Advanced fluid mechanics

Course faculty:
Dr . Khalil ahmad
Lab coordinator:
Muhammad Adeel
Determination of Minor losses
by using standard equipment
SEQUENCE
1. Different types of Heads
2. Reasons for loss of Heads
3. Types of losses like Major Losses and Minor Losses
4. How to determine Major losses
5. Introduction to standard equipment used to determine Minor
losses
6. How to determine Minor losses theoretically and practically
7. Comparison between theoretical and practical values.
Different types of Heads
There are usually three types of Heads
Flow Head or Pressure Head (Pressure/unit weight)
Elevation Head (Z)
Kinetic Head/velocity head
Units of energy head is in the form of linear measurement
Reasons for loss of Heads


What
do you
think
what is
reason
of loss
of
Energy
head?
C
a
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o
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tell
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ifferen
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b
etw
een

m
a
jo
r
lo
sses a
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m
in
o
r
lo
sses?
W
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a
t d
o
es

M
a
jo
r

&

M
in
o
r

d
icta
tes?
H
o
w

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in
o
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lo
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n

b
e
p
ro
d
u
ced

in
a
p
ip
e?
Determination of Major losses theoretically
Poiseuille's Equation For Laminar Flow
Darcy weisbach equation
Chezy equation for Head Loss
Introduction To Standard Equipment and
Procedure
The equipment measures pressure drops at various flow rates
when water flow through different pipe bends and fittings.
All bends and fittings are connected in series with pressure
tapings on both sides of each device.
A water manometer with a vent valve and a hand air pump is
connected to these tapings. A valve at the outlet is used to
control the flow.
Front View
Backside view
Procedure
Following steps should be followed
Before starting the test , place your instrument on Hydraulic Bench.
adjust leveling screws and connect water supply to bench outlet.
Procedure
Start the Hydraulic Bench and adjust flow to about 20 lpm and adjust
test set flow control valve to remove all air from the piping system by
purging.
Procedure
Adjust any discharge value through Hydraulic Bench.
Adjust manometer level reading midrange by using
Flow control valve.
Record this reading.
By taking different discharge take more readings.
One thing to be noted is
While moving from 1-2 portion , why there is increase
in water manometer Head?
How to determine minor Head losses
theoretically
We can calculate minor head losses step by step
1-2 portion (Sudden expansion):
There are two Head changes in this part.
1. Head change (Gain) due to change in Diameter and its value can be
calculated by Bernoullis equation.
H
f
= V
1
2
- v
2
2
/ 2g
2. Head Change (loss) due to sudden expansion and its value can be
calculated by following formula
H
f
= ( V
1
- V
2
)
2
/ 2g ( Equation 1)
V
1
= Velocity at contraction
V
2
= Velocity at dilation
Can you prove this equation?
HINT:
You can prove this equation by using
Bernoullis equation
Momentum equations
Equation of continuity
Determine V
1
and V
2
as you know Discharge through pipes
and diameters of pipes.
Pipe cross-section Diameter = 20 mm
Expanded pipe cross section = 35mm
Compare calculated ( Theoretical ) values for Head loss and
measured values for Head loss determined during Practical.
2-3 portion ( Sudden Contraction ):
There are two Head changes in this part.
1. Head change (loss) due to change in Diameter and its value can be
calculated by Bernoullis equation.
H
f
= V
1
2
- V
2
2
/ 2g
2. Head Change (loss) due to sudden contraction and its value can be
calculated by following formula
H
f
= k V
2
2
/ 2 g (Equation 2)
Here K =[ 1 / C
c
1] and depending on D
2
/ D
1
. Its values can
be calculated from following table.
Can you prove this equation?
HINT:
You can prove this equation by using
Same equation 1 but by assuming that shape in which water
will enter contracted portion will be like that shape formed in
dilated portion.
Equivalent Length of Bends & Fittings.
Energy loss in bends and fittings can not be expressed in definite
formula as in pipe flow. However energy loss can be expressed as

H
f
= k V
2
2
/ 2 g
That is why to determine losses across bends and fittings we use
Equivalent length or K value of Bends and Fittings.
Equivalent Length is length of straight and round pipe along
which loss of pressure head will be same as caused by the bend
or fitting.
Procedure to determine Head loss across
Bends and Fittings
Formula to determine Head loss will be
H
f
= fL
e
V
2
/2Dg
f = Darcy-weishbach friction factor determine from Moody diagram
L
e
= equivalent length determine from table
V = velocity determine by Q/ A of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
g = Gravitational constant
Moody Diagram
Moody diagram is used to determine friction factor from relative
surface factor and reynolds no or product of velocity (m/s) and
Diameter of pipe (cm). It is applicable only to Turbulent flow.
Relative roughness factor
E/d factor is known as relative roughness factor.
E= roughness of pipe material (mm)
D = diameter of pipe (mm) =21mm
How to use Moody chart
First determine relative roughness factor and draw a horizontal line on
Graph. Lets suppose it is .007
How to use Moody chart
Then determine either reynolds no or VD and draw a vertical line on
Graph. Lets suppose it is 1.529 m/s cm.
How to use Moody chart
Intersection of both lines will give us value of friction factor.
From 3-4 Miter 90 degree
Now you can evaluate head loss across miter 90degree as you
know all factors in formula
H
f
= fL
e
V
2
/2Dg
f = Darcy-weishbach friction factor determine from Moody
diagram
L
e
= equivalent length determine from table = 3.8 ft
Compare this value with practical measured values
Head loss across small radius, large radius, 45
degree elbow and 90 degree elbow
Head loss across all these fittings can be determined by evaluating K
Factor for each and comparing its value with reference values. K value
can be evaluated by following formula
K= H
f
2g/ V
2
2
H f = measured change in Head during practical
V
2
= velocity of water through pipe (21mm)
One thing to be noted is that during 6-7 portion 45 degree elbow
measured head loss will be determined in such way
H
f67
= (H
6
H
7
)
While across other elements it will be determined like this
H
f iL
= (H
i
H
L
)
H
I =
initial Head

H
L =
Last Head