+adolescent Media Preferences A 'Window' To Their Development

Media PreIerence and Development - 1
Adolescent Media PreIerences: A Window` to Their Development?

Abstract
This study explores the extent to which adolescents` movie and television genre preIerences are
predicted by general behavioral patterns and temperament, coping styles, and Iamily, school and
peer inIluences. Predictors were assessed in the adolescent`s 7
th
grade year. A year later,
adolescents reported their top three Iavorite movies and television shows. ProIiles oI media genre
preIerence were created Irom these media Iavorites reports, and adolescents were grouped
according to their like-proIiles (e.g., adventure-sports, sports-thriller, romance-mystery-drama,
no preIerences). Gender, Iamily environment and coping styles were the key predictors oI media
genre preIerence patterns. Other Iactors predicted just one or two patterns.
RUNNING HEAD: Media PreIerence and Development
Adolescent Media PreIerences: A Window` to Their Development?
Many oI communication`s well-established Irameworks address our ongoing relationship
with mediaand how our media diets help shape who we are and how we behave. One stable
Iinding is that the more we eat,` the greater the similarities are between our media and our
thoughts, aIIects and behaviors. When considering who among us are the most voracious media
consumers, adolescents top the list. Youth between ages 8 and 18 spend almost eight hours per
day with media (Roberts & Foehr, 2004). Most oI that time is devoted to television viewing, but
a good portion oI that time is reserved Ior movies (Kaiser Family Foundation, 1999, see also
Arbitron, 2003; MPAA, 2005).
During this period oI intense media consumption, adolescents are creating and revising
their selI-identities, perceptions, methods oI selI-expression and selI-regulation (e.g., Beilin,
1992; Erikson, 1968). Adolescents are also developing their social selves, experimenting with
rebellious activities and adopting or rejecting cultural norms (Erikson, 1968; Oyserman, 2007;
Oyserman & Markus, 1990). It is, perhaps, this social development that is most associated with
media consumption, as media can be used to portray numerous identities, whether it is teen rebel
(e.g., Arnett, 1992) or ethnic membership (Dehyle, 1998; McLeod, 1999).
II media can be used to reIlect our selves, it Iollows that others can catch glimpses oI who
we are and how we have developed simply by looking at what our Iavorite movies and television
shows are (see Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). OI course, media consumption occurs
concurrently with development, and so it can diIIicult to establish what shapes media preIerences
and what simply correlates with these preIerences. ThereIore, the present study uses longitudinal
data to explore environmental and intrapersonal predictors oI adolescents` Iavorite media, in
eIIorts to approach a more comprehensive understanding oI what media preIerences can tell us.
Preference
BeIore reviewing what is known about predicting media genre preIerences, it is important
to Iirst review what is meant by media preIerence. Current study oI preIerence draws Irom logic,
in addition to decision (e.g., Tversky & Kahneman, 1974) and utility theories (e.g., Frisch &
Clemen, 1994). Economic theorists oIten study preIerence in terms oI its maniIested, observable
behaviors, which these theorists assume are enacted by rational, or reasoning, individuals
(Lichtenstein & Slovic, 2006). Studies in this area oIten Iocus on how preIerence-based decision
making explains individuals` Iavorite products or brands. Theorists with a strong psychology
perspective tend toward the idea that preIerences are Iormed within the context oI some decision-
making situation, and so initial choices that lead to preIerence construction are bound by the
available inIormation and constraints oI that situation. Thus, according to this view, preIerences
are unstable when Iirst Iormed and might be inIluenced by irrational decision-making at some
early point (Payne, Bettman, & Johnson, 1993; Slovic, GriIIin, & Tversky, 1990). Over time,
however, individuals will learn Irom their experiences, and the result will be well-developed,
stable preIerences (HoeIIler & Ariely, 1999).
At its most basic, preIerence is conceived oI as a choice guide that we use to evaluate an
object as being better than, worse than, or equal to another object. In other words, preIerence is
the overriding, global Iormula we might or might not use to make a speciIic choice, depending
on the situation surrounding that choice; thus, preIerence is not synonymous with choice (Anand,
1993; Sen, 1993; Hansson, 2001). For example, an indiIIerent preIerence, in other words an
evaluation oI relative equality between two objects, would likely not guide an in-the-moment
choice. Correspondingly, iI there is no choice to be made at the moment, the overriding
preIerence still exists. For example, in the absence oI readily-available media, I will still Iavor
horror-comedies to romantic comedies, making my preIerence Ior certain genre types a more
stable indicator oI my media habits than any one media choice I make. To oIIer examples as to
when preIerences might not guide a speciIic media choice, a Iriend might choose the media Iare
in a social situation, or the media Iare might be selected based on current availability, an
ephemeral mood state, or an anticipated event (e.g., Knobloch, 2003; Knobloch & Zillmann,
2002; Knobloch-Westerwick & Alter, 2006; Strizhakova & Krcmar, 2007; Zillmann, 2000).
When large bodies oI choices are taken into account, preIerence models can be created,
such that preIerences are ordered according to a set Iormula (see Steedman & Krause, 1986) that
represents an adaptive, yet predictable preIerence pattern (Payne et al., 1993; Tversky & ShaIir,
1992). These models oIten include various intrapersonal characteristics (see Maio & Olson,
2000), Irom the extent to which one tends to deliberate in decision-making (e.g., Dijksterhuis,
2004) to general approach-avoidance motivations (e.g., Elliot & Church, 1997). Interpersonal
Iactors that inIluence personality development are also included at times (e.g., Albanese, 1987).
In addition, socio-cultural Iactors are oIten components in these models, and in Iact, some
scholars argue that culture is a crucial inIluence in preIerence development (e.g., Wilk, 1996).
Media Preferences
Although preIerences are viewed as a stable part oI our thinking processes and thereIore
distinct Irom choice (Lichtenstein & Slovic, 2006), choices are oIten inIormed by preIerence,
and preIerence is oIten Iormed and altered due to the body oI relevant choices we make over
time (e.g., Grne-YanoII, 2004). ThereIore, we can learn Irom studies that examine in-the-
moment media choices, albeit to the extent that we can inIer habitual or favorite choices Irom
these studies. However, we must still go beyond studies oI choice iI we are to understand our
overriding preIerence patterns, insoIar as these patterns speak to our development.
With regard to habitual media choices, the uses-and-gratiIications approach (e.g., Katz,
Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Rubin, 2002) tells us that individuals recognize some Iunctional use
oI media and choose their media Iare in accordance with what they believe will satisIy their
needs. Thus, Ior example, individuals tend to gravitate toward media they can use to learn (see
also social learning theory by Bandura, 1977), as well as use media that serve conversational
needs (e.g., Rubin, 1981, 1983). This approach to understanding media use is enlightening when
it comes to motivations oI choice, as the Iocus oI much oI this research is centered on active use
based on situational needs (see Rubin, 2002 Ior review). However, the central Iocus oI this
research is not the prediction oI habitual tendencies toward genre preIerences.
Recently, some studies have begun to Iocus more on individual diIIerences that correlate
with media use patterns. Finn (1997), Ior example, Iound that individuals characteristically open
to new experiences tended to watch less television, and individuals with extroverted personalities
tended to spend little time with mass media, in general (see also Weaver, 1991). Sherry (2001)
observed that temperament (biologically-rooted behavioral patterns) toward approaching new
situations, as well as our typical mood cycles, related to amount oI television use.
An individual`s coping style has also been Iound to associate with both general television
use (Anderson, Collins, Schmitt, & Jacobvitz, 1996) and the use oI negatively-valenced media
that relate in some way to problem situations the individual has experienced (Mares & Cantor,
1992; Nabi, Finnerty, Domschke, & Hull, 2006). In addition, a positive link exists between
sensation-seeking tendencies and a liking oI rebellious, violent, or otherwise arousing media
(e.g., Conway & Rubin, 1991; AUTHOR CITATION; Krcmar & Greene, 1999), as well as a
positive link between Ieminine` traits and a liking oI dramas or 'tearjerkers (Oliver, 1993;
Oliver, Weaver, & Sargent, 2000). Finally, a Iew studies (e.g., Ballard & Coates, 1995;
AUTHOR CITATION) suggest that genre choices, and media use in general, are inIluenced by
mental health states, but there is still too little research in this area to say exactly how certain
states inIluence use or genre preIerences.
Adolescents and media preference. Interestingly, the body oI research speciIically
targeting adolescent populations provides more examples oI studies that expressly Iocus on
predictors oI media preIerences, although there are still relatively Iew studies with this exact
Iocus. For example, one recent study (Levy-Garboua, Loheac, & Fayolle, 2006) used educational
investment and divestment (school dissatisIaction) to predict school children`s preIerence
Iormation with regard to risky behaviors. The authors Iound that extent oI school dissatisIaction
did, indeed, predict endorsement oI various types oI risky behaviors. Although these Iindings are
not speciIic to media habits, the Iindings combined with evidence that risky behavior
signiIicantly correlates with liking oI rebellious media (e.g., heavy metal music, see Arnett,
1992) suggests that school investment can predict media preIerences Ior adolescents.
Oddly, another study Iound that adolescents` externalizing behavioral patterns, which
include aggression, deIiance, and other rebellious activities, did not predict their preIerences Ior
heavy metal and hip-hop culture styles two years aIter their behavioral assessment (SelIhout,
Delsing, Ter Bogt, & Meeus, 2008). Rather, this study Iound that these style preIerences
predicted later externalizing behaviors, although it should be noted that this study did not
expressly look at music or other media preIerences without also examining social identity. It
should also be noted that this study did Iind heavy metal and hip-hop preIerences to be stable
across the two-year survey period.
Perhaps the most relevant to predicting adolescent media preIerences, a second study
Irom this same group oI scholars (Delsing, Ter Bogt, Engels, & Meeus, 2008) Iound that, Iirst,
music preIerences became more stable over the course oI adolescence, consistent with the ideas
that preIerence stabilizes over time with repeated choices and that individuals solidiIy their
identities during adolescence. Second, the authors Iound that adolescents high in openness to
experience and agreeableness showed little preIerence Ior pop music three years later, whereas
adolescents high in extroversion showed little preIerence Ior rock music aIter three years` time.
The authors, however, noted that the relationships between personality characteristics and
music preIerences were lower Ior the younger adolescents than Ior those approaching age 18,
suggesting that younger adolescents reIlect more cultural or interpersonal inIluences in their
music preIerences than older adolescents. This observation aligns with studies that show
adolescents and adults alike (see Bryant & Vorderer, 2006) oIten use media that reIlect their
social or cultural selves, as well as preIerence studies that include culture and interpersonal
relations when modeling preIerence Iormation. ThereIore, it might be that personality
characteristics, such as extroversion and openness to experience, will not be as eIIective in
predicting adolescent media preIerences as Iactors relating to the adolescent`s cultural
environment, decision-making approaches, and general behavioral patterns.
Purpose of Studv
From temperament to Iamily environment to school perIormance to socio-economic
status, studies show a myriad oI Iactors to inIluence adolescent development (e.g., Power,
Manor, & Fox, 1991; see also Kubey & Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Another host oI studies show
that adolescents` use oI media can indicate how the adolescent has developed. For example,
heavy use oI television or habitually solitary viewing oI television may characterize an
adolescent who copes with stress with escape or reIlection (e.g., Larson, 1995; Roe & Minnebo,
2007; Steele & Brown, 1995) or an adolescent who has underdeveloped social skills (e.g.,
Arnett, 1995; Larson, 2001). Time spent with aggressive or violent media purportedly reIlects an
adolescent with a tendency toward delinquent behaviors and poor school perIormance (e.g.,
Arnett, 1992; Roe, 1995).
These, and other studies, suggest that adolescents` media genre preIerences can provide
us with a window` to their development, and given adolescents` heavy use oI visual media (e.g.,
television), we might learn most Irom their television and movie Iavorites. To do this, we need to
understand what Iactors best predict these preIerences. Capitalizes on the strengths oI a large-
scale longitudinal study, the present study explores which oI various Iactors highlighted in the
preIerence and media literature predict television and movie genre preIerences. Factors include
behavioral pattern variables that can inIluence decision-making, such as coping style, early
adolescent temperament, and externalizing behaviors. Also included are variables that speak to
environment or social identity, such as school investment, cultural orientation, Iamily cohesion,
and peer group. Finally, because boys and girls exhibit diIIerent media use patterns (Brown &
Pardun, 2004), gender is also considered among the Iactors that might predict media preIerences.
Method
Data Set
Data were taken Irom a large-scale prevention research study (Gonzales, Dumka,
Mauricio, & German, 2007) using Mexican-origin adolescents enrolled in middle school. This
data set was ideal Ior this investigation because Latino youth tend to spend more time with
television than White adolescents, regardless oI economic status (Blosser, 1988; Greenberg &
Brand, 1994). Also, the original study was successIul in recruiting relatively equal numbers oI
boys and girls, as well as recruiting adolescents with diIIerent acculturation levels, including
both U.S. and Mexico-born youth. Oddly, little is known about Latino adolescents` media
preIerences beyond contested Nielsen ratings data (see Bachman, 2004) or evidence that
individuals use Spanish-language media to enculturate or preserve their ethnic identities (e.g.,
Greenberg, Mastro, & Brand, 2002; Rios & Gaines, 1998). ThereIore, not only can this study
perIorm speciIic analyses with respect to culture (in addition to school and peers), the present
study also enters new territory in examining media preIerences Ior this ethnic group.
The original study, conducted in a large Southwestern metropolitan area, was an
intervention eIIicacy study that randomly sampled Iamilies with Mexican origin adolescents
enrolled in 7th grade at Iive inner-city middle schools. Three cohorts were recruited in three
consecutive years to attend one oI two randomly-assigned program conditions and participate in
Iour computer-assisted interviews. Program conditions included attendance in a nine-session
once-a-week intervention aimed at decreasing school dropout or a one-evening workshop that
served as a low-dose control group. (Program assignment had no eIIect on media preIerences.)
A pretest interview was conducted in the Iall oI the adolescent`s 7
th
grade year, program
attendance occurred that spring, the second interview (immediate posttest) was conducted at the
end oI 7
th
grade, and the third and Iourth interviews were conducted one and two years aIter
program attendance, respectively. Interviews were conducted in either English or Spanish, and
each lasted between 1 and 3 hours, depending on the interview language and number oI
participants Ior that Iamily. The third interview, conducted one year aIter adolescents were
recruited into the original study, contained media items that were used to assess general media
genre preIerences. In addition, school grades were collected Ior participating adolescents each
year, along with two teachers` assessments oI each adolescent`s perIormance in class.
Adolescents` data Irom the Iirst interview (a year prior to the media assessments), in
addition to school and teacher data Irom that Iirst year, were used to predict the adolescents`
media preIerences assessed a year later.
Respondents
OI the 598 adolescents recruited into the original study, 451 adolescents completed the
third interview, in which media preIerence questions were introduced. About halI (n 220) oI
the adolescents were male; 231 were Iemale. Most adolescents entered the study when they were
12 years old, M 12.1, SD .53, range 11 to 14. With regard to language, 187 adolescents
were interviewed in English; 264 in Spanish. Their language choice represents the Iamily
breakdowns in terms oI primary language used at home.
With regard to Iamily conIiguration, 378 oI the adolescents lived in two-parent Iamilies,
228 Iamilies oI which had both parents participate in the original study (150 Iamilies opted to
have only one parent participate). The remaining 73 Iamilies were single-parent Iamilies, with 63
oI these Iamilies headed by the mother.
Adolescents were living, on average, with 3 siblings (range 0 to 14) and Iive to six
people total in the house (range 2 to 16). Total yearly income Ior their households was, on
average, between $30,000 and $35,000 U.S. dollars (range less than $5,000 to over $100,000).
Parents reported that these adolescents spent a little over two hours on average with
television, computers and/or video games on weekday evenings, which corroborates previous
studies` Iindings that this age group is known Ior avid media consumption. Schools reported that
adolescents` average cumulative 7
th
grade GPA at 2.44 (range .33 to 4.23, 4.33 being an A).
GPA did not correlate with time spent with media Ior this group, r -.08, ns.
Pertinent Measures
The original study included a number oI established measures that assessed adolescent`s
academic and mental health Iunctioning and their cultural, Iamily, school and peer contexts. The
Iollowing summary introduces the measures beyond gender (male 0, Iemale 1) used in the
present study. Measures are taken Irom the Iirst interview (adolescent`s 7
th
grade year) Ior use in
predicting television and movie genre preIerences assessed a year later (8
th
grade year). See
Table 1 Ior inter-item correlations among these measures.
Externali:ing and internali:ing behaviors. Measures oI externalizing and internalizing
behavioral/emotional problems were taken Irom the well-established Achenbach (1991) Youth
SelI-Report (YSR). The externalizing behavioral pattern measure consisted oI delinquent and
aggressive behavior scales, M 8.8, SD 6.8, range 0 to 35. The internalizing behavioral
pattern measure consisted oI scales measuring withdrawal, anxiety/depression and somatic
complaints, M 13.9, SD 8.5, range 0 to 42. Composite scores Ior each measure were
created Irom a speciIic Iormula provided by Achenbach Ior this purpose. Higher scores indicate
greater endorsement oI the behaviors.
Earlv adolescent temperament. The 34-item Early Adolescent Temperament measure was
used to assess selI-regulation, or more accurately, eIIortIul control (Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992).
Temperament is conceived oI as biologically-rooted, innate and enduring traits that serve as the
building blocks` oI one`s personality (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Thus, temperament is
considered a stable internal characteristic, unlike ephemeral mood states. The temperament
measure used here Iocuses on the ability to do something despite a strong urge to avoid it, the
ability to suppress inappropriate actions, the ability to Iocus on tasks, to control Iear and
Irustration, and to control social distance with others (personal closeness). Thus, this measure
addressed how an individual might approach decision situations.
Items included such statements as 'II I have a hard assignment to do, I get started right
away and 'It`s easy Ior me to keep a secret. Responses were on a 4-point scale Irom not at all
true oI me ( 1) to very true oI me ( 4). The alpha level Ior these items Iell somewhat below
conventional standards (u .68), but because this measure is well-established, items were
accordingly averaged into a single score indicating capacity Ior eIIortIul control, M 2.9, SD
.39, range 1.6 to 3.9.
Coping stvle. Adolescents` active and avoidant coping styles were assessed with the
Children`s Coping Strategies Checklist (Ayers, Sandler, West, & Roosa, 1996), which measured
the extent to which adolescents used diIIerent support and problem-solving strategies to deal
with problems in their lives. Active (approach) coping was assessed with a 24-item subscale (u
.93), which included optimism, direct problem-solving, seeking understanding, positive cognitive
restructuring and the like, M 2.8, SD .53, range 1.1 to 4.0. Avoidance (passive) coping was
assessed with 11 items (u .80) that included avoidant actions, repression and wishIul thinking,
M 2.7, SD .51, range 1.3 to 4.0.
Cultural orientation. Adolescents` cultural orientation was evaluated using the
Acculturation Rating Scale Ior Mexican-Americans II (Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995).
Anglo orientation was measured with 13 items such as 'I speak English, 'I enjoy English
language TV, and 'I like to identiIy myselI as an Anglo American. Mexican orientation was
measured with 17 items such as 'I enjoy Spanish language TV and 'My thinking is done in the
Spanish language. Responses were on a 5-point scale Irom not at all ( 1) to extremely oIten or
almost always ( 5). Anglo orientation items (u .80) were averaged to create a composite score
indicating level oI acculturation (assimilation) into the Anglo-American culture, M 3.9, SD
.56, range 1.5 to 5.0. Mexican orientation items (u .87) were likewise averaged into a
single score Ior enculturation, M 3.4, SD .67, range 1.3 to 4.9.
Familv environment. Family environment was assessed with overall Iamily cohesion,
interparental conIlict and parent-adolescent conIlict measures. Family cohesion was measured
with the 16-item cohesion subscale Irom the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales
II (Olson, Portner, & Bell, 1982), which included items such as 'Our Iamily did things together
and 'Family members knew each other's close Iriends. Responses were on a 5-point scale Irom
almost never or never ( 1) to almost always or always ( 5). These items (u .77) were
averaged into a composite score, M 3.5, SD .77, range 1.5 to 5.0.
The interparental conIlict measure was taken Irom the Multidimensional Assessment oI
Interparental ConIlict (Tschann, Flores, Pasch, & VanOss Marin, 1999). This measure, which
included 8 items such as 'In the past month, how many times did your parents have an
unpleasant disagreement, was evaluated on a 5-point scale Irom never ( 1) to almost every day
or every time ( 5). Items were averaged into a composite score (u .83), with higher scores
indicating greater conIlict, M 1.8, SD .77, range 1.0 to 5.0.
The 17-item parent-adolescent conIlict measure (Smetana, 1988) included items such as
'In the past month, how oIten did you and your parent disagree or get upset about money, '.
chores at home, or 'what time you go to bed. Responses were on a 5-point scale Irom never (
1) to all the time ( 5). Items were averaged into a composite score (u .91), with higher scores
indicating greater conIlict, M 2.4, SD .89, range 1.0 to 5.0.
School investment. School investment was assessed with school perIormance and
academic selI-eIIicacy. First, a composite score Ior school perIormance was created, adding
together the already-composited scores oI the two teachers` reports on the adolescent`s eIIort,
initiative and value in class (Finn, Folger, & Cox, 1991) and the adolescent`s overall GPA (u .
79). The resulting score indicates adolescents` school perIormance during the Iirst semester oI
their 7
th
grade year (corresponding with the pretest interview time period), with higher scores
indicating better perIormance, M 29.9, SD 6.1, range 12.6 to 42.1.
Second, the 7-item academic selI-eIIicacy measure was used, which included items such
as 'I can do almost all the work in school iI I don`t give up, and 'I`m certain I can master the
skills taught in school this year (Arunkumar, Midgley, & Urdan, 1999). Responses to these
items were on a 5-point scale ranging Irom not at all true ( 1) to very true ( 5). These items (u
.72) were averaged into a composite score, M 4.2, SD .52, range 1.4 to 5.0.
Peers. A 15-item report oI peers` overall delinquency (Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, &
Hiraga, 1994) was used to assess the general types oI Iriends with which the adolescent most
associated. Items included 'During the past month, how many oI your Iriends have gotten drunk
or high, '.started rumors or told lies, and '.got in trouble at school. Responses were on a
5-point scale Irom none ( 1) to almost all ( 5). These items (u .89) were averaged into a
composite score oI peer delinquency, M 1.6, SD .58, range 1.0 to 4.4.
|Insert Table 1 about here|
Media Preferences
In the third interview during the adolescent`s 8
th
grade year, adolescents were asked to list
their three Iavorite movies and three Iavorite television showsthese were icebreaker`
questions. OI the 451 adolescents, 249 listed three movies and three television shows, 67 listed at
least two oI each, only 7 listed one title each, and just 1 adolescent oIIered no Iavorites.
The Internet Movie DataBase (IMDB.com) was used to obtain the genre memberships oI
each movie and television show named. Most oI the media Iare belonged to more than one genre
category, with the primary genre memberships listed Iirst in alphabetical order and secondary
genres listed alphabetically aIter the primary genres. For example, The Matrix (Action, Thriller,
Crime) was an action and thriller Iilm Iirst, and a crime Iilm second.
To quantiIy each adolescent`s genre preIerences across title, primary genres Ior each title
received 2 points; secondary genres 1 point. Points were then totaled Ior each respondent, such
that an adolescent who named movies The Matrix (Action, Thriller, Crime) and White Chicks
(Crime, Comedy) and television show Family Guy (Animation, Comedy) received 3 points Ior
crime, 3 points Ior comedy, 2 points Ior action, 2 points Ior thriller, and 2 points Ior animation.
In total, 5,750 genre listings emerged across the respondents, representing 23 diIIerent genres
Irom action to romance to war and western. Almost 20 oI the genre listings were comedy, 12
were drama, and the remaining 21 genres comprised less than 10 oI the total listings.
Taking the genre scoring, an expression miner program (STEM, Ernst & Bar-Joseph,
2006) was used to create proIiles that captured the nuances oI preIerences beyond the
overarching preIerence Ior comedy in this sample. The program used takes data sequences and
clusters the data set in order to Iind distinct models that summarize the emergent sequence
patterns (see Ernst, Nau, & Bar-Joseph, 2005 about the program`s clustering method). The
program was originally designed to take individuals` gene proIiles and Iind overarching
similarities that can be used to identiIy, group, and graphically represent like-proIiles. In the
present study, we needed to group adolescents` preIerences in a manner that accounted Ior each
adolescent`s pattern oI media genre preIerences across his/her list oI Iavorite movie and
television titles. ThereIore, this program was ideal, in allowing us to Iind overarching preIerence
proIiles that clustered yet preserved the nuances oI adolescents` media Iavorites.
Eight proIiles emerged Irom applying this program to the genre coding, successIully
including all oI the adolescents` listings. Figure 1 shows a graphical representation oI each
proIile, and Table 1 displays an interpretation oI the proIiles, along with the most-Iavored and
least-Iavored genres associated with each proIile (proIile labels are oIIered as a cursory
interpretation oI the preIerence pattern and Ior ease oI reIerence throughout the text). These
proIiles were used in the main analysis.
|Insert Table 2 and Figure 1 about here|
Results
A series oI binary logistic regressions was used to evaluate which oI the adolescents`
behavior-, decision- and environment-related measures best predicted membership in each media
genre preIerence proIile. First, each preIerence proIile was dummy-coded to indicate
membership in ( 1) or exclusion Irom ( 0) that particular proIile. Second, Ior each proIile, the
signiIicant correlates were entered as independent Iactors in the proIile`s binary logistic
regression. Because this study is exploratory and we wished to be liberal in our analyses, yet
eliminate non-signiIicant predictors, we used a backwards conditional model Ior each analysis.
Results are summarized by proIile below. Table 3 reports the Iinal equations Ior each proIile.
Couch potatoes. The Iinal model that best predicted adolescents with a wide variety oI
preIerences included gender, temperament and Iamily environment Iactors,
2
(3) 19.0, p .
001. Girls, moreso than boys, tended to be couch potatoes, B .79, SE B .27, e
B
2.2, p .05.
Family environments with interparental conIlict also tended to produce couch potatoes, B .40,
SE B .17, e
B
1.5, p .05. Greater eIIortIul control also appeared to be a slight characteristic
Ior these couch potatoes, B .64, SE B .36, e
B
1.9, p .10.
Crime buffs. The Iinal model that best predicted adolescents with heavy preIerence Ior
crime included gender, coping style, Iamily environment, and school investment Iactors,
2
(5)
35.0, p .001. Boys, rather than girls, tended to Iall into this proIile, B -1.0, SE B .30, e
B
.
36, p .05. Avoidant coping styles also appeared to describe this group, B .62, SE B .29, e
B

1.9, p .05. With regard to Iamily environment, crime buIIs appeared to have come Irom
Iamilies with little interparental conIlict, B -.45, SE B .22, e
B
.64, p .05. Yet, crime buIIs
appeared to have experienced signiIicant parent-adolescent conIlict, B .51, SE B .18, e
B

1.7, p .05. Finally, crime buIIs appeared to have a history oI somewhat lower levels oI
academic selI-eIIicacy, B -.50, SE B .29, e
B
.61, p .10.
Plavmakers. Adolescents` preIerence Ior sports and adventure was best predicted by
gender, coping style, Iamily environment and peers,
2
(4) 31.4, p .001. Boys, as opposed to
girls, tended toward playIul media, B -1.5, SE B .42, e
B
.23, p .05. This group was also
predicted by an apparent rejection oI avoidance coping strategies, B -.89, SE B .38, e
B
.41,
p .05. With regard to Iamily, playmakers appeared to have come Irom Iamilies that were not
very cohesive, B -.52, SE B .25, e
B
.60, p .05. However, playmakers appeared to have
chosen good kids` as peers, B -.84, SE B .42, e
B
.43, p .05.
Romantics. Adolescents with a preIerence Ior mystery, drama, and yes, romance, yielded
what some might call predictable results,
2
(2) 16.9, p .001. Girls dominated this proIile, B
1.6, SE B .47, e
B
4.8, p .05. In addition, this group appeared to have come Irom Iamilies
with relatively little interparental conIlict, B -.54, SE B .32, e
B
.58, p .10.
Adrenaline funkies. The Iinal model that best predicted adolescents` preIerence Ior sports
and thrills encompassed gender, coping, culture and Iamily,
2
(4) 28.7, p .001. As one might
expect, boys rather than girls were likely to be adrenaline junkies, B -1.3, SE B .50, e
B
.27,
p .05. Regarding culture, adolescents in this group appeared to have a well-developed Mexican
orientation, B 1.3, SE B .39, e
B
3.6, p .05. Family-wise, this group appeared to have come
Irom Iamilies with little interparental conIlict, B -.90, SE B .43, e
B
.41, p .05. Finally, this
group was characterized by a slight tendency away Irom active coping styles, B -.76, SE B .
43, e
B
.47, p .10.
Jegetables. The Iinal model that best described adolescents who did not appear to have
developed strong preIerences Ior any particular genre included gender and Iamily,
2
(2) 18.2, p
.001. Adolescents in this proIile were more likely to be girls than boys (B 1.7, SE B .57, e
B
5.6, p .01) and more likely to have come Irom Iamilies with signiIicant interparental conIlict
(B .66, SE B .24, e
B
1.9, p .05).
Ghouls. Adolescents` preIerence Ior horror and Iantasy did not appear to signiIicantly
correlate with any predictor, according to the regression analysis and subsequent zero-order
correlation analyses. The only predictor to approach signiIicance in the model predicting ghouls
was gender,
2
(1) 3.5, p .062. Girls were slightly more likely than boys to Iall into this
proIile, B 1.0, SE B .60, e
B
2.8, p .10.
Critics. The Iinal model that best predicted adolescents who appeared to have little or no
media Iavorites included gender, behavior and Iamily,
2
(3) 11.0, p .012. Boys, rather than
girls, tended to be critics, B -2.0, SE B .88, e
B
.14, p .05. This group also appears to have
experienced little parent-adolescent conIlict, B -1.3, SE B .55, e
B
.27, p .05. Last, this
group was characterized by a slight tendency toward internalizing behavior, B .09, SE B .05,
e
B
1.1, p .10.
|Insert Table 3 about here|
Discussion
The premise oI this study was to explore the extent to which media preIerences are a
window` to our selves by examining which behavioral, decision-making and environmental
characteristics best predicted genre preIerences. This premise hinges on the notion Irom
preIerence studies that preIerences are stable and overarching in guiding choices and in
explaining habitual product use. ThereIore, consistent with many preIerence studies, media
preIerences were assessed in terms oI individuals` Iavorite 'brands oI content, namely the
individual`s selI-reported top handIul oI Iavorite movies and television shows.
Adolescents were prime candidates Ior exploring this premise, as adolescents are avid
media consumers who exhibit media use that reIlects their identities and moods, yet appear to
use media more habitually than instrumentally, in terms oI choosing media to alter or manage
moods (AUTHOR CITATION). Thus, adolescents` media preIerences might guide everyday
media choices more comprehensively than what we might observe with adults.
This study, thereIore, took previous research on general media use and genre choices,
adolescents` media use patterns and adolescent development and examined which oI a number oI
Iactors predicted media preIerence patterns using a secondary analysis oI data gathered Ior a
large-scale longitudinal Iield project. Using this data set, media preIerence proIiles were created
in a manner that took the adolescents` Iavorite movies and television shows and grouped like-
patterns so that adolescents` primary genre preIerences were captured in addition to such
nuances as second-most Iavorite and least-Iavored genres. Analyses were then used to Iind the
strongest predictors oI these proIiles, predictors oI which included adolescent`s gender,
externalizing and internalizing behavioral patterns, eIIortIul control temperament, active or
avoidant coping styles, Iamily cohesion and conIlict between parents or between parent and
adolescent, Anglo or Mexican cultural orientation, school perIormance and academic selI-
eIIicacy, and adolescent`s peer delinquency.
In corroboration with other studies that have Iound that boys and girls use diIIerent media
(e.g., Brown & Pardun, 2004), gender predicted membership Ior each proIile. Liking oI sports,
thrillers, adventure and crime tended to be male-oriented, whereas liking oI comedy, drama,
romance, mystery, and the like tended to be Iemale-oriented. Girls also tended to have a wider
preIerence Ior media than boys. In Iact, the small group oI adolescents who appeared to be
displeased by any genre was mostly comprised oI boys.
Family environment also predicted membership in all proIiles, save one. Whereas a Iairly
un-cohesive Iamily liIe predicted playIul media preIerences (e.g., adventure and sports),
presence oI interparental conIlict appeared to predict a Iuture oI channel grazing and overall
aIIinity toward a wide range oI media (the couch potato` and vegetable` proIiles). On the other
hand, lack oI interparental conIlict predicted narrow genre preIerences, Ior example crime or
romance. Interestingly, the crime buIIs appeared to have a history oI arguing with their parents.
In contrast, the adolescents who showed relative indiIIerence toward media (labeled here as
critics) appeared to have had little conIlict with their parents.
The third most prevalent predictor oI genre preIerence was coping style. In line with
preIerence studies that highlight decision-making tendencies as key elements in preIerence
Iormation, this study Iound a link between narrow media genre preIerences and coping
tendencies. Adolescents who tended to use Iew active (approach-driven) coping strategies
apparently developed a preIerence Ior sports and thrillerscharacteristically high-arousing and
engaging content. Perhaps these adolescents simply put their energy into their media rather than
their problem situations. Alternately, those who leaned strongly toward avoidance coping styles
gravitated toward crime stories. Recall that these individuals also experienced signiIicant conIlict
with their parents. In contrast, adolescents who rejected avoidant coping strategies were drawn to
playIul media. These adolescents also appeared to have chosen sociable, well-behaved Iriends.
Beyond gender, Iamily environment and coping style, proIile models were Iurther
enhanced with the inclusion oI one or more oI the remaining predictors in the behavioral, school,
and cultural domains. For example, adolescents with widely drawn preIerences Ior any genre that
appeared to lack any puzzle solving (labeled here as couch potatoes) were characteristically high
in eIIortIul control, meaning their temperament was such that selI-regulation came easy. Perhaps
this is why these adolescents were able to have widespread Iavorites when it came to television
and movie genres. On the other side, adolescents who appeared disinterested or apathetic about
their media (labeled as critics) exhibited a slight tendency toward internalizing behaviors,
suggesting these individuals might have Iound media distracting, even detrimental, to their
rumination or reIlection tendencies. Adolescents who identiIied with their Mexican culture
developed a preIerence Ior high-octane Iare like sports and thrillers (labeled here as adrenaline
junkies), which might reIlect an overall Iire-like strength, or fuer:a, in their personalities.
Adolescents drawn to crime had low academic selI-eIIicacy, which combined with their
history oI conIlict with their parents and tendency toward avoidance coping, might signiIy that
viewing others engage in antisocial behavior holds some therapeutic value Ior these individuals.
Granted, it is diIIicult to say exactly what value this genre holds, without knowing whether the
adolescents were attracted more to the hero or the villain, or whether villains in these crime
stories suIIered negative consequences or were rewarded Ior their behaviors. OI course, much oI
the interpretation regarding why any one proIile is being predicted by a particular Iactor is
speculation. The Iact that these Iactors do predict the proIiles, however, underlines the need Ior
research into how media preIerences are Iormed in light oI our social and cognitive development.
Overall, these Iindings suggest that media use, without considering the types oI genres
one is drawn to, is an insuIIicient variable to attempt to associate with negative developmental
outcomes. This study did not Iind a one-size-Iits-all model that predicted all preIerences,
although it did Iind that gender, Iamily environment and coping style are likely to be key players
in media preIerence Iormation. In Iact, it appears as though some media preIerence patterns
signiIy very positive development, in terms oI temperament, Iamily harmony, or respectable
Iriends. Those proIiles that suggested troubles (e.g., low academic selI-eIIicacy or Iamily
conIlict) did not necessarily indicate the same risk Iactors across proIile. These results shed some
light on studies that observe adolescents turning to television when experiencing stress at home
or at school (e.g., Roe & Minnebo, 2007), in terms oI what media are actually selected.
With regard to culture, media genre preIerences do not appear to have a strong cultural
inIluence. On one hand, this is surprising given the evidence that individuals will use media to
reIlect or maintain connections with the Latino culture (e.g., Manuel, 1991; Rios & Gaines,
1998). On the other hand, perhaps this study simply shows that overall genre preIerences exist
independent oI cultural leaning Ior adolescents in the U.S., and it is the amount oI cultural cues
in the program, regardless oI the genre, that would explain media selection Ior this group.
Given the implications Ior using media preIerences to identiIy or predict internal or
external risk Iactors, the limitations oI this study should be noted. For example, it is surprising
that horror did not emerge among the at risk` proIiles, despite ample evidence that violent media
viewing is associated with a myriad oI negative outcomes Ior youth (see Bushman & Anderson,
2001; Cantor, 2002). This is likely due to the small group associated with this proIile, as there
were simply Iew adolescents in the data set that Iavored horror. The proIile encompassing
adolescents who seemed disinterested in media was also small in number, which is expected
considering adolescents are typically avid media users. ThereIore, it is diIIicult to make
sweeping generalizations, given that not all proIiles in this study had large sample sizes.
In addition, the data set is limited in that only adolescents oI Mexican origin were
considered. Although these adolescents varied widely in their acculturation, the generality oI
these Iindings is limited by the Iact that these adolescents lived in the same city and shared, at
least in part, a common cultural thread. Second, the data set oIIered a simple assessment oI
media preIerences, based on the adolescents` selI-reports oI their three Iavorite movies and
television shows. Whereas it is likely that Iavorite programs will capture the essence oI an
individual`s Iavorite genres, and whereas asking Ior three Iavorites reduces the likelihood that
only the most easily recalled or recently viewed program would be listed, the preIerence measure
is still plagued by the usual demand characteristics and memory Iactors typical oI any selI-report.
Nonetheless, this pool oI Iavorites allowed us to create preIerence proIiles that oIIered a
richer description oI preIerences beyond one primary genre, thus enabling us to explore
predictors oI these proIiles more Iully. Using these proIiles, which captured secondary, tertiary,
and least-Iavored genres, this study shows that media preIerence has the ability to tell us about
our personality, our development and our environment. ThereIore, it behooves us to look more at
individual diIIerences in exploring habitual media use, although we should also keep in mind
that as we attempt to interpret Iindings oI this nature, it might not be the particular genre but a
lack oI one or more Iavored genres that might be the most inIormative indicator oI who we are.
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Table 1
Pearson Correlation Matrix for Predictors of Adolescent Media Genre Preferences
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
1. Gender -.08 .15* .16* .08 .06 .08 .06 .03 .03 -.16
*
.29* .01 -.01
2. Externalizing
behaviors
-- .57* -.51
*
-.18
*
.05 .06 -.09 -.23
*
.39* .42* -.32
*
-.23
*
.54*
3. Internalizing
behaviors
-- -- -.35
*
-.01 .17* .03 .01 -.16
*
.36* .31* -.17
*
-.20
*
.35*
4. EIIortIul
control
-- -- -- .26* -.10
*
.10* .10* .31* -.24
*
-.38
*
.42* .35* -.32
*
5. Active coping -- -- -- -- .55* .22* .24* .52* .02 -.05 .16* .30* -.07
6. Avoidant
coping
-- -- -- -- -- .14* .18* .23* .16* .14* -.09 .07 .04
7. Anglo
orientation
-- -- -- -- -- -- -.13
*
.09 .22* .15* .02 .26* .12*
8. Mexican
orientation
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- .21* -.09 -.12
*
.06 .15* -.09
*
9. Family
cohesion
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -.16
*
-.07 .09 .32* -.14
*
10. Interparental
conIlict
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .42* -.12
*
-.00 .30*
11. Parent-adol
conIlict
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -.39
*
-.18
*
.35*
12. School
perIormance
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .32* -.27
*
13. Academic
selI-eIIicacy
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -.20
*
14. Peer
delinquency
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Note. Gender coded as 0 male, 1 Iemale. Other variables are continuous, with higher scores
indicating greater presence (or higher value) oI that quality. N 451 adolescents.
* p .05.
Table 2
Resulting Adolescent Media Genre Preference Profiles from Cluster Analvsis
ProIile Genre PreIerences
Most Favorite Least Favorite
Couch
Potato
(n 134)
Fun, Iamiliar, straight-
Iorward Iare, no puzzles or
pondering please
Comedy, Docu/news,
Drama, Fantasy,
Romance, Sports
Adventure, Mystery
Crime buII
(n 99)
Crime in its various Iorms Crime Sports, Thriller
Playmaker
(n 60)
Media used Ior play, nothing
too serious
Adventure, Animation,
Sports
Reality
Romantic
(n 42)
Mary Higgins Clark comes
to mind, no boy` stuII
Drama, Mystery,
Romance
Action, Fantasy,
Thriller
Adrenaline
junkie
(n 41)
About the thrill oI the game Sports, Thriller Crime
Vegetable
(n 40)
Anything will do, preIerably
not too involving
no real peaks
(but Adventure, Comedy,
Crime, Docu/news,
Family, Music, Reality,
Romance, and Thriller
are agreeable)
Action, Animation,
Drama, Fantasy,
Horror, Mystery,
Sci-Ii, Sports
Ghoul
(n 21)
Ghost stories, creature
Ieatures, and other shock-
and-awe
Fantasy, Horror Crime
Critic
(n 14)
Not much to like in the vast
wasteland` oI media
none Crime, Family,
Horror, Music,
Sci-Ii
Note. ProIiles are Irom model proIile that summarizes individual preIerence patterns that Iell
within the given proIile (see Figure 1). Number oI individuals encompassed within each proIile
is also shown. Labels and descriptions oIIered Ior ease oI reIerence in text.
Table 3
Equations Predicting Adolescent Media Genre Profiles (Binarv Logistic Regression Results)
ProIile Binary Logistic Regression Equation Model Fit
Couch Potato 3.8 .79 gender .64 eIIortIul control .40 interparental conIlict
2
(3) 19.0*
Crime buII .28 1.0 gender .62 avoidance coping .45 interparental
conIlict .51 parent-adolescent conIlict - .50 academic selI-eIIicacy

2
(5) 35.0*
Playmaker 3.9 1.5 gender .89 avoidance coping .52 Iamily cohesion .
84 peer delinquency

2
(4) 31.4*
Romantic 2.3 1.6 gender .54 interparental conIlict
2
(2) 16.9*
Adrenaline junkie .31 1.3 gender .76 active coping 1.3 Mexican orientation
.90 interparental conIlict

2
(4) 28.7*
Vegetable 5.0 1.7 gender .67 interparental conIlict
2
(2) 18.2*
Ghoul 3.6 1.0 gender
2
(1) 3.5
f
Critic .25 2.0 gender .09 internalizing behavior 1.3 parent-
adolescent conIlict

2
(3) 11.0*
Note. Regression equations represent Iinal models oI backwards conditional binary logistic
regression analyses using gender, behavioral pattern, temperament, coping style, cultural
orientation, Iamily environment, school investment and peer group to predict membership (0
no, 1 yes) in each proIile. Gender coded as 0 male, 1 Iemale. Other variables are
continuous, with higher scores indicating greater presence (or higher value) oI that quality. N
451 adolescents.
* p .05;
f
p .10.
Figure Caption
Figure 1. Model proIiles Irom clustering oI adolescents` individual patterns oI media genre
preIerences (see also Table 1). Horizontal lines demark the '0 reIerence point Ior each proIile.
Figure 1

C Co ou uc ch h
p po ot ta at to o
( ( = = 1 13 34 4) )

C Cr ri im me e
b bu uf ff f
( ( = = 9 99 9) )

P P a ay ym ma ak ke er r
( ( = = 6 60 0) )

R Ro om ma an nt t c c
( ( = = 4 42 2) )

A Ad dr re en na a n ne e
j ju un nk ki ie e
( ( = = 4 41 1) )

V Ve eg ge et ta ab b e e
( ( = = 4 40 0) )

G Gh ho ou ul l
( ( = = 2 21 1) )

C Cr ri it ti ic c
( ( = = 1 14 4) )

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