load , Br
Flexural M
y clicking O
n of Outpu
ce the test is
e Load, U
Displaceme
reaking Str
odulus, B
Ok.
ut Paramete
being condu
Ultimate Ten
ent, % E
ress , Yie
Bending Str
ers are don
ucted. The o
nsile Streng
Elongation
eld Load
ress, Load
e now. Thes
output param
gth, Displ
, % Redu
,Yield Str
d set Elon
se are the pa
meters that ne
acement at
uction in A
ress , Lo
gation. Co

arameters th
eed to be sel
Ultimate L
Area, Brea
ad/Width(c
onfirm the d

hat are
lected
Load
aking
cm) ,
details
21
O
d
cu
b
T
ap


%
ru




W

%
ar


W
sp








Once the Ok
etails are dis
urve plotted
e displayed
The results
ppropriate b
% Elongati
upture and it
Where L1 o
% Reductio
rea before it
Where A1
pecimen afte
k button is c
splayed. By
d between lo
furnishing th
can be prin
utton.
on It is th
ts original le
%
original Spec
n in area
s rupture and
%
original cro
er rupture.
clicked, a me
clicking ok
oad and disp
he entire set
nted/exporte
he ratio betw
ength:
Elongation
cimen length
It is the rati
d its original
Reduction
oss-section a
enu will be
button, the
placement. O
of results of
d or a pdf
ween the inc
n in length =
h, L2specim
o between th
l cross-sectio
in area =
area of the s
displayed fo
test will be
Once the test
f the test.
f version ca
crease of th
=
men length a
he decrease
on area:
specimen, A
or the confir
carried out
t is finished
an be genera
he specimen
after rupture
of the specim

A2cross-sec
rmation of a
displaying o
d, the Result
ated by sele

length befo
men cross-se
tion area of
all the
online
s will
ecting
ore its
ection
f the
22
Specimens for Simple Tension Test on UTM

According to the standards, ASTM E8 / E8M 09, the simple tension test on UTM may be
conducted using cylindrical specimen or flat specimen, sheet-metal specimen. The type of
specimen used depends on the actual product of interest. That means, for example it is necessary
to know the mechanical properties of a rectangular cross-section plate, sheet or wire type
product, it is recommended to use a flat specimen. On the other hand, when the product is having
bulk or cylindrical shape, a cylindrical specimen is recommended. When cylindrical specimen is
used, the dimensions need to be maintained as per the table and figure given below.



On the other hand, when flat specimen is used, two types of gripping are possible. The first type
of gripping is same as that for cylindrical specimen that is flat grips. In the second case of flat
specimen, the gripping is done by means of pins, supported through holes on the specimen. The
specimen information for both of these cases is given below.






























23

In our experiments, we may use a flat the specimen with dimensions as shown
below.
















The following details must be included in the report.

Aim: To conduct simple tension test on flat specimen on UTM of mild steel to observe the load-
displacement diagram and to find various mechanical properties of mild steel.

Procedure: Collect the UTM test specimen from the lab assistant and measure all the
dimensions and note down the same in the notebook. Mark the gauge length on the specimen
using dot punch or marker pen. Mount the specimen in the bottom pin holder/gripper first and
then add the upper pin holder/gripper by slowly adjusting the upper grip or pin holder down by
keeping the knob in manual position. Once the specimen is mounted, turn the knob to auto
position. Open the UTM software in the computer and give all the initial data as per specimen,
material, dimensions, geometry, type of loading, speed of testing etc. It is essential to conduct the
test at slow speeds of pulling for most tests unless we are studying the effect of strain rate.
Before beginning the tension test, set to zero the displacement as well as load by using the tare
function and reset displacement function. Then click on start test and observe the test
specimen as it is pulled by the upper grip/holder system while the lower gripper/holder system
stays stationery. Also observe the load-displacement graph being dynamically built and updated
on the computer screen. Even the scales for horizontal axis (displacement) and vertical axis
(load) scales are approximately set in the input data, the software automatically rescales them as
per the maximum values achieved for each of them by the end of the test. Once the test is
finished, the specimen would have necked and fractured down in to two pieces roughly midway
the gauge length, the upper gripper/holder assembly automatically stops moving and the final
load-displacement diagram with data is shown on the computer screen. Remove the two pieces
of the specimen and join them together carefully to measure the final distance between the gauge
points. Enter that data into the software to obtain the percentage elongation. Note that the value
of the Youngs modulus cannot be ascertained in a load-displacement test. For it, we need a
stress-strain diagram, which can be obtained by using an extensometer.

Table of Readings: Transfer data values and values of the various mechanical properties (yield
strength, ultimate tensile strength, percentage elongation, fracture strength etc.) in a tabular form
and sketch the load-displacement diagram, showing the various mechanical property points.

Figure: <Draw a neat sketch of the specimen with all dimensions, nature of fracture and load-
displacement diagram on the other side of the page>

Conclusions: <to be furnished by the student in the report>