LIST OF QUESTIONS FOR ENDTERM

1.
Thermal radiation, model of absolute blackbody.


thermal radiation, process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is emitted
by a heated surface in all directions and travels directly to its point of absorption at the speed of
light; thermal radiation does not require an intervening medium to carry it.

Thermal radiation ranges in wavelength from the longest infrared rays through the visible-light
spectrum to the shortest ultraviolet rays. The intensity and distribution of radiant energy within
this range is governed by the temperature of the emitting surface. The total radiant heat energy
emitted by a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (the Stefan
Boltzmann law).

The rate at which a body radiates (or absorbs) thermal radiation depends upon the nature of the
surface as well. Objects that are good emitters are also good absorbers (Kirchhoffs radiation
law). A blackened surface is an excellent emitter as well as an excellent absorber. If the same
surface is silvered, it becomes a poor emitter and a poor absorber. A blackbody is one that
absorbs all the radiant energy that falls on it. Such a perfect absorber would also be a perfect
emitter.

The heating of the Earth by the Sun is an example of transfer of energy by radiation. The heating
of a room by an open-hearth fireplace is another example. The flames, coals, and hot bricks
radiate heat directly to the objects in the room with little of this heat being absorbed by the
intervening air. Most of the air that is drawn from the room and heated in the fireplace does not
reenter the room in a current of convection but is carried up the chimney together with the
products of combustion.


A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it. Therefore it
reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.

In practice no material has been found to absorb all incoming radiation, but carbon in its graphite
form absorbs all but about 3%. It is also a perfect emitter of radiation. At a particular temperature
the black body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible for that temperature. This
value is known as the black body radiation. It would emit at every wavelength of light as it must
be able to absorb every wavelength to be sure of absorbing all incoming radiation. The
maximum wavelength emitted by a black body radiator is infinite. It also emits a definite amount
of energy at each wavelength for a particular temperature, so standard black body radiation
curves can be drawn for each temperature, showing the energy radiated at each wavelength. All
objects emit radiation above absolute zero.
2.
Stefan-Boltzmann law.


In quantum physics, the Stefan-Boltzmann law (sometimes called Stefan's Law) states that the
energy radiated by a blackbody is directly proportional to the temperature of the object raised to
the fourth power. The equation for this law is:

R=T4

where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, which is equal to 5.670 373(21) x 10-8 W m-2 K-4,
and where R is the energy radiated per unit surface area and per unit time. T is temperature,
which is measured in Kelvin scale. Although this law is accurate and helpful, it is only usable for
the energy radiated by blackbodies.


3.
Wiens deviation law, Rayleigh-Jeans law, Ultraviolet catastrophe, Planks
hypothesis.

Wien's displacement law states that the wavelength distribution of thermal radiation from a black
body at any temperature has essentially the same shape as the distribution at any other
temperature, except that each wavelength is displaced on the graph. Apart from an overall T4
multiplicative factor, the average thermal energy in each mode with frequency only depends on
the ratio /T. Restated in terms of the wavelength = c/, the distributions at corresponding
wavelengths are related, where corresponding wavelengths are at locations proportional to 1/T.
Blackbody radiation approximates to Wien's law at high frequency.

From this general law, it follows that there is an inverse relationship between the wavelength of
the peak of the emission of a black body and its temperature when expressed as a function of
wavelength, and this less powerful consequence is often also called Wien's displacement law in
many textbooks.

\lambda_\text{max} T = b,
where max is the peak wavelength, T is the absolute temperature of the black body, and b is a
constant of proportionality called Wien's displacement constant, equal to 2.8977721(26)103 m
K.



4.
The Photoelectric Effect: Experiment, Cut-off Frequency, Einsteins formula,
application of this effect.


5.
Compton Scattering.


Compton scattering, or the Compton effect, is the name used for what happens to the energy (or
frequency or wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon when it interacts with matter; the
wavelength increases (or energy/frequency decreases) as it scatters off electrons. This scattering
is one of the main things that happen when gamma rays meet matter.


6.
De Broglies Hypothesis. Interference Pattern of Electrons.
.

In his 1923 (or 1924, depending on the source) doctoral dissertation, the French physicist Louis
de Broglie made a bold assertion. Considering Einstein's relationship of wavelength lambda to
momentum p, de Broglie proposed that this relationship would determine the wavelength of any
matter, in the relationship:
lambda = h / p

This wavelength is called the de Broglie wavelength. The reason he chose the momentum
equation over the energy equation is that it was unclear, with matter, whether E should be total
energy, kinetic energy, or total relativistic energy. For photons they are all the same, but not so
for matter.
The fact that, following Einstein's introduction of photons in light waves, one knew that light
contains particles which are concentrations of energy incorporated into the wave, suggests that
all particles, like the electron, must be transported by a wave into which it is incorporated... My
essential idea was to extend to all particles the coexistence of waves and particles discovered by
Einstein in 1905 in the case of light and photons.


Physicists who studied light in the 1700s and 1800s were having a big argument about whether
light was made of particles shooting around like tiny bullets, or waves washing around like water
waves. At times, light seems to do both. At times, light seems to go only in a straight line, as if it
were made of particles. But other experiments show that light has a frequency and wavelength,
just like a sound wave or water wave. Until the 20th century, most physicists thought that light
was either one or the other, and that the scientists on the other side of the argument were simply
wrong.

To make matters even more confusing, Louis de Broglie suggested that matter might act the
same way. Scientists then performed these same experiments with electrons, and found that
electrons too are somehow both particles and waves. Electrons can be used to do Young's
double-slit experiment.

Today, these experiments have been done in so many different ways by so many different people
that scientists simply accept that both matter and light are somehow both waves and particles.
This seeming impossibility is referred to as the wave-particle duality.
7.
Electron microscope.


An electron microscope is a scientific instrument which uses a beam of electrons to examine
objects on a very fine scale. In an optical microscope, the wavelength of light limits the
maximum magnification that is possible. As electrons have a smaller wavelength, they can
achieve a higher magnification, and can see very small objects - typically around 1,000 times
smaller than those seen in an optical microscope. The outline of objects, as revealed by the flow
of electrons, is changed into a picture using visible light for people to see.


8.
Uncertainty Principle. The wave Particle Duality and Complementarities.
Planks constant.


No thing has a definite position, a definite trajectory, or a definite momentum. Trying to pin a
thing down to one definite position will make its momentum less well pinned down, and vice-
versa. In everyday life we can successfully measure the position of an automobile at a definite
time and then measure its direction and speed (assuming it is coasting along at a steady rate) in
the next few moments. That is because the uncertainties in position and velocity are so small that
we could not detect them.

We may bring that experience to the world of atomic-sized phenomena and incorrectly assume
that if we measure the position of something like an electron as it moves along its trajectory it
will continue to move along that same trajectory, which we imagine we can then accurately
detect in the next few moments. We need to learn that the electron did not have a definite
position before we located it, and that it also did not have a definite momentum before we
measured the trajectory. Moreover, we may justifiably assume that a photon produced by a laser
aimed at a detection screen will hit very near to its target on that screen, and confirm this
prediction by any number of experiments. Next we will discover that the more closely we try to
pin down some location for the electron on its way toward the detection screen, the more it and
all others like it will be likely to miss that target. So pinning down a location for an electron
makes the trajectory more indefinite, indeterminate, or uncertain. If the trajectory were made
more clear and then we were to try to locate that electron along an extension of the trajectory we
just staked out, then we would find that the more precise we made our knowledge of the
trajectory, the less likely we would be to find the electron where ordinary expectations would
lead us to believe it to be.


The Planck constant (sometimes called Planck's constant), links the amount of energy a photon
carries with the frequency of its electromagnetic wave. It is named after the physicist Max
Planck. It is an important quantity in quantum physics.

The Planck constant is defined by the equation:

E=hv

9.
Wave function. Interpretation of the Wave Function: Probability Density and
Expectation Values.
The probability of finding photon within a given volume of the beam is proportional to the
square of the amplitude of the wave associated with this beam



In quantum mechanics, the Wave function, usually denoted by , or , describes the probability
of finding an electron somewhere in its matter wave. To be more precise, the square of the wave
function gives the probability of finding the location of the electron in the given area, since the
normal answer for the wave function is usually a complex number. The wave function concept
was first introduced in the legendary Schrdinger equation.

10.
The Schrodinger equation and Schrodingers favorite pet
, ,
,
.
( , )
.
, ,
.

11.
Tunneling through a potential energy barrier.


The phenomenon of tunneling, which has no counterpart in classical physics, is an important
consequence of quantum mechanics. Consider a particle with energy E in the inner region of a
one-dimensional potential well V(x). (A potential well is a potential that has a lower value in a
certain region of space than in the neighbouring regions.) In classical mechanics, if E < V (the
maximum height of the potential barrier), the particle remains in the well forever; if E > V , the
particle escapes. In quantum mechanics, the situation is not so simple. The particle can escape
even if its energy E is below the height of the barrier V , although the probability of escape is
small unless E is close to V . In that case, the particle may tunnel through the potential barrier
and emerge with the same energy E.

The phenomenon of tunneling has many important applications. For example, it describes a type
of radioactive decay in which a nucleus emits an alpha particle (a helium nucleus). According to
the quantum explanation given independently by George Gamow and by Ronald W. Gurney and
Edward Condon in 1928, the alpha particle is confined before the decay by a potential. For a
given nuclear species, it is possible to measure the energy E of the emitted alpha particle and the
average lifetime of the nucleus before decay. The lifetime of the nucleus is a measure of the
probability of tunneling through the barrier--the shorter the lifetime, the higher the probability.


12.
Atomic Spectra of Gases. Balmers, Lymans, Paschens and Bracketts
series.
How do we get an Atomic Absorption Spectrum?

Light comes from a light source. Thats the bulb in the picture below. It is usually a pretty strong
light source. A sample of an element, such as aluminium, chlorine etc, is vaporized. The light
passes through the sample, and bits of the light are absorbed. The remainder of the light is then
passed through a crystal, broken up into its component colors and then it can be analysed.


An atomic emission spectrum is the opposite of an atomic absorption spectrum. While an
absorption spectrum has parts missing from the rainbow, the emission spectrum is made up only
of a few lines of color. They are the SAME lines of color that would be missing in the absorption
spectrum for the same sample you test.

How do we get an emission spectrum?

The process of obtaining an emission spectrum is slightly different to that for the atomic
absorption spectrum. A sample of an element or compound is made into a gas and heated. As it
gets hotter, the atoms absorb the energy. When the flame is turned off and the gas is allowed to
cool, the atoms release the energy as light.


Lyman series (n = 1)

The series is named after its discoverer, Theodore Lyman, who discovered the spectral lines
from 19061914. All the wavelengths in the Lyman series are in the ultraviolet band.[5][6]

Balmer series (n = 2)

Named after Johann Balmer, who discovered the Balmer formula, an empirical equation to
predict the Balmer series, in 1885. Balmer lines are historically referred to as "H-alpha", "H-
beta", "H-gamma" and so on, where H is the element hydrogen.[7] Four of the Balmer lines are
in the technically "visible" part of the spectrum, with wavelengths longer than 400 nm and
shorter than 700 nm. Parts of the Balmer series can be seen in the solar spectrum. H-alpha is an
important line used in astronomy to detect the presence of hydrogen.


Paschen series (Bohr series) (n = 3)

Named after the German physicist Friedrich Paschen who first observed them in 1908. The
Paschen lines all lie in the infrared band.[8] This series overlap with the next (Brackett) series,
i.e. the shortest line in the Brackett series has a wavelength that falls among the Paschen series.
All subsequent series overlap.

Brackett series (n = 4)

Named after the American physicist Frederick Sumner Brackett who first observed the spectral
lines in 1922.


13.
Emission and absorption spectroscopy.
14.
Total energy of the atom. Formulas derivation.
15.
Bohr radius.


The Bohr radius is a unit of measurement used in atomic physics to describe the smallest
possible radius of an electron orbiting the nucleus in a hydrogen atom. It was developed by Niels
Bohr, based on his model of atomic structure, which was introduced in 1913. The value of the
Bohr radius is calculated to be approximately 0.53 angstroms.

In his model of an atom, Niels Bohr theorized that electrons follow specific circular orbits
around the central nucleus, held in place by electrostatic force. This model later proved to be
incorrect and is now considered far too simple a description of atomic structure. Current theories
describe the location of electrons in terms of spherical probability zones, known as shells. The
Bohr radius is still considered useful in physics, however, as it continues to provide a physical
measurement for the smallest radius an electron can have. Physics students often learn Bohrs
model and equations first, as an introduction before moving on to more complicated and accurate
models.

Hydrogen, with only one electron, is the simplest of all atoms, which is why the Bohr radius is
based on it. Bohrs model explains that the orbit of an electron can vary depending on the
amount of energy it has. The Bohr radius estimates the orbit of the hydrogen electron while it is
in its ground state, or at lowest energy.




16.
Thomson and Rutherford models of Atom.


By 1911 the components of the atom had been discovered. The atom consisted of subatomic
particles called protons and electrons. However, it was not clear how these protons and electrons
were arranged within the atom. J.J. Thomson suggested the"plum pudding" model. In this model
the electrons and protons are uniformly mixed throughout the atom:



Rutherford tested Thomson's hypothesis by devising his "gold foil" experiment. Rutherford
reasoned that if Thomson's model was correct then the mass of the atom was spread out
throughout the atom. Then, if he shot high velocity alpha particles (helium nuclei) at an atom
then there would be very little to deflect the alpha particles. He decided to test this with a thin
film of gold atoms. As expected, most alpha particles went right through the gold foil but to his
amazement a few alpha particles rebounded almost directly backwards.



These deflections were not consistent with Thomson's model. Rutherford was forced to discard
the Plum Pudding model and reasoned that the only way the alpha particles could be deflected
backwards was if most of the mass in an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. He thus developed
the planetary model of the atom which put all the protons in the nucleus and the electrons orbited
around the nucleus like planets around the sun.




17.
Bohrs Model of the Hydrogen Atom.


Overview of the Bohr Model

Niels Bohr proposed the Bohr Model of the Atom in 1915. Because the Bohr Model is a
modification of the earlier Rutherford Model, some people call Bohr's Model the Rutherford-
Bohr Model. The modern model of the atom is based on quantum mechanics. The Bohr Model
contains some errors, but it is important because it describes most of the accepted features of
atomic theory without all of the high-level math of the modern version. Unlike earlier models,
the Bohr Model explains the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic
hydrogen.
The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively-charged electrons orbit a small,
positively-charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not
planar). The gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the Coulomb
(electrical) force between the positively-charged nucleus and the negatively-charged electrons.

Main Points of the Bohr Model

Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy.
The energy of the orbit is related to its size. The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit.
Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another.
Bohr Model of Hydrogen

The simplest example of the Bohr Model is for the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) or for a hydrogen-like
ion (Z > 1), in which a negatively-charged electron orbits a small positively-charged nucleus.
Electromagnetic energy will be absorbed or emitted if an electron moves from one orbit to
another. Only certain electron orbits are permitted. The radius of the possible orbits increases as
n2, where n is the principal quantum number. The 3 2 transition produces the first line of the
Balmer series. For hydrogen (Z = 1) this produces a photon having wavelength 656 nm (red
light).




18.
The Quantum Model of the Hydrogen Atom. Electron cloud. Atomic orbital.






The electron cloud model is an atom model wherein electrons are no longer depicted as particles
moving around the nucleus in a fixed orbit. Instead, as a quantum mechanically-influenced
model, we shouldnt know exactly where they are, and hence describe their probable location
around the nucleus only as an arbitrary cloud.




19.
Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Numbers.

Quantum Numbers
Quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electron density in an atom.
There are three quantum numbers necessary to describe an atomic orbital.

designates size

mber (l) describes shape

The magnetic quantum number (ml) specifies orientation

The electron spin quantum number (ms ) is used to specify an electrons spin.

There are two possible directions of spin ( ) .

Allowed values of ms are + and .
(clockwise or counterclockwise).


20.
The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table


The Pauli exclusion principle refers to the fact that certain particles cannot be at the same place
at the same time, with the same energy. Only fermions (examples are protons, neutrons and
electrons) are bound by the Pauli exclusion principle, while bosons (an example is a photon -
light beam) are not. A more precise way to describe the Pauli exclusion principle is to say that
two of the same kind of fermions cannot have the same quantum numbers.

No two electrons can ever be in the same quantum state; therefore, no two electrons in the same
atom can have the same set of quantum numbers.


The periodic table of the chemical elements is a list of known atoms. In the table, the elements
are placed in the order of their atomic numbers starting with the lowest number. The atomic
number of an element is the same as the number of electrons or protons in that particular atom.
21.
Spontaneous and stimulated emission. Lasers.



light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation"




Laser light is coherent. The individual rays of light in a
laser beam maintain a fixed phase relationship with one
another.
Laser light is monochromatic. Light in a laser beam has a
very narrow range of wavelengths.
Laser light has a small angle of divergence. The beam
spreads out very little, even over large distances.


22.
Atomic bonding.
Primary bonding involves transfer or sharing of electrons and produces a relatively strong
joining of adjacent atoms.

Example: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.

Secondary bonding involves a relatively weak attraction between atoms in which no electron
transfer or sharing occurs.

Example: Van-der-Waals bonds are in this category.
23.
Properties of nuclei. Isotopes.
Some Properties of Nuclei
Composition Size Mass

Size - how big is a nucleus?
On the basis of many scattering experiments, it is found that most nuclei are approximately
spherical and have an average radius given by: r = r0A1 3 where A is the mass number and r0 is
a constant equal to 1.2 x 10-15 m

Composition:
All nuclei appear to contain two kinds of particles bound together. These are protons and
neutrons.
Protons have a charge of +e.
Neutrons are neutral
The atomic number, Z, of a nucleus is just the number of protons that it contains. This is
sometimes called the charge number.
The neutron number, N, is the number of neutrons.
The mass number, A, is equal to the total number of particles, neutrons and protons, present in
the nucleus: A = Z + N.

liquid drop model

The atoms of a chemical element can exist in different types. These are called isotopes. They
have the same number of protons (and electrons), but different numbers of neutrons. Different
isotopes of the same element have different masses. Mass is the word for how much substance
(or matter) something has. Things with different masses have different weights. Because
different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons, they do not all weigh the same or have the
same mass.

Different isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number. They have the same
number of protons. The atomic number is decided by the number of protons. Isotopes have
different mass numbers, though, because they have different numbers of neutrons.

The word isotope, meaning at the same place, comes from the fact that isotopes are at the same
place on the periodic table.

In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Isotopes of the same
element also have the same number of electrons and the electronic structure. Because how an
atom acts is decided by its electronic structure, isotopes are almost the same chemically, but
different physically to their original atoms.

Heavier isotopes react slower than lighter isotopes of the same element. This "mass effect" is
large for protium (1H) and deuterium (2H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium.
For heavier elements, the relative atomic weight difference between isotopes is much less, and
the mass effect is usually small.


24.
Radioactivity. Decay processes.

Radiation is when energy moves through space away from a source (of radiation). There are two
broad classes of radiation: ionizing radiation which comes from radioactive materials and x-ray
machines and non-ionizing radiation (usually electromagnetic radiation) which comes from other
sources. Ionizing radiation, which carries a large energy in each particle, can change things that
it hits, hurting people or animals or causing chemical changes. Non-ionizing radiation does not
cause microscopic damage, but some types can cause chemical changes or make things hotter.

There are many different ways that energy can travel through space in this way. One way is in
the form of shifting electrical and magnetic fields. This is why some common types of radiation
are referred to as Electromagnetic radiation, also known as light. (A different way to think of
electromagnetic radiation is as a stream of particles of energy called photons.) Another way that
radiation can travel is in the form of tiny particles. These are pieces of atoms, like neutrons or
protons (please see the article on atoms for more information). When radiation is made up of
quickly moving particles (like pieces of atoms), it is referred to as particle radiation.

Most people hear terms like radiation and immediately think of it as a bad or dangerous thing. It
turns out that only certain types of radiation are ordinarily harmful to humans. For example,
ultraviolet radiation can give people sunburns. X-rays and gamma rays can make a person sick,
or even die if they are exposed to them for a very long time. Some types of particle radiation can
also make people sick and lead to burns. Any type of radiation that causes changes in the world
like these is referred to as ionizing radiation.

Most chemical elements are stable: If they are not part of a chemical reaction, they do not
change. Chemical elements are made of atoms. In stable elements, the atom stays the same. In a
chemical reaction, the atoms will form chemical bonds, with other atoms. Even if the bonds
change during a reaction, the atoms themselves do not.

Radioactive decay changes an atom from one that has higher energy inside its nucleus into one
with lower energy. The change of energy of the nucleus is given to the particles that are created.
The energy released by radioactive decay may either be carried away by a gamma ray
electromagnetic radiation (a type of light), a beta particle or an alpha particle. In all those cases,
the change of energy of the nucleus is carried away. And in all those cases, the total number of
positive and negative charges of the atom's protons and electrons sum to zero before and after the
change.

The speed at which this change happens, is different for each element. Radioactive decay is
governed by chance: The time it takes, on average for half the atoms of a substance to change is
called half-life. As an example, iodine (131I) has a half-life of about 8 days. That of plutonium
ranges between 4 hours (243Pu) and 80 million years[4] (244Pu)

25.
Superconductivity.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon in which some materials lose all electrical resistance at very
low temperatures. For example if Lead is gradually cooled its resistance steadily decreases (this
is common for most conductors). But if cooled below 7.2 degrees Kelvin its resistance suddenly
drops to zero. In this state a ring made of lead is able to conduct a current that cycles for years
(creating magnetic fields) without any observed decay.

A current moving forever in a loop is a seeming impossibility. It breaks the rules of electrical
resistance, physical friction and thermodynamics; all of which would predict some sort of energy
loss. After all, even if the loop were made of the best non-superconducting conductors available
the current would rapidly dissipate.
What is a superconductor, anyway? A superconductor is a material with zero electrical
resistance. That is, when you send a current into it, that current flows straight through it as if it
werent there. Better yet, you get persistent currents if you start a current flowing in a loop of
superconductor, it will keep flowing forever, unlike a normal conductor, where losses to heat and
so on will cause the current to dissipate pretty quickly unless you do something to keep it going.

That sounds pretty awesome. Useful, too. So, how does it work? It took a while to figure out
whats going on, but one of the key bits of information is that the transition from a normal
material to a superconductor happens abruptly, at very low temperature. This suggests that it
might somehow be associated with another weird phenomenon that happens at extremely low
temperatures, Bose-Einstein Condensation.
The way to do this is to pair the electrons up. The characteristic spin behavior of electrons is
what makes them unable to occupy the same quantum state in large numbers, but if you put two
electrons together in the right way, you can make a composite particle with either no spin at all
(one electron spin-up, the other spin-down), or a spin of 1 (both up or both down). That
composite particle is a boson, so you can make a BEC of electron pairs, and use that to explain
superconductivity.

OK, but how do you stick two electrons together to make a boson? They repel each other, dont
they? Two isolated electrons do repel each other, but two electrons in a superconductor arent
isolated theyre in the middle of a huge lattice of positively charged atoms making up the solid.

And thats the key. Two electrons by themselves cant be stuck together, but two electrons inside
a lattice can develop an attractive force between them thats mediated by the lattice.
the Cooper pairing mechanism depends on displacements of atoms in the lattice due to the
passing electrons. At high temperatures, though, the atoms in the lattice are moving all over the
place all on their own the temperature, you remember, is a measure of the energy of the atoms
making up a substance. High-temperature materials have their atoms vibrating by too much for
the tiny tug of a passing electron to create a significant effect. In order for Cooper pairing to
work, the solid needs to be cold enough that the tiny additional motion caused by a passing
electron is large compared to the thermal vibrations.