1.

INTRODUCTION
Fungi are non-photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms which grow as single
cells (yeasts) or as multicellular filaments (moulds/fungi), acquiring nutrition by
absorption from their surroundings. There is no material of biological origin that
remains free of fungi. Although commonly and unpleasantly thought of as
causing spoilage of stored food and diseases in plants, the large majority of fungi
decompose dead material and recycle essential mineral nutrients (particularly
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) required to build the cytoplasm. Fungi thus
contribute to the green cover on earth1. Some fungi live in plants as endophytes
(symptomless parasites)2, or as symbiotic partners with algae (lichens), enabling
them to grow under harsh conditions which they could not do otherwise. Several
fungi have the ability to cause diseases in plants and a few of them are
opportunistic human pathogens3. The generally accepted estimate of the number
of species of fungi on Earth is a conservative 1.5 million (17,19,25). This estimate
was derived by extrapolating both from data on known fungi from well-studied
regions, as well as data on well-studied fungi from plant hosts (17). Estimates of
the species numbers in each major fungal group corroborate this conclusion (45).
Although it is uncertain exactly how many fungal species are already known, one
can be reasonably confident that it is in the range of 72,000 (21) to 100,000 (45).
This implies that we know as little as 5%, i.e., only 1 in 20 of the species of fungi
that exist. Clearly the knowledge gap is immense. But where are the remaining
1.43 million species to be found? The answer to this question is essential for
mycologists and plant pathologists to be able to anticipate and respond to
problems resulting from emerging diseases caused by previously unknown or
understudied species and to prioritize and direct resources toward understanding
the systematics of the most important and unknown groups of fungal plant
pathogens.


The number of habitats that potentially support specialized and unique
fungi is enormous. The fungi described as new to science during 1981 to 1990
were associated with 1,982 host genera or substrata. Some previously
unexplored substrata and habitats from which these fungi were found include the
rumens of herbivorous mammals; algae, lichens, and mosses; marine plants,
including mangroves and driftwood; rocks; and insect scales. Soil is one of the
substrates from which fungi have been studied for many years, resulting in some
relatively comprehensive accounts of soil fungi. Studies suggest that many fungi
also remain associated with insects so called entomopathogenic fungi remain
vastly unexplored. Hawksworth (17) adopted a conservative approach to both
insect numbers and the extent of host specificity of the insectivorous fungi. New
data have been presented on the extent of host specificity in the insect infecting
Laboulbeniales, a group of fungi that occur on the exoskeletons of beetles and
flies. Detailed comparisons were made between rich collections from sites in the
United Kingdom and Sulawesi in Indonesia (50). This analysis suggests that,
although only 1,855 species of Laboulbeniales are currently known, the actual
number is likely to be between 10,000 and 50,000 species. This implies that only
3.7 to 18.5% of the species in the order are known. The situation may be even
more extreme in the case of the Trichomycetes, a group of enigmatic fungi
occurring in the hindguts of insects and other invertebrates. These organisms are
so poorly studied in most regions of the world that generalizations are hazardous.
Insect fungi exist as commensals deriving nutrition from gut contents without
causing harm to the host, as ectoparasites getting nutrition from cuticular waxes,
or as true insect pathogenic fungi obtaining nutrients from within the insect.Insect
pathogenic fungi are unique in being able to infect across the insect cuticle, the
first barrier to infection. Germinating conidia produce extracellular lipases,
chitinases, and proteases to initiate cuticle invasion. Once inside the host, the
fungus develops as a insects immune system, modify the insects behavior, or
act as post-mortem antibiotics against competing microorganisms. After death,

the fungus reverts to a filamentous form and typically digests the remaining
internal organs, leaving only the chitin/protein exoskeleton (Samson et al., 1988;
Hajek and St Leger, 1994). The most well-known insect pathogenic fungi are
members of the highly host-specific megagenus Cordyceps, with 300+ species
(Hywel-Jones, 2002). For example Cordyceps nutans infects only Hemiptera
(stink bugs). Within Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, and bees) Cordyceps
myrmecophila and Cordyceps irangiensis infect formicine ants, which inhabit leaf
litter, Cordyceps unilateralis and Cordyceps pseudolloydii infect ants on the
underside of leaves, while the related Cordyceps sphecocephala infects wasps
(Evans and Samson, 1984; Hywel-Jones, 1995). Cordyceps spp. usually have
restricted geographical ranges. Cordyceps militaris is known from Lepidoptera
pupae in northern temperate regions (Europe, Northern Asia, and North
America). Cordyceps stylophthora is known from North America and Japan; for
example, Cordyceps nutans has an East Asian range from Japan, Korea, China,
and Thailand. Although restricted in host range and geography, the asexual
states of some Cordyceps spp. (e.g., Metarhizium and Beauveria) have migrated
to agricultural ecosystems, increased their host range, and become panglobal.
Cordyceps sinensis has been known and used in Chinese traditional medicine for
about 2000 years (Zhu et al., 1998). Interest in Cordyceps sinensis has
increased in the last 15-20 years as demand for alternative medicines has
spread into Western culture. In the early 1990s, several relatively unknown
Chinese distance runners broke world records, and suspicion initially fell on
performance enhancing drugs. Eventually, a cocktail of natural Chinese herbal
medicines was implicated, with Cordyceps sinensis being the major ingredient.
However, the medicinal value of Cordyceps sinensis remains to be scientifically
evaluated. In contrast to most Cordyceps found at lower elevations and in
forested areas, Cordyceps sinensis grows in Himalayan alpine grasslands above
4300 m, where it infects larvae of Hepialus (Lepidoptera, ghost moths).

It is called the Winter Worm Summer Grass in Chinese, because in winter
months it is seen as a worm (larva), while in the summer the infected larva dies
and the fungus fruiting body grows above the soil as a grass. Moreover,
entomopathogenic fungi are also used as biological control agents as most of
these fungi infect insect guts and kill them. In recent years, they have also been
used to control mosquito. Particular focus is on species belonging to the genera
Lagenidium, Coelomomyces, Entomophthora, Culicinomyces, Beauveria, and
Metarhizium. Many mosquito-pathogenic fungi were expected to be used for the
control of medically important vector species (Service 1983; Federici, 1995).
Unfortunately, none of the fungi described above are specifically adapted as
larvicidal agents against important vector species such as the African malaria
vectors in the Anopheles gambiae complex. The larval habitats of these mosquito
species include a variety of transient, mainly sunlit, rainwater pools, such as
borrow-pits, drains, brick-pits, car-tracks, foot-and hoof prints around pond and
water-holes (Lyimo, 1993). Most of these sites are transient, and in some areas
breeding is highly seasonal, following the rainfall pattern of that specific area. It is
very unlikely that under normal field conditions, larvae of these mosquito species
are in contact with any of the aquatic fungi discussed above, even though some
infected females may contaminate a breeding site during oviposition.
Lagenidium, Coelomomyces, and Culicinomyces are all aimed at the larval
stages of mosquitoes and not at the adult stage. In the field, mortalities of
immature mosquitoes can commonly be 95% or more, yet the numbers of
emerging adults may still be sufficient for maintaining substantial disease
transmission. The important issue is how adult populations are affected (Service,
1983). Increasing evidence suggests that heterogeneity in the agricultural
landscape is crucial for the maintenance of the diversity of species and
ecological functional groups of organisms that are relevant for pest management
in future sustainable agriculture. Landscape structure is also important when
predicting the recruitment potential of organisms for biological control by changes
in agricultural practices. Both empirical evidence as well as simulation studies
suggests that diversity in the guild of natural enemies is important for efficient
biological pest control in agroecosystems. Thus initiatives for enhancing
population levels of predators and parasitoids in CBC may simultaneously benefit
the communities of entomopathogenic fungi in agroecosystems. Considering the
vast diversity of entomopathogenic fungi which are rather unexplored and their
ability to produce bioactive substances the present work was under taken with
following aim and objectives:

1. Collection of dead different insects from natural environment
2. Isolation of entomopathogenic fungi from the collected samples
3. Morphological and microscopic characterization of the fungal isolates
4. Determination for antimicrobial activity from isolated entomopathogenic
fungi


REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Studies of biodiversity in agroecosystems and the delivery of ecosystem
services to agricultural production have usually ignored the contribution of
entomopathogens in the regulation of pest populations (Tscharntke et al., 2005).
However, entomopathogens are among the natural enemies of arthropod pests
in agroecosystems. An improved understanding of the ecology of indigenous
populations of these beneficial organisms is a prerequisite for the evaluation of
their contributions to pest control and for predicting the impact of agricultural
practices on their populations. The anamorphic entomopathogenic fungi
Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and Metarhizium anisopliae
(Metschnikoff) Sorokin from the order Hypocreales (Ascomycota) are natural
enemies of a wide range of insects and arachnids and both fungi have a
cosmopolitan distribution (Rehner, 2005). Much effort has been put into research
on the development of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae as biological control agents
(for inundation and inoculation biological control) to be applied in agriculture and
forestry in temperate regions. However, this bulk of knowledge is in striking
contrast to the lack of research into the fundamental ecology of these fungi in
terrestrial ecosystems, including agroecosystems.
1. MICROBIAL DIVERSITY
The microbial world traditionally consists of all organism groups that can
be seen only with a microscope (i.e.) the fungi, bacteria, archaea, algae,
protozoa and a number of newer and less known lower eukaryotes . If one
considers the biodiversity of all these groups, the task is enormous and the
subject of many specialized volumes, several volumes have been devoted to
microbial diversity .Therefore we focus on the fungi with some comment on the
fungi ,the two groups of greatest interest in industrial microbiology and on
recovering diversity through retrieving DNA from nature.
The extent of bacterial diversity is known and without a rationally based
extrapolation. This is not the case for fungi .The number of known spices is about
72000. Hawks worth has conservatively estimated the no of fungal species to
about 1.6 million based on an experimentally determined ratio of six unique
fungal species per plant species time the 270000 plant species in the world a
reasonably well accepted number .This does not account for species associated
with insects and perhaps different ratio of fungal species per plant species in the
tropical and polar region .The case for bacteria is far more primitive .only about
4200 species have been described .It is widely recognized that this represents at
best only 0.10 to 1% organisms in nature .No rational attempt has been done for
fungi because too many coefficient for such exploration are unknown .Number of
bacterial species is much higher than the currently known number of species
May described the relationship that showed that biodiversity increases as
the body length of the organism decreases, at least down to organism of several
millimeters in length. For organisms smaller than this, however there may not be
separate species in different climate and geographic regions as there are far
larger organisms. It doesn't consider the variety of different niches known to
harber prokaryotes. E.g. special symbolise, extreme environments (temp, pH,
salt, pressure and their combination) and novel energy generating biochemistry.
Prokaryotes have been on earth perhaps 3.8 billion years, much longer than
higher life forms. Evolutions should have created enormous diversity during this
extensive period of time. Some extinction would of course have occurred, but the
planetary changes during this time are not ones thought to have been particularly
lethal to most prokaryotes. Hence this long evolutionary period would also argue
for high prokaryotic diversity. Microbial diversity has several important values to
society and to the earth's ecosystem.
Micro-organisms are of critical important to the sustainability of life on our
planet including recycling elements on which primary productivity depends,
producing and consuming gases important to maintain our climate and destroy
the waste of human civilization.
Discovering of microbial biodiversity expand the frontiers of knowledge
about strategies and limits of life, including microbes that live at the extreme
conditions known for life and one that have evolved novel redox couples for
capturing energy.
Microbial diversity represents the largest untapped reservoir of
biodiversity for potential discovery of new biotechnology products, including new
pharmaceutical, new enemies, new speciality chemicals or new organisms that
carry out novel processes.
Microbes often play key roles in conservation of higher organism and In
restoration of degraded ecosystem. Microbes often play
1.1 FUNGAL DIVERSITY
Fungi have world wide distribution and grow in a world range of habitats,
including extreme environment such as deserts or areas with high salt
concentration or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can
survive the intense UV and cosmic radiations encountered during space travel.
Most grow in terrestrial environment through several species live partly or solely
in aquatic habitats.
Around 100,000 species of fungi have been formally described by
taxonomist s but the global diversity of fungi's kingdom is not fully understood.
On the basis of observation of the ratio of the number of fungal species to the
number of plant species in the selected environments. The fungi kingdom has
been estimated to contain about 1.5 millions species. In mycology species have
historically been distinguished by a variety of method and concepts.
Classification based on morphological characteristics such as the size and the
shape of spores or fruiting structure has traditionally dominated fungal
taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and
physiological characteristics such as their ability to metabolize certain
biochemical or the reaction to chemical test. The biological species concept
discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular
tools such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis and phylogenetic
analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced. The resolution and adds
robustness to estimate of genetic diversity within various taxonomy groups.
The variety and galaxy of fungi and either natural beauty occupy prime
place in biological world and India has been the cradle for such fungi. Only of
total fungal wealth has been subjected to scientific scrutiny and mycologists
have to unravel the in explored and hidden wealth. One third of fungal diversity
of the globe exists in India. Out 1.5 million of fungi, only around 5-10% of fungi
can be cultured artificially.
The number of fungi recorded in India exceeds 27,000 species the largest
biotic community after insects. The true fungi belong to kingdom Eukaryote
which has 4 phyla, 103 orders, 484 families and 4979 genera. The eight edition
of "Dictionary of the Fungi" has recognised 11 phyla. The number of fungal
genera reported from the world and that from India between 1905 and 1995 are
about 205 new genera have been described from India of which 32% were
discovered by CV. Subhramanium of the University of Madras. Of these
approximately 27000 species are reported to colonize diversified habits. This
indicates a ten-fold increase in the last 70 years. Manoharchary and his co-
workers have added 42 new genera, 60 new taxa and 500 new additions to fungi
of India.
a. Myxomycotina
Certain fractions of the mycota of temperate soil are reasonable well
characterized and their identification is available. Other general reference that
are useful in the identification of soil fungi include von aryl Farr et al and Haws
worth Barron provides a synthesis of the biology, identification and isolation of a
unique subset of soil fungi, the nematode destroying fungi. The apostrophic
basidiomycetes in all probability the most important group of fungi in the initial
delignification of plant debris entering soil are poorly represented by methods
aimed at isolating soil fungi and are greatly underrepresented in discussions of
soil mycota. New methods for the selective isolation of these and other
underrepresented groups of soil fungi are representing by throb et al and bills et
al. Since the apostrophic basidiomycetes in culture lack sufficient morphological
characters or literature for their identification. Identification is the best attempted
using DNA sequencing and placement in phylogenetic framework of known
sequence.
The fungal kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with
varied ecologies ranging from single cell aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms.
However little is known of the true biodiversity of kingdom. Fungi which has been
estimated at around 1.5 million species with about 5% of these having been
formally classified. Ever since the pioneer 18
th
and 19
th
century taxonomical
works of Carl Linnaeus Christian henclrik person and Elias mangos fries, fungi
have been classified according to their morphology i.e. characteristics such as
spore colour or microscope features and physiology. Advanced molecular
genetic have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy
which has sometimes challenged the historical grouping based on morphology
and other trait. Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped
reshape. The classification of kingdom fungi, which is divided into one kingdom,
seven phyla and ten subphyla.
b. Mastigomycotina
Fungi belonging to mastigomycotina form a prevalent group of fungi in
water. They comprise of members Chytridiomycetes, Hyphochytridiomyctes and
Oomycetes and colonize diverse habitats, such as water, humid soils, insects,
keratin, chitin, angiospermic tissue, pollen grains and others, and live either as
saprophytes or parasites. Such fungi have been arbitrarily grouped in this sub-
division on the basis of zoospore and oospores and comprise 204genera and
1160 species. Chytridiomycetous fungi occuras saprobes on plants and animal
remains in water while other members occur as parasites on algae and aquatic
animals. Sparrow? has discussed various aspects of this group of fungi. The
Oomycetes contain? 4genera and 580 species, which are mostly aquatic and
live as parasites or saprophytes. Das Gupta8 and Manoharachary6have made
detailed studies of the floristic, taxonomy and ecology of aquatic fungi from
India.
Fungi are cosmopolitan in oceans and estuaries and occur commonly on
decomposing organic matter such as drift and intertidal wood. Initial studies of
marine fungi in India were mostly confined to marine sediments and mangrove
mud. An extensive survey of marine fungi from the west coast of India,
particularly Maharashtra coast, was made by Borse and Raghukumar. One-
fourth of the world's coastline is dominated by mangroves, which are distributed
in 112 countries and territories comprising about 181,000 sq km13. Mangroves
constitute the second most important ecosystem among the marine ecosystems
in productivity and sustain yield of coral reefs14. Mangrove forests generate
considerable amount of detritus such as leaf litter, woody debris
andinflorescence15 and hence constitute an ideal habitat for many detritus
dependent fauna and microbes. Plant-fungus ratio is one of the important
yardsticks to estimate the richness and diversity of fungi of a region16. Many
postulation shave estimated global fungal population (May, 2000) between 0.5
and 9.9 million species 17. Plant-fungus ratio in tropics has been predicted as 1:
33 against 1: 6 intemperate regions16, 18. Mangrove fungi are the second
largest group among the marine fungi19. However, the current pattern of
assessment of higher fungi in mangrove habitats is mainly oriented towards
assessment of typical marine fungi and the rest, e.g. freshwater, terrestrial, aero-
aquatic fungi, are neglected.
c. Zygomycotina
These fungi reproduce asexually by sporangiospores and are dispersed
either violently or passively by wind, rain or animals. They are ubiquitous in soil
and dung, occurring mostly as saprophytes; few are parasitic on plants and
animals. Trichomycetous fungi live in the guts of arthropods. About 1000 fungal
species belonging to Zygomycotina have been reported from India. Members of
this fungal group are important in industry, food and in understanding the
physiology, biochemistry and genetics. Sakseneavasiformis, a unique
indigenous fungus, has found specialattention in medical mycology.
d. Ascomycotina
Ascomyceteous fungi comprise a wide variety that differs in morphology,
ontogeny, ascocarp details, ascus organization nature of ascospores, ultra
structure and other charaCters besides occurrence in diversified habitats.
Ascomycotinais the largest sub-division of the fungi encompassing2700 genera
and 28,500 species. Ascomycetous yeasts are common in moist, sugar-rich
environments like plant surfaces and fruits but are also prevalent in soil, and
fresh and marine water bodies. Importance of yeasts in Industrial fermentation,
like brewing and baking, is well-known.

e. Basidiomycotina
This group comprises largely of fleshy fungi which include toadstools,
bracket fungi, fairy clubs, puff balls, stinkhorns, earthstars, bird's nest fungi and
jelly fungi. They live as saprophytes however some are serious agents of wood
decay. Some toadstools which are associated with trees form mycorrhiza, a
symbiotic association 30while others are severe parasites, e.g. Armillary mellea
which destroys a wide range of woody and herbaceous plants. Some fleshy fungi
are notorious in being poisonous, however, a majority is harmless and some are
good toeat31. Mushrooms occur in various shapes, size and colour and have
attracted the attention of naturalists and are thus prized as drawings, paintings,
sculptures, etc (Figure 5).ln nature, mushrooms grow wild in almost all types of
soils, on decaying organic matter, wooden stumps, etc. They appear in all
seasons; however rains favour rapid growth when organic matter or its
decomposition products are easily available. More than 2000 species of edible
mushrooms are reported in the literature from different parts of the world.
Singer32 had reported 1320 species belonging to 129 genera under Agaricales.
Among fungi, basidiomycetes in particular have attracted considerable
attention as a source of new and novel metabolites with antibiotic, antiviral,
phototoxic and cytistatic activity. About 10,000 species within the overall fungal
estimates of 1.5 million belong to this group. Mushrooms alone are represented
by about 41,000 species; of which approximately 850 species are recorded from
India 33.
Rusts are the largest group of plant parasitic fungi in Basidiomycotina that
cause severe diseases of economically important crop plants like wheat, corn,
cereals, legumes, beans and grasses. They are obligate in nature except a few
and produce more than one spore forms in their lifecycle. More than 160 genera
of rusts have been recorded, out of which 46 are monotypic comprising 7000
species, world over (Figure 6). Geographically, rusts are distributed all over the
world except Antarctica
f. Deuteromycotina
Deuteromycetes constitute an artificial group, which represents asexual
phases of Ascomycotina and Basidiomycotina. The multiplication occurs by the
production of mitotic spores or conidia from specialized hyphae called
conidiophores. Conidial ontogeny forms the basis for identification and
segregation of fungi imperfection. Hughes40had visualized thallic and blastic, as
the two basic developmental patterns of fungi. Louis Rene and Charles Tulsan
wrote in 1811 at the end of their work 'In order to study the hidden marvels of
these fungi, one must devotea great deal of labour and patience, but in gazing
upon them when one discovers them, how much greater is the Joy'.
Deuteromycetes comprise 1700 genera of Hyphomycetes, and 700 genera of
Coelomycetes that cover some 20, 000 known species. They colonize, survive
and multiply in air, litter, soil and other substrates and contribute extensively
towards bio-degradation and recycling of organic matter, enzyme production, and
industrial production including antibiotics, immune regulators, bio-control agents,
besides causing profound mycoses, allergies and plant diseases. About 8000
Fungi Imperfection are reported from India.
EM fungi can contribute up to 25% or more of root biomass of forests,
thus contribute effectively as a major structural component of the forest
ecosystem. Diversity of macro fungi has been extensively investigated globally
during the last decade or s046. But such fungal forms can help to develop
management strategies of plants at community or local level, only if appropriate
information with respect to species richness is known. While this information has
been extensively generated for forests in North
America, most studies in the Indian context34 have looked at the
distribution of various macro fungi without recourse to ecosystem dynamics.
Ability to help plant withstand various kinds of abiotic and biotic stresses but also
with heir new found role in evolution, ecosystem dynamics, and plant community
establishment. AM fungi comprise approx. 150 species, placed in Zygomycotina,
order Glom ales and on account of their beneficial effect on plant growth, fossil
record of such fungi has helped unravel the origin of land flora.
1.2 COMMUNITIES OF FUNGI AND ECOLOGY
Fungi are known to playa vital role as decomposers, symbionts of plants
and animals and as parasites of plants indifferent ecosystems. Fungi interact
with their hosts, and also with abiotic variables in the environment. They occur
on rocks, in soil, in sea and freshwater, in extreme habitats, experiencing high
and low temperature, on dry substrates and in concentrated nutrients. Members
of mucorales are considered as ruderals since they survive in soil as long as
nutrients are available although they are not capable, of degrading cellulose or
lignin. Fungi like Fusarium, GliocIa dium, Penicillium and Trichoderma are stress
tolerant. Majority of fungi are mesophiles with maximum growth between 25 and
30C (Mucor mucedo, Mortierella, Penicillium chrysogenium) however
Cylindrocarpon sp., Candida Scottie are cold tolerant( psychrotolerant ) and can
grow near OC; others are thermo tolerant and grow above40C (Rhizomucor,
Thermomyces, Talaromyces). Xerotolerant fungi can grow on dry material
(Aspergillus, Pencillium)with low matric potential (aw) while osmo tolerant grow
at very low osmotic potential (Pichia sp.). Dung of her bivorous mammals
harbors a large number of fungi, termed coprophiles, of which Pilobolous,
Ascobolus and Basidiobolus are famous for their special shot-gun dispersal
mechanism.
Mushroom compost, a complex man-made ecosystem, harbors complete
spectrum of microbial diversity -mesophilic and thermophilic. From a purely
microbial ecology point of view, this controlled ecosystem is indeed unique since
conditions under which the crop is grown and relatively short time required to
complete the succession cycles, is not matched elsewhere. Microbial community
succession occurs at a very fast pace and changes with the temperature
gradient of two phases. Mushroom compost fungi constitute a dominant
component with respect to species richness, distribution and abundance:
A threat to fungi throughout the globe is of concern since they are not only
beautiful but also playa significant role in human welfare. Moore et al.148 have
suggested the following steps for fungal conservation: ( i ) Conservation of
habitats, (ii) In-situ conservation of non-mycological reserves/ecological niches,
and (iii) Ex situ conservation especially for saprotrophic species growing in
culture. Fungi are very seldom legally protected however in Slovakia, 52 species
have a special legal status, enabling managers to prevent damage to their
habitat149. In the absence of legal protection, some effort needs to be made to
have code of practice or suggestive documents stressing the importance of
fungal conservation, a practice adopted in UK and Switzerland. One of the tools
that would help in conservation is inventorization. In most countries checklists of
fungi are not available however such projects are now operative under the
umbrella of IUCN. To help culture collections centre maintain appropriate
standards, the World Federation for Culture Collections (WFCC) has formulated
guidelines which outline the necessary requirement150. The first service culture
collection was that of Frantisek Kral in German Technical University in Prague
that was established151 in 1890. World data center152 now has 350registered
culture collection centers in its database. The selection of preservation technique
for fungi not only depends upon the success of the method but also upon the use
of the organism, time, facilities and resources available. Long-term stability is
considered together with the required availability of the culture without delay.





Fig. An Environmental Isolates of Penicillium
1. hypha 2. conidiophore 3. phialide 4. conidia 5. septa
Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2
10 m in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their
tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along
existing hyphae by a process called branching, or occasionally growing hyphal
tips bifurcate (fork) giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. The combination of
apical growth and branching/forking leads to the development of a mycelium, an
interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic:
septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal
cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the
hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei;
coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow
cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the
dolipore septum in the fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae
are essentially multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed
specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples
include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules
of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume
nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokontsa grouping of evolutionarily related
organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellumall phyla except
for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the
eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., -1, 3-glucan)
and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin.
1.3 MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES
Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on
various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and on spoiled food, where
they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in
laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can
exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be
used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some
individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the
case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes, which extends over an area of
more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly
9,000 years.[50] The apotheciuma specialized structure important in sexual
reproduction in the ascomycetesis a cup-shaped fruiting body that holds the
hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruiting
bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can
sometimes grow very large, and many are well-known as mushrooms.
1.4 GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGY
Mold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken
approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days.
The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells
in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients,
because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae
are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates
and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example,
the plant pathogen Magnaporthe grisea forms a structure called an appressorium
that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the
appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals
(1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar
structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes. The mechanical pressure exerted
by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase
intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Morphological
adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted
into the environment to digest large organic moleculessuch as
polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and other organic substratesinto smaller
molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of
filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashioni.e., by extension into one direction
by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Alternative forms of fungal growth
include intercalary extension (i.e., by longitudinal expansion of hyphal
compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi,
or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and
other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of
somatic and reproductive cellsa feature independently evolved in animals and
plantshas several functions, including the development of fruiting bodies for
dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate
colonization and intercellular communication. Traditionally, the fungi are
considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other
organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic
versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for
growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or
ethanol. For some species it has been shown that the pigment melanin may play
a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation;
however, this form of "radiotrophic" growth has only been described for a few
species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical
and biochemical processes are not known. The authors speculate that this
process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead utilizing
ionizing radiation as a source of energy.
1.5 REPRODUCTION
Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and
genetic makeup within this kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all
fungi reproduce by different modes of propagation; for example, reproduction
may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the
teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental conditions trigger genetically
determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized
structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction
by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.
1.6 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial
fragmentation is common; it maintains clonal populations adapted to a specific
niche, and allows more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi
imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise
all the species which lack an observable sexual cycle.
1.7 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction with meiosis exists in all fungal phyla (with the
exception of the Glomeromycota). It differs in many aspects from sexual
reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups
and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual
structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal
isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The
major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of
their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures,
asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes, respectively. Some species may allow mating only between
individuals of opposite mating type, while others can mate and sexually
reproduce with any other individual or it self. Species of the former mating
system are called heterothallic, and of the latter homothallic. Most fungi have
both an haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing
fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into
an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the
initiation of the sexual cycle. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a
dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not
combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells.





Fig. The 8-spored asci of Morchella elata, viewed with phase contrast
microscopy
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-
bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook at the hyphal septum. During cell
division, formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided
nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci) is
then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in
an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by
meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may
germinate and form a new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in
basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae
fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more
extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing
mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is
formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the
ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for
controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage
with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is
formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid
basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known
basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms. In
glomeromycetes (formerly zygomycetes), haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse,
forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile
gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-
walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it
undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form
asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly
disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia.
1.8 SPORE DISPERSAL
Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively
dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection
ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling
through the air over long distances.
Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore
surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For
example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is
such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance
enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of
single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water
(Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release
with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore
is ejected 0.010.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores
into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms
for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The bird's nest fungi use
the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting
bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively
colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores.
When conidia of Beauveria bassiana are injected into the hemocoel of
corn earworm larvae, it appears that a positive correlation exists between
exocellular proteolytic activity of the fungus and entomopathological
manifestations. Once inside the hemolymph, defense mechanisms (including
phagocytosis) are incapable of overcoming the fungus and one important event
in a terminal mycocidal cascade involves preferential invasion of the gut wall.
Such invasion helps explain the observed inhibition of feeding by infected larvae.
Although histopathological changes seen in gut tissues suggest that a gut toxin is
produced, evidence for such a toxin could not be obtained in preliminary tests.
Biochemical changes are seen in hemolymph components; however, these are
viewed as being due to general starvation rather than to specific activities of the
fungus, at least up to the time that a general mycosis is established. With the
host larva under physiological stress (starvation, nutrient depletion, and, possibly,
toxin production in gut tissues) and failure of defense mechanisms, the infection
spreads quickly and a terminal mycosis results. Fungi that infect insects have
received considerable attention by scientists for their potential for biological
control of pests. Many research projects have focussed on the selection of
virulent strains for target pests and their development as biological control
agents. In contrast, surprisingly little is known about the fundamental ecology of
most of these fungi in nature. This knowledge is essential in order to receive the
most ecosystem services provided by entomopathogenic fungi in agricultural
production. Knowledge of the basic ecology of the fungi is also necessary to
include them in conservation biological control. In this biological control strategy,
agricultural practices and/or habitat manipulations are applied to the farming
system to favour living conditions for specific natural enemies of pests (Eilenberg
et al., 2001).
2. ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI





Fig. Collection of insects
Fungi that infect insects have received considerable attention by scientists
for their potential for biological control of pests. Many research projects have
focussed on the selection of virulent strains for target pests and their
development as biological control agents. In contrast, surprisingly little is known
about the fundamental ecology of most of these fungi in nature. This knowledge
is essential in order to receive the most ecosystem services provided by
entomopathogenic fungi in agricultural production. Knowledge of the basic
ecology of the fungi is also necessary to include them in conservation biological
control. In this biological control strategy, agricultural practices and/or habitat
manipulations are applied to the farming system to favour living conditions for
specific natural enemies of pests (Eilenberg et al., 2001). Entomopathogenic
fungi are widespread in agroecosystems. In temperate regions taxa from the
phylum Ascomycota (order Hypocreales) and the subphylum
Entomophthoromycotina (order Entomophthorales) are commonly found to infect
arthropod hosts. The hypocrealean species Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium
anisopliae have broad host ranges in agroecosystems. Recent research
advances have elucidated aspects of the ecology of the fungi that are relevant for
conservation biological control. It is suggested that only B. bassiana are
associated with insect hosts above ground while M. anisopliae is exclusively
associated with hosts on or below the soil surface in temperate agroecosystems
(Meyling & Eilenberg, 2007). However, the reservoir of both fungi in the

ecosystem is within the soil environment (Keller & Zimmermann, 1989; Meyling &
Eilenberg, 2006) and both taxa can be isolated from the same soil sample.
Applications of DNA based markers have revealed new insights especially for the
genus Beauveria. Main conclusions are that the genus contains cryptic species
that do not reflect the morphologically defined species as conventionally defined
(Rehner & Buckley, 2005). Thus, much more is to be learned about Beauveria
spp. as defined by phylogenetic species. Differences in ecological niches of the
taxa within Beauveria remain unclear, but the new explicit phylogenetic
framework creates a basis for detailed studies of this in the future. For example,
five different clades of the morphological species B. bassiana were isolated
within a single agroecosystem in Denmark (Meyling & Eilenberg, 2007).
However, only one of these was found in agricultural soil while all five were
represented in the semi-natural habitat of the bordering hedgerow. Therefore it
appears that more niche space is available in hedgerows for the fungi. If these
can be identified and understood it may be possible to manipulate the agricultural
field to host more clades and thus more diversity of entomopathogenic fungi for
pest control. Furthermore, the recent development of microsatellite markers
(Rehner & Buckley, 2003; Enkerli et al., 2005) will surely provide new insights in
the population ecology of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae within the coming years.
Some entomopathogenic fungi are not only associated with arthropod hosts.
Recently, B. bassiana has been linked to plants as an endophytic fungus (Arnold
& Lewis, 2005), and M. anisopliae has been shown to be associated with the
rhizosphere of plants (Hu & St.Leger, 2002). The ecological significance of these
associations remain unknown, but they have been discussed within the concept
of the "bodyguard hypothesis" (Elliot et al., 2000). Several crop plant species
have been shown to be successful hosts of endophytic B. bassiana and the
occurrence of the fungi in the plant tissue may benefit control of chewing insect
herbivores.Within the Entomophthorales, particularly fungi that infect flies and
aphids have been investigated. Most promise for conservation biological control
are found within the aphid pathogenic species Pandora neoaphidis, and British
studies have investigated this potential in great detail (Shah & Pell, 2003; Ekesi
et al., 2005). By manipulating the habitats in field margins it is the intention that
P. neoaphidis will colonise aphid pests in the fields from reservoir hosts. Fungi
that infect insects have received considerable attention by scientists for their
potential for biological control of pests. Many research projects have focussed on
the selection of virulent strains for target pests and their development as
biological control agents. In contrast, surprisingly little is known about the
fundamental ecology of most of these fungi in nature. This knowledge is essential
in order to receive the most ecosystem services provided by entomopathogenic
fungi in agricultural production. Knowledge of the basic ecology of the fungi is
also necessary to include them in conservation biological control. In this
biological control strategy, agricultural practices and/or habitat manipulations are
applied to the farming system to favour living conditions for specific natural
enemies of pests (Eilenberg et al., 2001). Entomopathogenic fungi are
widespread in agroecosystems. In temperate regions taxa from the phylum
Ascomycota (order Hypocreales) and the subphylum Entomophthoromycotina
(order Entomophthorales) are commonly found to infect arthropod hosts. The
hypocrealean species Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae have
broad host ranges in agroecosystems. Recent research advances have
elucidated aspects of the ecology of the fungi that are relevant for conservation
biological control. It is suggested that only B. bassiana are associated with insect
hosts above ground while M. anisopliae is exclusively associated with hosts on or
below the soil surface in temperate agroecosystems (Meyling & Eilenberg, 2007).
However, the reservoir of both fungi in the ecosystem is within the soil
environment (Keller & Zimmermann, 1989; Meyling & Eilenberg, 2006) and both
taxa can be isolated from the same soil sample. Applications of DNA based
markers have revealed new insights especially for the genus Beauveria. Main
conclusions are that the genus contains cryptic species that do not reflect the
morphologically defined species as conventionally defined (Rehner & Buckley,
2005). Thus, much more is to be learned about Beauveria spp. as defined by
phylogenetic species. Differences in ecological niches of the taxa within
Beauveria remain unclear, but the new explicit phylogenetic framework creates a
basis for detailed studies of this in the future. For example, five different clades of
the morphological species B. bassiana were isolated within a single
agroecosystem in Denmark (Meyling & Eilenberg, 2007). However, only one of
these was found in agricultural soil while all five were represented in the semi-
natural habitat of the bordering hedgerow. Therefore it appears that more niche
space is available in hedgerows for the fungi. If these can be identified and
understood it may be possible to manipulate the agricultural field to host more
clades and thus more diversity of entomopathogenic fungi for pest control.
Furthermore, the recent development of microsatellite markers (Rehner &
Buckley, 2003; Enkerli et al., 2005) will surely provide new insights in the
population ecology of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae within the coming years.
Some entomopathogenic fungi are not only associated with arthropod hosts.
Recently, B. bassiana has been linked to plants as an endophytic fungus (Arnold
& Lewis, 2005), and M. anisopliae has been shown to be associated with the
rhizosphere of plants (Hu & St.Leger, 2002). The ecological significance of these
associations remain unknown, but they have been discussed within the concept
of the "bodyguard hypothesis" (Elliot et al., 2000). Several crop plant species
have been shown to be successful hosts of endophytic B. bassiana and the
occurrence of the fungi in the plant tissue may benefit control of chewing insect
herbivores. Within the Entomophthorales, particularly fungi that infect flies and
aphids have been investigated. Most promise for conservation biological control
are found within the aphid pathogenic species Pandora neoaphidis, and British
studies have investigated this potential in great detail (Shah & Pell, 2003; Ekesi
et al., 2005).





2.1. ENTOMOLOGY




Fig. Grasshopper with Fungus Fig. Beetle with Fungus
Entomology (from Greek, entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or
engraved/segmented", hence "insect"; and -logia is the scientific study of insects,
a branch of arthropodology. At some 1.3 million described species, insects
account for more than two-thirds of all known organisms, date back some 400
million years, and have many kinds of interactions with humans and other forms
of life on earth. It is a specialty within the field of biology. Though technically
incorrect, the definition is sometimes widened to include the study of terrestrial
animals in other arthropod groups or other phyla, such as arachnids, myriapods,
earthworms, land snails, and slugs. Like several of the other fields that are
categorized within zoology, entomology is a taxon-based category; any form of
scientific study in which there is a focus on insect related inquiries is, by
definition, entomology. Entomology therefore includes a cross-section of topics
as diverse as molecular genetics, behavior, biomechanics, biochemistry,
systematics, physiology, developmental biology, ecology, morphology,
paleontology, anthropology, robotics, agriculture, nutrition, forensic science and
more. Green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, killed by the fungus Pandora
neoaphidis (Zygomycota: Entomophthorales) Scale bar = 0.3 mm. These fungi
usually attach to the external body surface of insects in the form of microscopic
spores (usually asexual, mitosporic spores also called conidia). Under permissive
conditions of temperature and (usually high) moisture, these spores germinate,
grow as hyphae and colonize the insect's cuticle; eventually they bore through it
and reach the insects' body cavity (hemocoel). Then, the fungal cells proliferate

in the host body cavity, usually as walled hyphae or in the form of wall-less
protoplasts (depending on the fungus involved). After some time the insect is
usually killed (sometimes by fungal toxins) and new propagules (spores) are
formed in/on the insect if environmental conditions are again permissive; usually
high humidity is required for sporulation.
The entomopathogenic fungi include taxa from several of the main fungal
groups and do not form a monophyletic group. Many common and/or important
entomopathogenic fungi are in the order Hypocreales of the Ascomycota: the
asexual (anamorph) phases Beauveria, Metarhizium, Nomuraea, Paecilomyces =
Isaria, Hirsutella and the sexual (teleomorph) state Cordyceps; others
(Entomophthora, Zoophthora, Pandora, Entomophaga) belong in the order
Entomophthorales of the Zygomycota.Related fungi attack and kill other
invertebrates (e.g. nematodes).
Since they are considered natural mortality agents and environmentally
safe, there is worldwide interest in the use and manipulation of
entomopathogenic fungi for biological control of insects and other arthropod
pests. In particular, the asexual phases of Ascomycota (Beauveria spp.,
Lecanicillium lecanii, Metarhizium spp., Paecilomyces spp. and others) are under
intense scrutiny due to the traits favouring their use as biological insecticides.
Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times,
primarily in the context of agriculture (especially biological control and
beekeeping), but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. The
list of entomologistsvery small, and includes such notable figures as Charles
Darwin, Jean-Henri Fabre, Vladimir Nabokov, Karl von Frisch (winner of the 1973
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine,) and two-time Pulitzer Prize winner E. O.
Wilson Gil Grissom on the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation TV show is an
entomologist, who is played by actor William Petersen. Similarly, entomologist
Jack Hodgins of Bones, portrayed by TJ Thyne, helps his team by analyzing
insects (such as Hydrotaea) and "particulates" near to or attached to
decomposed victims, often identifying the precise location a murder originally
occurred; he is also an expert in botany and mineralogy.
In Arthur Conan Doyle's story, The Hound of the Baskervilles, the villain is
a naturalist who collects butterflies, making him an "evil" entomologist.
The AubreyMaturin sea novels of Patrick O'Brian have frequent
appearances by Sir Joseph Blaine, a Royal Navy intelligence official who is also
an avid entomologist. He recruits Dr. Stephen Maturin, one of the principal
characters, as a spy. Their conferences on espionage activities invariably make
room for their shared interest in naturalist studies.
There are numerous science fiction books which have plots based on
humans becoming smaller and having to deal with insects at their level. Some
examples are The Insect Warriors by Rex Dean Levie, Atta by Francis Rufus
Bellamy, Bug Park by James P. Hogan, The Micronauts series by Gordon
Williams, and The Forgotten Planet by Murray Leinster. The Forgotten Planets
plot is twisted in that the insects are the size of men (or larger) on a planet
"seeded" to prepare it for human habitation. Robert Asprin wrote The Bug Wars,
a novel about war between reptiles and insects on an interplanetary scale.
There are quite a few films about insects, or at least prominently featuring
them. Widespread attitudes of revulsion and fear toward insects are often
exploited by Horror and Science Fiction films through insect/insect-like monsters,
or by showing humans transformed into (The Fly) or attacked by insects. Another
more positive type of insect film is animation with anthropomorphized insects as
characters Most insects can easily be recognized to order such as Hymenoptera
(bees, wasps, and ants) or Coleoptera (beetles). However, insects other than
Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are typically identifiable to genus or species
only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class
Insecta contains a very large number of species (over 330,000 species of beetles
alone) and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle
(or invisible without a microscope), this is often very difficult even for a specialist.
Insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and
dragonflies being the most popular.
2.2. PRODUCTION
Most entomopathogenic fungi can be grown on artificial media. However,
some require extremely complex media; others, like Beauveria bassiana and
exploitable species in the genus Metarhizium, can be grown on starch-rich
substrates like cereal grains (rice, wheat).
2.3. VIRULENCE
The Entomophthorales are often reported as causing high levels of
mortality (epizootics) in nature. These fungi are highly virulent. The anamorphic
Ascomycota (Metarhizium, Beauveria etc.) are reported as causing epizootics
less frequently in nature.
2.4 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Opisthokonta
Kingdom: Fungi
Blastocladiomycota
Chytridiomycota
Glomeromycota
Microsporidia
Neocallimastigomycota
Dikarya (inc. Deuteromycota)
Ascomycota
Pezizomycotina
Saccharomycotina
Taphrinomycotina
Basidiomycota
Agaricomycotina
Pucciniomycotina
Ustilaginomycotina
Subphyla Incertae sedis
Entomophthoromycotina
Kickxellomycotina
Mucoromycotina
Zoopagomycotina

A fungus, plural fungi or funguses is a member of a large group of
eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds
(British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These
organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants,
animals, and bacteria. One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls
that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose. These
and other differences show that the fungi form a single group of related
organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a
common ancestor (a monophyletic group). This fungal group is distinct from the
structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds).
The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology,
which is often regarded as a branch of botany, even though genetic studies have
shown that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small
size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and as
symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. They may become noticeable when
fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the
decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling
and exchange. They have long been used as a direct source of food, such as
mushrooms and truffles, as a leavening agent for bread, and in fermentation of
various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi
have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various
enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are
also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect
pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as
alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals including humans. The fruiting
structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed
recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down
manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of
humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g. rice
blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies
and local economies.
The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with
varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from single-
celled aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true
biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi, which has been estimated at around 1.5 million
species, with about 5% of these having been formally classified. Ever since the
pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christian
Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according
to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic
features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for
DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes
challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits.
Phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the
classification of Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven
phyla, and ten subphyla.
2.5 CHARACTERISTICS
Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis,
taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the Plant Kingdom because of
similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have
similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Like plants, fungi often
grow in soil, and in the case of mushrooms form conspicuous fruiting bodies,
which sometimes bear resemblance to plants such as mosses. The fungi are
now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from
which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Some
morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other
organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the
other kingdoms:
2.6 SHARED FEATURES
With other eukaryotes: As other eukaryotes, fungal cells contain
membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding
regions called introns and coding regions called exons. In addition, fungi possess
membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing
membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of
soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g.,
mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen,
which is also found in animals).
With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms,
requiring preformed organic compounds as energy sources.
With plants: Fungi possess a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both
sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and
mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have
haploid nuclei.
With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria
produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the -
aminoadipate pathway.
The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like
(filamentous) structures and are called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei
and extend at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesiclescellular
structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic moleculescalled
Spitzenkrper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In
contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by
repeated cell division within a chain of cells.
In common with some plant and animal species, more than 60 fungal
species display the phenomenon of bioluminescence.
Unique features: Some species grow as single-celled yeasts that reproduce by
budding or binary fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and
a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions.
The fungal cell wall is composed of glucans and chitin; while the former
compounds are also found in plants and the latter in the exoskeleton of
arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural
molecules in their cell wall. In contrast to plants and the oomycetes, fungal cell
walls do not contain cellulose.
Most fungi lack an efficient system for long-distance transport of water and
nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome these
limitations, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs, that resemble and
perform functions similar to the roots of plants. Another characteristic shared with
plants includes a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses
mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. However, plants
have an additional terpene pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure fungi do not
possess. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or
identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal
enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and
other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and evolution of these
enzymes in the fungi and plants.
3. TAXONOMIC GROUPS
The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified
mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures.
Currently, seven phyla are proposed: Microsporidia, Chytridiomycota,
Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, and
Basidiomycota.
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular
parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic
fungi (living within the tissue of another species). One 2006 study concludes that
the Microsporidia are a sister group to the true fungi, that is, they are each other's
closest evolutionary relative.
The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are
distributed worldwide. Chytrids produce zoospores that are capable of active
movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early
taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from
rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group
divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with
suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly.
The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade
within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural
characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the
Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota).
The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic
matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close
relatives, the chytrids, which mostly exhibit zygotic meiosis, the
blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.
The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum
Chytridomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in
the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and possibly in other
terrestrial and aquatic environments. They lack mitochondria but contain
hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As the related chrytrids,
neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or
polyflagellate.
Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of
symbiosis where fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit
from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota
species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the
Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years
ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin'
molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now
replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota
are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis
Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the
Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the
Zygomycota include black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer), and Pilobolus
species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically
relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.
The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes,
constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form
meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like
structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and
truffles, single-celled yeasts (e.g., of the genera Saccharomyces,
Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as
saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts. Prominent and important
genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
and Claviceps. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing
asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data
has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota.
Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus,
ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity
(e.g. Neurospora crassa).
Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or
basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks
called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust
and smut funginus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen,
Cryptococcus neoformans.
3.1 Fungus-like organisms
Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds
(myxomycetes) and water molds (oomycetes) were formerly classified in the
kingdom Fungi. Unlike true fungi the cell walls of these organisms contain
cellulose and lack chitin. Myxomycetes are unikonts like fungi, but are grouped in
the Amoebozoa. Oomycetes are diploid bikonts, grouped in the Chromalveolate
kingdom. Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true
fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi.
Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included
in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.
The Rozellida clade, including the "chytrid" Rozella, is a genetically
disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences which is a
sister group to fungi. Members of the group which have been isolated lack the
chitinous cell wall which is characteristic of fungi.
The nucleariids, currently grouped in the Choanozoa, may be the next
sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an
expanded fungal kingdom.
3.2 Ecology
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth
and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are
the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and
therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles
[131]
and in many food webs.
As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as
saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules,
which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other
organisms.
3.3 Symbiosis
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from
most if not all Kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in
nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment
to the host.
3.4 With plants
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-
known plantfungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth
and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in
mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for
survival.
The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years
ago. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate
and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients.
The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates
and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common
mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy,
whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its
fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and
leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza,
endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example,
endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores
and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in
return.

3.5 With algae and cyanobacteria
Lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship between algae or
cyanobacteria (referred to in lichen terminology as "photobionts") and fungi
(mostly various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes), in which
individual photobiont cells are embedded in a tissue formed by the fungus.
Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil
formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are the dominating life
forms in extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert
regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil,
rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the
photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis, while
the fungus provides minerals and water. The functions of both symbiotic
organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single
organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual
components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition; around 20% of
fungibetween 17,500 and 20,000 described speciesare lichenized.
Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by
photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal)
vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from
airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other
photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat.
3.6 With insects as pathogens and parasites
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several
groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source,
while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that
they infest. Similarly, females of several wood wasp species (genus Sirex) inject
their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus Amylostereum
areolatum into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal
nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. Termites on the
African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera
Candida and Lachancea inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including
neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi
benefit their hosts.
Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other
fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage
and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe
oryzae, tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi
causing Dutch elm disease, and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for
chestnut blight, and plant pathogens in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria,
and Cochliobolus. Some carnivorous fungi, like Paecilomyces lilacinus, are
predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized
structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.
Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may
be fatal if untreated. These include aspergilloses, candidoses,
coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and
paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are
particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as Aspergillus, Candida,
Cryptoccocus, Histoplasma, and Pneumocystis. Other fungi can attack eyes,
nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic
fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athletes foot. Fungal
spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups
can evoke allergic reactions.
3.7 Human use in Drugs
The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other
purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom
gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses
and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the
capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with
antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or
are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-
cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. More recently, methods have been
developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of
fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast specieswhich are
easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vesselshas opened up ways of
pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by
the original source organisms.
Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of
pharmacologically active drugs. Particularly important are the antibiotics,
including the penicillins, a structurally related group of -lactam antibiotics that
are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such
as penicillin G (produced by Penicillium chrysogenum) have a relatively narrow
spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced
by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are
semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then
structurally altered for specific desirable properties.
[168]
Other antibiotics produced
by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during
transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Widespread use of these
antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis,
leprosy, and many others began in the early 20th century and continues to play a
major part in anti-bacterial chemotherapy. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or
bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as
chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich
environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-
sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling.
Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from
Penicillium griseofulvum, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA
reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins
found in fungi include mevastatin from Penicillium citrinum and lovastatin from
Aspergillus terreus and the oyster mushroom.
3.8 Cultured foods & Medicinal use
Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-celled fungus, is
used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and
dumplings. Yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used to produce
alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae)
is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the
preparation of miso, while Rhizopus species are used for making tempeh.
Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected
according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins
(see below), which are produced by very closely related Aspergilli. Quorn, a meat
substitute, is made from Fusarium venenatum.
Certain mushrooms enjoy usage as therapeutics in folk medicines, such
as Traditional Chinese medicine. Notable medicinal mushrooms with a well-
documented history of use include Agaricus subrufescens, Ganoderma lucidum,
and Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Research has identified compounds produced by
these and other fungi that have inhibitory biological effects against viruses and
cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and -
lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom
is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in
several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K
(brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from Trametes versicolor, is an
approved adjuvant for cancer therapy.
3.9 Edible and poisonous species
Edible mushrooms are well-known examples of fungi. Many are
commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus
bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when
larger, is a commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other
dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in
popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and
markets, including straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms
(Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake (Flammulina
spp.).
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild
for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels,
chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis)
(also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often
used in gourmet dishes.
Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal
species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include
the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by
inoculation with Penicillium roqueforti. Molds used in cheese production are non-
toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g.,
aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth
of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage.
Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans, with toxicities ranging
from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to
severe organ failures and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly
toxins include Conocybe, Galerina, Lepiota, and most infamously, Amanita. The
latter genus includes the destroying angel (A. virosa) and the death cap
(A. phalloides), the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The
false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) is occasionally considered a delicacy when
cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. Tricholoma equestre was
considered edible until being implicated in serious poisonings causing
rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms (Amanita muscaria) also cause
occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for use as a
recreational drug for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was
used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious
or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak
people of north-eastern Siberia.
As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper
training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is
poisonous and not to consume it.
3.10 Pest control & Bioremediation
In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients
and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via
the competitive exclusion principle, or if they are parasites of these pathogens.
For example, certain species may be used to eliminate or suppress the growth of
harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes and other
fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. This has generated strong
interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of
these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides,
as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological
insecticides are Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium spp, Hirsutella spp,
Paecilomyces (Isaria) spp, and Lecanicillium lecanii. Endophytic fungi of grasses
of the genus Neotyphodium, such as N. coenophialum, produce alkaloids that
are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids
protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison
grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage
grasses with Neotyphodium endophytes is one approach being used in grass
breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids
that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to
livestock.
Certain fungi, in particular "white rot" fungi, can degrade insecticides,
herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn
them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to
biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the
bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites.
3.11 Model organisms
Regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models
have more recently emerged that each address specific biological questions
relevant Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using
fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly
in the laboratory. For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was
formulated by scientists who used the bread mold Neurospora crassa to test their
biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are Aspergillus nidulans and
the yeasts, Saccaromyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, each of
which has a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology
and genetics, such as cell cycle to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses;
examples include Candida albicans, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen,
Magnaporthe grisea, a plant pathogen, and Pichia pastoris, a yeast widely used
for eukaryotic protein expression.
Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric,
gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in
biological detergents, cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and
stonewashed jeans, and amylases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. Several
species, most notably Psilocybin mushrooms (colloquially known as magic
mushrooms), are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally
and religiously.


3.12 Mycotoxins






Fig. Ergotamine, a major mycotoxin produced by Claviceps species, which if
ingested can cause gangrene, convulsions, and hallucinations
Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are
toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular
relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage,
and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal
amatoxins in some Amanita mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long
history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people
consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus,
Claviceps purpurea. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are
insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain
Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans,
ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins,
which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research
has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of
producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may
provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with
other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory).
3.13 Mycology
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of
fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and
their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances
consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or
infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely
related because many plant pathogens are fungi.
Use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; tzi the Iceman, a well-
preserved mummy of a 5,300 year old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian
Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as
tinder (Fomes fomentarius), or for medicinal purposes (Piptoporus betulinus).
Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sourcesoften unknowinglyfor
millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of
the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were
probably caused by pathogenic fungi.

3.14 Taxonomy

Unikonta

Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animalia


Choanozoa



Nucleariids


Rozellida
Fungi
Microsporidia


Chytridiomycota


Neocallimastigomycota



Blastocladiomycota

Zoopagomycotina

Kickxellomycotina


Entomophthoromycotina


Mucoromycotina

Glomeromycota
Dikarya
Ascomycota


Basidiomycota













Many entomologists specialize in a single order or even a family of
insects, and a number of these subspecialties are given their own informal
names, typically (but not always) derived from the scientific name of the group:
Apiology (or melittology) - bees
Coleopterology - beetles
Dipterology - flies
Hemipterology - true bugs
Lepidopterology - moths and butterflies
Myrmecology - ants
Orthopterology - grasshoppers, crickets, etc.
Trichopterology - caddis flies
4. SOME BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES FROM ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI
Insect fungi exist as commensals deriving nutrition from gut contents
without causing harm to the host, as ectoparasites getting nutrition from cuticular
waxes, or as true insect pathogenic fungi obtaining nutrients from within the
insect.4,5 Insect pathogenic fungi are unique in being able to infect across the
insect cuticle, the first barrier to infection. Germinating conidia produce
extracellular lipases, chitinases, and proteases to initiate cuticle invasion. The
most well-known insect pathogenic fungi are members of the highly host-specific
megagenus Cordyceps, with 300+ species.8 For example Cordyceps nutans
infects only Hemiptera (stink bugs).9 Within Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, and
bees) Cordyceps myrmecophila and Cordyceps irangiensis infect formicine ants,
which inhabit leaf litter,10 Cordyceps unilateralis and Cordyceps pseudolloydii
infect ants on the underside of leaves,11 while the related Cordyceps
sphecocephala infects wasps.12 Cordyceps spp. usually have restricted
geographical ranges. Cordyceps militaris is known from Lepidoptera pupae in
northern temperate regions (Europe, Northern Asia, and North America).13
Cordyceps stylophthora is known from North America and Japan;13 for example,
Cordyceps nutans has an East Asian range from Japan, Korea, China, and
Thailand.9 Although restricted in host range and geography, the asexual states
of some Cordyceps spp. (e.g., Metarhizium and Beauveria) have migrated to
agricultural ecosystems, increased their host range, and become panglobal.14
Cordyceps sinensis has been known and used in Chinese traditional medicine for
about 2000 years.15,16 Interest in Cordyceps sinensis has increased in the last
15-20 years as demand for alternative medicines has spread into Western
culture. In the early 1990s, several relatively unknown Chinese distance runners
broke world records, and suspicion initially fell on performance enhancing
drugs.2 Cordyceps are rich sources of novel biologically active substances with
diverse structural architecture. For example, extracts of C. sinensis exhibited
antioxidation,18 immunomodulatory,19 hypoglycemic,20 hypotensive and
vasorelaxant,21 and antitumor activities.22,23 Chemical investigation of C.
sinensis led to the identification of polysaccharides and sterols.




Fig. 1: Some chemical structures of active metabolites isolated from Cordycep.
sinensis

A related insect pathogenic fungus used as an analgesic and
anticonvulsant in north Asian traditional medical practice is the dried silkworm
larva infected by Beauveria bassiana. Recent chemical investigation of the crude
drug led to the identification of compounds 30-33, all bearing a 4-O-
methylglucose unit.41 While several other chemical entities were obtained from
cultivated Beauveria species,42 the isolation of beauveriolides from the culture
broth of Beauveria species FO-6979 might prove to be pharmaceutically useful
because the cyclodepsipeptides beauveriolides I (34) and III (35) show promising
antiatherogenic activity.4 Apart from Cordyceps, extracts of mycelia and fruiting
bodies of entomopathogenic fungi of the genus Paecilomyces have also yielded
novel biologically active secondary metabolites. New trichothecanes,
paecilomycines A (36), B (37), and C (38), were isolated from Paecilomyces
tenuipes (the asexual state of Cordyceps takaomontana), a well-known
panglobal fungus commonly used as health food in north Asian countries (China,
Korea, and Japan). From cultured fruiting bodies of this same fungus, three
Biological screening of fungal fermentation products deposited at the BCC
indicated that beauvericin and beauvericin A were constituents responsible for
antimalarial and antituberculous activities of Paecilomyces tenuipes BCC 1614
(collected from Khlong Nakha Wildlife Sanctuary, Ranong, southern Thailand, on
Lepidoptera Pupa.46 Beauvericin is an ionophoric cyclodepsipeptide exhibiting
insecticidal and antibiotic activities. It consists of three residues each of L-N-
methylphenylalanine and D-2-hydroxyisovaleric acid (Hiv) linked alternately to
furnish an 18-membered cyclohexadepsipeptide structure. Although beauvericin
(42) was first isolated over 40 years ago and has been detected as metabolites
of various fungi, particularly Beauveria, Fusarium, and Paecilomyces, it was in
1995 that the related minor analogues, beauvericin A and B , were isolated from
B. bassiana.