The Certainty of Change

The certainty of change
A research into the interactions of the decoration

on the western walls of the cult chapels of the
mastabas at Giza during the Old Kingdom

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van
de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden,
op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. P.F. van der Heijden
volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties
te verdedigen op woensdag 23 maart 2011
klokke 13.45 uur

door

Leo Roeten

geboren te Den Haag

in 1945

Promotiecommissie:

Promotor: Prof.dr. J.F. Borghouts

Copromotores: Dr. R. van Walsem

Dr. P. van de Velde

Overige leden: Prof.dr. R. Halbertsma

Prof.dr. O.E. Kaper

Dr. J.D. Wieringa (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen)
i


A research into the interactions of the decoration on
the western walls of the cult chapels of the mastabas
at Giza during the Old Kingdom

VOLUME I:

Text

ii
Table of contents

Volume I

Compilations Table of contents ii
Technical terms and abbreviations v
Bibliography and bibliographical abbreviations viii
Bibliography of the tombs xv
Introduction xix
Compilation of (sub)themes xxi

Chapter I Architecture, decoration and interpretation.
Introduction 1
I. The development of the superstructure of the mastabas at Giza 2
II. The development of the decoration of the cult chapel 10
III. The secular versus the non-secular content of (sub)themes 16
IV. The etic versus the emic interpretation 21

Chapter II Preliminary considerations
I. The purpose of this research project 23
II. The research project 25
III. The catalogues 28
IV. Considerations concerning chronology 33
Appendix II.1. The decoration south of the false door 35

Chapter III The methods employed in the research project
I. Introduction 38
II. Methods 38
III. The co-occurrences between (sub)themes 43
IV. Co-occurrences of (sub)themes in relation to their location on the wall 47
V. The cultic character of (sub)themes 53
VI. The determination of the influence between two (sub)themes 56
Appendix III.1. Various methods of calculating the difference factor Df 60
Appendix III.2. The calculation of the difference factor (CPSD) of the
central field 61
Appendix III.3. Some aspects of curves 63
Appendix III.4. The making of a chronological ordering 70

Chapter IV The western wall of the cult chapel
I. The (sub)themes on the western wall 73
II. Preliminary study 75
III. The chronological ordering of the (sub)themes 76
IV. Preliminary conclusions 79

Chapter V The co-occurrence of (sub)themes on the western wall
I. Considerations concerning the co-occurrence of the (sub)themes 81
II. Conclusions about the co-occurrences on the western wall 83
iii

Chapter VI The locations of the (sub)themes on the western wall
I. Considerations concerning the location of the (sub)themes on the
western wall 85
II. The location of the (sub)themes on the wall sections 86
III. The chronological development of the employment of the
main (sub)themes on the wall sections 91
IV. The interaction between (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3 94
V. CP and SWS values 96
VI. Preliminary conclusions 99

Chapter VII The relation between the (sub)themes on the western wall
I. Preliminary considerations 100
II. The cultic character of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3, and its chronological
development 103
III. Determination of the cultic character of the (sub)themes 105
IV. The unifying function of (sub)themes 112
V. The chronological development of the cultic character
of the western wall 116
VI. Preliminary conclusions 119

Chapter VIII. The decoration of the false door
II. FO calculations 124
III. Interactions in chronological development between (sub)themes
on the false door 128
IV. Conclusions 136

Chapter IX The chronological development of the cultic character false door
and its parts The interaction between the western wall and the false door
I. The chronological development of the cultic character:
preliminary considerations 138
II. The chronological development of the cultic character of the whole
western wall 140
III. Conclusions 142

Chapter X The interactions between the decoration of the western wall and
the false door. Further considerations about the magical food supply
II. Considerations relating to the food supply for the ka of the deceased 145
III. Conclusions 150

Chapter XI The results, analysis and correlation
II. Summary 152
III. A compilation of the mutations of the (sub)themes throughout the
Old Kingdom 168

iv
Chapter XII Conclusions
I. Introduction 172
II. Conclusions 172
III. The signalling/guiding role. 178
IV. Epilogue. 178

Volume II

Catalogues 182
Tables 191
Diagrams 205
Chronological orderings 213
Plates 217

Stellingen 233

v

Technical terms and abbreviations

Association The tendency of (sub)themes to be placed together on the same wall,
or wall section, or on the false door or a part of it.
Attribute The separate parts which together form a (sub)theme.
Bandwidth In a diagram every measurement (point) of a curve has an
uncertainty in both directions; for the whole curve this is depicted as
a band of a certain width with the line of points approximately in the
middle. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Accuracy.html
Chronological ordering In this research project it is applied as a chronological ordering of
tombs which is based on the midpoint of their use life.
Cluster / cloud A compilation of measured values gathered in a diagram.
Combination The occurrence of the same (sub)theme on more than one wall
section or part of the false door(= multiple placement).
Co-occurrence The placing of two (sub)themes on the western wall or on a section
of it.
Copied If a (sub)theme which is placed on wall A of the cult chapel, also
gets placed on wall B, while the original (sub)theme remains placed
on wall A, the (sub)theme is said to have been copied from wall
A onto wall B.
CP Abbreviation for Co-occurrence Percentage, the number of co-
occurrences between two (sub)themes expressed as a percentage of
the maximum number of co-occurrences possible between the two
of them.
CPSD Co-occurrence percentage surrounds discrepancy, a calculated
value giving the quantified difference between a CP value and the
CP values surrounding it in a table.
Cultic Everything pertaining to the primary function of the cult chapel of
the tomb chapel.
Cultic content A measure of the cultic character given as the number of
(sub)themes having a certain type of cultic character during a given
period.
Cultic character The type of function of the (sub)theme on the western wall or the
false door. This is determined by the kind of interaction it has with
the prime (sub)themes.
Dissociation The tendency of (sub)themes not to be placed together on the same
wall, or wall section, or on the false door or a part of it.
Elements of the western
wall
The functional parts of the western wall consisting of the false door
against the western wall and the remaining surface of this western
wall (also see western wall and whole western wall).
Emic The point of view when a system is studied employing criteria being
inherent to the system itself.
Etic The point of view when a system is studied employing criteria being
inherent to a system other than the system under study.
Focal (sub)theme The (sub)theme which can be considered to be the most important
of a group of (sub)themes.
FO Abbreviation for Frequency of Occurrence, the frequency with
vi
which a subject under study occurs in a population, expressed as a
percentage of a defined number of attributes, the character of which
is determined by the subject under study (see chapter III, section
II.1.1.).
Funerary All architectural expressions and cultic activities which are
connected with the burial of the tomb owner.
Group (of (sub)themes), a
scene
A conglomerate of (sub)themes in which several (sub)themes are
strongly connected with a (sub)theme serving as the focal point of
the group (a focal (sub)theme (see infra)). The group serves to
convey an idea which cannot be expressed by any of the
(sub)themes alone.
Guiding role The (sub)theme has the role of guiding visitors of the chapel to the
offering place in front of the false door.
Ideographic offering list The display of offerings and their quantities depicted next to the
offering table and written ideographically (Inventaropferliste).
1

Importation A (sub)theme that is already present on an element of the western
wall of the chapel also appears on another element.
Introduction The appearance of a (sub)theme on a wall. It concerns a (sub)theme
that, up to that point, has not been placed anywhere in the cult
chapel.
No. Abbreviation for number(plural nos.).
Non-ideographic offering
list
The inventory of the furniture and other goods for the benefit of the
deceased that were placed in the tomb on the day of the burial.
Parts of the false door The component parts of the false door (panel, door jambs, etc.).
Period A chronological unit defined in such a way as to fit a certain type of
research.
Population A group of items which is the subject of an arithmetical study.
Prime (sub)theme
(main (sub)theme)
A (sub)theme that has a leading role on the false door and/or the
remaining surface of the western wall. It constitutes:
1. The tomb owner sitting at the offering table.
2. The tomb owner standing with members of his family.
Remaining surface of the
western wall
The surface of the total western wall that is not taken up by the false
door(s). In the research project this term is often replaced by the
term western wall.
Ritual The total of cultic activities that take place in a cult chapel, and
which were nearly always intended to be repeated on a daily basis,
and certainly during (most of) the many festival days.
Scene A group of (sub)themes together depicting a decorative subject.
Serekh type false door
design
A false door of the type that is also called palace faade paneling
(L, V, 568, Abb. 3, s.v. Scheintr).
Shift If a (sub)theme, which is originally placed on wall A of the cult
chapel, is moved to wall B, thereby disappearing from wall A, the
(sub)theme is said to be shifted from wall A to wall B. For this the
verb to transfer can also be used.
Signalling role The (sub)theme has the function to signal the ownership of the tomb
by means of depiction and text.
Sth (sths) Abbreviation for (sub)theme(plural = sths).

1
Barta, Opferliste, 9. A small part of the inventory offering list that is placed next to or under the offering
table.
vii
SWS Abbreviation for (Co-occurrence on the) Same Wall Section.
Subperiod Part of a period (see above).
(Sub)theme One of the (basic) items of the decoration of the western wall of the
cult chapel and the parts of the false door. With other (sub)themes it
can form a group or scene and it consists of attributes.
Symmetry In this study with the term symmetry is meant the optical
symmetry of (sub)themes placed north and south of a physically
significant point or (real or fictitious) axis on the western wall (e.g.
the false door) of the cult chapel.
Total western wall See: Whole western wall.
Unifying function The function of a (sub)theme when it is placed between larger
(sub)themes, thus unifying them by filling up the open space
between them. This unification is not meant to equalize the sense of
the two (sub)themes.
Use life The period during which a certain criterion (here a (sub)theme)) has
been employed in the material culture under study.
Wall sections (ws) The subdivisions in which the wall of a chapel (here the western
wall) can be divided and that are determined by the placement of the
false door(s) on this wall.
Western wall Although as a rule the western wall consists of the false door(s) and
the wall not taken up by them, for the study at hand it is necessary to
differentiate between them. Consequently the surface of the western
wall that is not taken up by the false door(s) is either called the
western wall or the remaining surface of the western wall.
Whole western wall The total western wall, consisting of the false door(s) and the
remaining surface of the western wall.

viii
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xiv
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xv
Bibliography of the tombs.

name tomb owner PM, III
1
reference

Akhmerutnesut 80-1 Reisner, Giza I, 218, 314, 380-1; BMFA 13 (1913); Roth,
Akhmerutnesut, 83-7; Wresz., Atlas, III, plate 69.
Akhtihotp 200-1 Reisner, Giza I,27-8, 322, 327, 328, 333, 341, 344; Der Manuelian,
Slab stelae, fig. 218; Stevenson Smith, Sculpture, plate 41; Harpur,
DETOK, plan 38[394-5].
aAnk-haf 196 Reisner, Giza I, 299, 308, 322, figure 8, 122; Harpur, DETOK, plan
39[394-5].
Akhetmehu 87 Reisner, Giza I, 285; Edel, Inschriften, 327-33.
aAnkhmaarea 206 Reisner, Giza I, 238-9, 314; Harpur, DETOK, plan 69[406-7].
Duaenhor 200 Reisner, Giza I, 49, 208-9, 328, fig. 118, 309; Harpur, DETOK,
plan 9[382-3]; LD, Plates, II, 82a.
G 5030 145 Reisner, Giza I, 322; Harpur, DETOK, plan 42[394-5]; LD, Text, I,
71; LD, Erg., XXXIXa.
G 7560 200 Reisner, Giza I, 16, 210, 311, 322; Harpur, DETOK, plan 12[382-
3].
Harzedef 191 Reisner, Giza I, 121, 125, 205, 308, 327, 338-9, 341, 343-4, fig.
195; Harpur, DETOK, plan 10[382-3].
Hetepniptah 94-5 Badawy, Nyhotepptah, 1-7, figs.2-3a/b, plate 3; LD, Erg., 9, 10b;
LD text 49-50; Junker, Giza,III, 40; Harpur, DETOK, plan
117[430-1]; Altenmller, Hetepniptah.
Iasen 82 Simpson, Gmast 4, 18-23, plates XLI a,b,c, plate XLIIb; BMFA 32
(1934) figs. 5, 7; Reisner, Giza I, 242, 314, 365-6; Stevenson
Smith, Sculpture, 55; Harpur, DETOK, plan 101[423].
Idu 185-6 Simpson, Gmast 2, 26-9, fig. 39-41; Bolshakov, Hinting, 9-29;
Reisner, Giza I, 377-8
Irenrea 144-5 Junker, Giza,III, 156- 162.
Iteti 193 Badawy, Iteti, 1-14, figs. 1-11, 13, 16, plates 1-10.
Iti 174 LD, Text, I, 38; LD, Plates, I, 21; LD, Plates, II, 59; Reisner, Giza
I, 312.
Itisen 252-3 Harpur, DETOK, plan 113[430-1]; Hassan, Giza, V, 263-74.
Iymery 170-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 16[384-5], 85[413]; Weeks, Gmast 5, 37-8,
fig. 31; Reisner, Giza I, 363-5.
Kadua 244-5 Harpur, DETOK, plan 66[404-5]; Hassan, Giza, VI, 93-107, plates
XXXIX, XLII-XLV.
Kaemsekhem 201-2 Harpur, DETOK, plan 11[382-3]; LD, Plates, II, 32; LD, Text,I, 84;
Reisner, Giza I, 322, 328, 337, 343.
Kahif 76 Harpur, DETOK, plan 109[428]; Junker, Giza,VI, 94-153, plate
VIII; Stevenson Smith, Sculpture, 198.
Kakhent --- Roth, Gmast 6, 88-9, fig. 55, plate 148.
Kanufer 77-8 Harpur, DETOK, plan 48[398-9]; Reisner, Giza I, figs. 123, 206,
257-60.
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 Harpur, DETOK, plan 50[398-9], 91[416]; Reisner, Giza I, 318,
322-3, 327, 331, 341, 345; Junker, Giza, II, 135-172, plate VI.
Kanenesut [II] 79-80 Harpur, DETOK, plan 59[402-3]; Junker, Giza, III, 145-156;
Reisner, Giza I, 447.
Kapi 69-70 Harpur, DETOK, plan 107[427]; Roth, Gmast 6, 99-104, plates
xvi
163-4, 167; Reisner, Giza I, 285, fig. 182.
Kapunesut 135 Harpur, DETOK, plan 53[400-1]; Junker, Giza,III, 123-144.
Kaseuza 159 Harpur, DETOK, plan 60[402-3], 94[418]; LD, Plates, II, 85b; LD,
Erg., XXVIIa; Junker, Giza,VII, 158-178.
Khemtnu 155 LD, Plates, II, 26d/e.
Khenit 162 Junker, Giza, VII, 241-245.
Khentka 74-5 Reisner, Giza I, 430-2, plate 36c.
Khuienptah 237 Hassan, Giza, VII, 35-40.
Khufuaankh 129-30 Reisner, Giza I, plate 65b.
Khnemu 121 Junker, Giza,VI, 190-194, plate 16a.
Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 Harpur, DETOK, plan 7[380-1], 84[413]; Simpson, Gmast 3, 16-7,
fig. 31-3; Reisner, Giza I, 308; BMFA 32 (1934), 1-12.
Khufukhaaef [II] 190-1 Harpur, DETOK, plan 112[429]; Simpson, Gmast 3, 25-7, fig. 50;
Meni [II] 107-8 Junker, Giza,V, 138-43.
Meresaankh [III] 197-9 Harpur, DETOK, plan 14[384-5], 86[414]; Dunham, Gmast I, 18-9,
fig. 10; Reisner, Giza I, 225, 310, 331, fig. 131.
Merib 71-2 Harpur, DETOK, plan 43[396-7]; LD, Text, I, 46-9; LD, Plates, I,
22; LD, Plates, II, 19-20; Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, figs. 108-9;
Junker, Giza,II, 16, 121-35; Reisner, Giza I, 419-21.
Meruka 118-9 Junker, Giza,IX, 70-83.
Meryreanufer
(Qar)
184-5 Simpson, Gmast 2, 10-1, fig. 32.
Mersuaankh 269-70 Hassan, Giza,I, 104-14.
Minzedef 203-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 8[380-1]; LD, Plates, I, 26; LD, Plates,II,
33; Reisner, Giza I, 328, 331, 338, 343-4, 382.
Neferbauptah 169-70 Harpur, DETOK, plan 56[400-1], 95[418]; Weeks, Gmast 5, 27-9,
fig. 21-3; LD, Plates, I, 21; LD, Plates, II, 58b; Reisner, Giza I,
290, 314.
Nefer-Khuwi --- Roth, Gmast 6, 144-7, plates 191-5.
Nefermaaet 183 Harpur, DETOK, plan 5[380-1]; LD, Plates, II, 17a; Reisner, Giza
I, 309, 331, 381.
Nefer-mesdjer-
Khufu
--- Roth, Gmast 6, 163-5, plates 202-7.
Nekhetka 240 Harpur, DETOK, plan 65[404-5]; Hassan, Giza,VII, 21-32.
Nensezerkai 72 Junker, Giza,II, 97-121; Reisner, Giza I, 280.
Nesemnau 209 Harpur, DETOK, plan 110[428]; LD, Erg., XXXIII; LD, Plates, II,
92; Reisner, Giza I, 243, fig. 151.
Nesutnufer 143-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 47[396-7], 82[412]; Kanawati, Giza II;
Junker, Giza, III, 163-187.
Niaankhrea [II] 223 Junker, Giza,XI, 79-87; LD, Plates, II, 91a.
Nihetepkhnum 50 Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 3-7; Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, fig.
306.
Nikaurea 232-3 Harpur, DETOK, plan 40[394-5]; LD, Erg., XXXV; Reisner, Giza
I, 221, 310, 347.
Nikauhor 236-7 Hassan, Giza,IV, 189-94; LD, Text, I, 113; LD, Plates, II, 94d.
Nikaukhnum 119 Junker, Giza,IX, 59-66.
Nimaaetrea 282-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 68[406-7], 92[417]; Hassan, Giza,II, 204-
220.
Nimaaetrea -tut --- Roth, Gmast 6, 114-5, plate 64.
xvii
Niuty 133 Harpur, DETOK, plan 71[406-7]; LD, Erg., XXX-XXXI; Reisner,
Giza I, figs. 210-1.
Nufer [I] 137-8 Junker, Giza,VI, 26-73.
Nufer 165 Junker, Giza,VIII, 66-88.
Nufer 72-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 6[380-1]; Reisner, Giza I, 201, 328, figs.
205, 241 plates 31-2.
Person 48-9 Harpur, DETOK, plan 45[396-7], 88[415]; LD, Plates, II, 83b;
Reisner, Giza I, 217, 329, 331.
Ptahhotp 161 Junker, Giza,VII, 192-228.
Raakhaaef aankh 207-8 Harpur, DETOK, plan 57[400-1]; LD, Plates,II, 8c, 10a, 11; LD,
Erg., XXVIIa; LD, Text, I, 92-3; Reisner, Giza I, 238, 314.
Raawer [II] 162-3 Harpur, DETOK, plan 19[386-7]; LD, Plates, II, 84; Reisner, Giza
I, 370; Junker, Giza, III, 223-235.
Redi --- Roth, Gmast 6, 70-2, plates 141-2.
Ruzka 247 Hassan, Giza,VI(3), 125-131.
Sa-ib 70 Roth, Gmast 6, 108-11, plates 178-80.
Sedaug 52-3 Junker, Giza, IX, 107-18.
Sekhemka 53 Harpur, DETOK, plan 72[406-7]; Simpson, Gmast 4, 4-5, fig. 3;
Reisner, Giza I, fig. 155.
Sekhemka 221-2 Junker, Giza, XI, 1-48.
Sekhemkarea 233-4 Hassan, Giza,IV, 106-121; LD, Plates, II, 42b/c; LD, Erg.,
XXXVII; LD, Text, I, 110-1; Reisner, Giza I, 223, 310, fig. 128.
Senenuka 68-9 Harpur, DETOK, plan 52[398-9]; Stevenson Smith, Sculpture, plate
45; Reisner, Giza I, 217, 311, 329, 335, 369.
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 Harpur, DETOK, plan 49[398-9], 90[416]; Kanawati, Giza I, 51-68;
LD, Plates, II, 27, 29; Junker, Giza, III, 33; Reisner, Giza I, 214,
344, fig. 124, 197.
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 Harpur, DETOK, plan 58[402-3]; Kanawati, Giza II, 51-64; Junker,
Giza, III, 33; Reisner, Giza I, 328.
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 Harpur, DETOK, plan 67[404-5]; Junker, Giza, III, 33, 192-214;
Brunner-Traut, Seshemnofer III.
Seshemnufer 249 Harpur, DETOK, plan 64[404-5]; Hassan, Giza,VI, 201-206.
Seshethotp 149-50 Harpur, DETOK, plan 46[396-7]; LD, Plates, II, 23; Junker, Giza,
II, plate XV-XVI, 172-195.
Sethu 135-6 Harpur, DETOK, plan 20[386-7]; LD, Plates, II, 87; LD, Erg.,
XXVIIb; Reisner, Giza I, 334, 521-3, plates 74-5.
Setka 160-1 Harpur, DETOK, plan 74[408-9]; Junker, Giza, VII, 192-222.
Shepseskafaankh 175 Harpur, DETOK, plan 55[400-1]; Weeks, Gmast 5, 62, fig. 56-7;
BMFA 37 (1939), 30.
Snefruhotp 96 Harpur, DETOK, plan 104[425]; Fisher, Minor Cemetery, 163-6.
Snefrukhaaef 183-4 Reisner, Giza I, 309, 331, 381; LD, Text, I, 25; LD, Plates, II, 16.
Snefrusonb 125 Reisner, Giza I, 465, plate 57.
Thentet 139 Curto, Gli Scavi, fig. 17.
Thenti 141-2 Harpur, DETOK, plan 54[400-1]; LD, Plates, II, 30; Reisner, Giza
I, 214, 341, 343, 345.
Tjeset --- Roth, Gmast 6.
Wehemka 114-5 Harpur, DETOK, plan 51[398-9]; Roeder, Uhemka, 10-13; Kayser,
Uhemka, 23-29; Cherpion, Sentiment, 33-47.
Wehemnefert 139-40 Curto, Gli Scavi, fig. 20.
Weri 121 Junker, Giza, VI, 195-198.
xviii
Wonshet 139 Junker, Giza,I, 249-54; Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, fig. 162-3;
Zaty 204-5 Reisner, Giza I, 309, 327-8, 335, 337, 344-5, 382; Harpur, DETOK,
plan 15[384-5].
Zaty 161 Junker, Giza, VII, 230-41, Abb. 95; LD, II, 86; Reisner, Giza I,
251, 312.

xix
Introduction *

In pharaonic Egypt it was important that after the demise and the burial of a person contact was
maintained between the deceased and the society in which he/she once lived. To enable this, a
monument was erected, with one of its functions being to mark the place where the deceased had
been buried and where the living could go, not only to revere the memory of the deceased, but
also to bring offerings.
3

During the Old Kingdom the mastaba was the prevailing tomb form for the burial of a private
person on the plateau of Giza, and to allow contact between the deceased and the living one of its
architectural features was a chapel. Whatever form the chapel took, a meeting place between
the deceased and the living was constructed on its western wall, which took, except for a short
period in the 4
th
dynasty, the form of a (false) door with an offering stone in front of it.
4
This
meeting place was introduced because the basic idea had always been that the (non-royal)
deceased actually lived in the tomb, albeit in a spiritual form.

The western wall and the false door placed against it, both elements of the western wall as a
whole, bore decoration, which must have been of crucial importance for the cult for the deceased,
intended to occur on a regular basis in front of the false door. That this decoration was considered
essential can be deduced from the fact that every chapel (except those constructed during the
short period in the 4
th
dynasty already mentioned) was decorated, despite the doubtless
prohibitive cost. Evidently, a chapel without decoration was not considered fit for purpose.

There are many important questions to be posed about the cultic role of this decoration. Is the
decoration of just one of the elements of primary importance for the cult? Or are all the items of
the decoration significant? Are changes on the false door and the remaining surface of the western
wall interconnected? And can reasons be deduced as to why these changes took place?

People living in pharaonic Egypt must have interpreted many aspects of the world in ways
fundamentally different from us. All the evidence leads to the conclusion that, although religion
was not seen then as a separate cultural subsystem as it is now, people then and there were
nonetheless subjected, as we are here and now, to the all important and strongly interconnected
triangle of climatic, economic and political change. It is not unlikely that changes in all three of
these factors led to changes in the cult. Since these factors are strongly interdependent, changes in
the cult can be considered to have multiple causes too.

Changes in the decoration not only on the western wall, but also on all the other walls and on all
architectural elements of the mastaba, have been studied and discussed by many scholars, but
nearly always as independent and separate items, with each of these changes consequently being
explained in many different ways. Therefore it appeared worthwhile, and possibly revealing, to
study all these changes together, assuming them to be interdependent. This approach could lead
to a completely new and different set of conclusions.

* I would like to thank Mrs. Westcott (Montbarla, France) and Mr. Sexton (London) for their going over
my English.
3
Shirai, Funerary cult, 326 ff.
4
Renfrew, Archaeology, 359.
xx
To assess and quantify inter-scenic influence in this tomb decoration necessitated the
development of a new mathematical methodology. The applicability of this approach has already
been demonstrated in a similar type of research.
5

Research has been begun in the present study by tackling the decoration of the elements of the
western wall, but the method could well be extended to the other walls of the chapel, the entrance
thicknesses and even the faade of the mastaba. The reason that the western wall has been chosen
for initial study is that the decoration on this wall, the most important of all the walls of the
chapel, is probably the one most prone to change,
6
and consequently it can serve as a test case.
The results thus obtained can give rise to a working hypothesis which can be tested in further
research on the other architectural elements of the mastaba. This methodology could eventually
lead to the discovery of connections joining the various elements of the cult chapel, thus revealing
an intricate structure of closely knitted influences, and possibly opening the way to a hypothesis
unifying all changes.

Of course the most common decoration scenes - those of the deceased engaged in various
activities together with his family and the deceased sitting at the offering table - play a major role
in the cult chapel, but the mere fact that they are not the only scenes on that wall leads to the
conclusion that the other scenes must also be included in the research.

An important point of investigation is whether or not all the scenes are placed there exclusively
for the cult itself or whether there are also scenes employed to signal and guide visitors to the
chapel? Or indeed to help unify the scenes on the wall? They could be connected in this way with
the functioning of the cult chapel but not with the cult itself.

It could be the case that even on the western wall, the most cultic of all walls, some of the scenes
are not directly connected with the cult itself. This leads to the question whether perhaps the
scenes on the other walls do not have a cultic function at all., and that they are employed there
just to support or strengthen the cultic importance of the scenes with that role on the western
wall?

The reason the Old Kingdom has been chosen as the chronological unit of study is that it is a
period of rapid cultural development. Therefore changes, if present, can be detected more easily
than in a period of attained cultural maturity.

The decision to study only the cult chapels of private tombs, and not include those of royal burial
complexes, is based on the fact that during the major part of the Old Kingdom ideas about the
afterlife of a private person were completely different from those about the afterlife of a king.
Moreover, the extremely small number of such royal complexes, even for a period like the Old
Kingdom, prevents, within the context of this research project and the methods developed for it, a
study of the royal complexes as a separate, representative group.

5
Roeten, Second style.
6
Harpur, DETOK, 1. It is stated here that the scenes of banqueting, offering bearers, priests, etc. are more
formal and as a consequence less prone to change. However, two types of change are possible, a change
based on freedom of interpretation, plainly visible in scenes depicting agricultural activities, fishing, the
preparation of food and goods, etc. and a change based on an alteration of ideas about one or more of the
formal scenes. It is clear that the latter is the case for the western wall, while the former is the change
taking place on the other elements of the cult chapel.
xxi

(Sub)themes placed on the remaining surface of the western wall.

1. The tomb owner, standing or sitting alone (plate IV.1).
2. The tomb owner in physical contact with members of the family, standing or sitting (plate
IV.2).
7

3. The tomb owner sitting at the offering table (with of without family) (plate IV.3).
4. Members of the family not in physical contact with the tomb owner who is present (plate
IV.11).
5. Servants bringing offerings (plate IV.4).
6. Personified estates bringing goods (plate IV.9).
7. Priests (plate IV.10).
8. Scribes in a row or alone, writing, rendering of accounts, leading people (plates IV.6 and
IV.9).
9. Butchery scenes (plate IV.4).
10. Piles of food offerings (plate IV.8).
11. The non-ideographic offering list (plate IV.3).
12. Musicians, dancers (plates IV.6 and IV.7).
13. Indoor diversion (plate IV.6).
14. Kiosk scene ((plate IV.8).
15. Agricultural activities.
8

16. Craftsmen (plate IV.5).
17. Hunting in the desert or in the marshes (plates I.6 and I.7).
18. Servants making a bed (plate IV.6).

(Sub)themes placed on the false door.

The side slots.

20. Empty (plate VIII.1).
21. Serekh-type false door design (plate VIII.2).
22. The non-ideographic offering list (plate VIII.3).
23. Members of the family (plate VIII.4).

The door jambs.

30. The tomb owner alone, standing or sitting (plate VIII.1).
31. Wife and/or family, standing or sitting (plate VIII.1).
32. Name, title(s) (plate VIII.1).
33. The offering formula (plate VIII.4).
34. Offering bearers (plate VIII.5).
35. Priests (plate VIII.6).

7
Physical contact can be direct (the son touching, see plate IV.2), indirect (by means of the son holding the
staff, see plates IV.2 and IV.10) or just standing together (plate IV.11).
8
Because (sub)themes 15 and 18 are not represented on the western wall of the cult chapels included in the
catalogue, no example has been given.
xxii
36. Containers/standards for offerings (plate VIII.2).

The false door panel.

40. The tomb owner alone at the offering table (plate IV.11).
41. The tomb owner with another person at the offering table (plate VIII.4).
43. The offering formula (plateVIII.8).
44. Name, titles (plate VIII.7).

The door recess.

50. The tomb owner, alone, standing or sitting (plate VIII.1).
51. The tomb owner standing with another person (plate VIII.1).
52. Text (plate VIII.6).

The architraves.

61. The tomb owner with family (plate VIII.6).

Chapter I
1
Chapter I

Architecture, decoration and interpretation.

A short exposition is given of the following subjects:

1. The chronological development of the superstructure of mastabas and the ground plan of their cult
chapels.
2. The chronological development of the decoration of the western walls of the cult chapels, and the false
door(s) placed against them.
3. The cultic versus secular content of (sub)themes and the emic/etic problem in their interpretation.

Introduction.

Throughout Egyptian culture the purpose of an elite tomb has always been multiple.

1. It was a place to bury a deceased person.
2. As a monument it not only marked the place of the burial, but it also demonstrated the earthly
status of the deceased and his family.
1

3. It consolidates the place of the deceased in the society in which he/she used to live.
2

4. It served as a place to bring offerings for the deceased person.

In his compilation of tomb development Reisner formulates that there was a constant development in
the architectural design of tombs due to the utilization of new building techniques.
3
However, changes
in funerary traditions and habits could also lead to the introduction of new building conventions in
both royal funerary complexes and those of private persons. The most important of these changes took
place in the architecture of the area where the offerings for the deceased were deposited and in the
layout of the burial chamber.
4
For this research project only the development of the cult chapel is
considered, which can be divided into the development of the architecture of the cult chapel itself and
the development of the decoration therein.

1
Van Walsem, Pragmatics, 129.
2
Assmann, Tod und Jenseits, 15.
3
Reisner, Tomb Development, 5, section 3. The need for innovation can be considered to be a basic necessity in
a culture, and the development of new building techniques is one of its many consequences. Reisners argument
that building techniques are the cause of constant development is only true for lines of change which are directly
related to them. Some lines of change cannot possibly be linked to developments in building techniques,
examples being the temporary habit of placing slab stelae in some cemeteries on the Giza Plateau, or the
introduction of decoration on the walls of the burial chamber.
4
An example of the influence of technical development on the architecture can be seen in the difference in size
of the single-chambered tomb B 10/15/19 and multi-chambered tomb U-j at Abydos (Ziegler, Pharaons, figure
5, Dreyer, Umm el-Qaab, figure 4). In tomb B 10/15/19 the beams necessary to span the rooms were about 7
7.5 meters long (Kaiser, Umm el-Qaab, figure 2), in the older tomb U-j the maximum span was 3.5 meters. In
rooms 7, 10 and 12 of tomb U-j jars imported from Palestine have been found indicating that there was trade
with the Near East, thus opening the way to importing larger and stronger wood from the Lebanon (Dreyer,
Umm el-Qaab, 34-35). The same is true for the development in the application of stone in construction. It was
during the reign of Zoser (III.2) that for the first time various types of stone were employed for roofing, although
only 1.30 meters was spanned with limestone and 1.65 meters with granite. During the reign of Khufu (IV.2), by
employing thicker beams, already 5.25 meters could be spanned with the latter kind of stone (Arnold, Building,
183). This clearly shows that in the period between Zoser and Khufu stone architecture was in an experimental
phase, not only testing new materials, but also trying out various designs.
Chapter I
2
I. The development of the superstructure of the mastabas at Giza.

On the Giza plateau, the mastaba, the prevailing tomb form, can be traced from Khufu, the second
king of the 4
th
dynasty, onwards (for a schematic view of the mastaba, see figures I.1 and I.19).
5
The
building activities of the kings of this dynasty must have destroyed most of whatever earlier tombs
then remained on the Giza Plateau.
6
This makes it impossible to determine the development of the
mastaba in the Giza necropolis during the period preceding the start of building the pyramid of Khufu.
To remedy this, a possibility is to assume an identical development of non-royal tombs in the
cemeteries of Giza and Saqqara.
7

5
A mastaba is a north-south oriented rectangular construction made from mud brick or stone. Its walls are steep,
sometimes smooth, sometimes stepped. (L, III, 1214-31, s.v. Mastaba). The roof is probably flat, because
part of the funeral ceremony appears to have taken place on the roof (figure I.18).
6
The following information about tombs at Giza predating the 4
th
dynasty can be found in the literature:
Covingtons tomb (mastaba T) (PM, III, 294), a dynasty II or III mud brick mastaba (Reisner, Tomb
Development, 155-6, figure 73; Lehner, Development, 115; Badawy, Architecture., 159, figure 103). PM, III,
295 gives a tomb of the 2
nd
dynasty that has later been covered by a 26
th
dynasty mastaba. East of mastaba T a
platform was excavated which, according to W.M. Flinders Petrie, must have been the base of a funerary temple
belonging to mastaba T (Petrie, Gizeh,1). Petrie also excavated at Giza a mastaba V, a mud brick mastaba dated
to king Djet of the 1
st
dynasty (Reisner, Tomb Development, 30-1, figure 23; Emery, Archaic Egypt, 73). This
mastaba is not mentioned in PM, III. Also see Jnosi, Giza, 75-6; Stadelmann, Pyramiden, 107-8 and Schott,
Friedhofsbruche, 1123.
7
One difference in the development of the mastabas in the cemeteries of Saqqara and Giza is the employment of
the mud brick exterior cult chapel in the necropolis of Giza which was seldom built in Saqqara (L, V, 400-409,
s.v. Saqqara. Private tombs of the 4.-6. Dyn., 404). Contemporaneous cemeteries elsewhere in Egypt cannot be
taken into account, because they were not situated in the vicinity of the royal residence, and this might cause
differences in chronological development. The residential cemetery of Heluan dates to the 1
st
and the 2
nd
dynasty
(L, II, 1115, s.v. Heluan) and cannot be introduced into the research project.
Figure I.1: Mastaba with an
exterior mud brick chapel (from
Jnosi, Giza, figure 2).

Figure I.2a: Funerary
enclosure Zunet ez-Zebib at
Abydos.
(from Kemp, Anatomy, plate
2)
Chapter I
3

Until the construction of the pyramid of Khufu all mastabas were made from mud brick. It was with
this building material that the technical skill was acquired that made possible the further development
of mastaba building during the later dynasties of the Old Kingdom.
8
Already during the 1
st
dynasty
stone being introduced as a building material for parts of the mastabas of the royal family.
9
The
earliest known mastabas were excavated at Tarkhan and are dated to the 1
st
dynasty.

One of the oldest known mastabas with palace faade panelling is the one of queen Merytneit (figure
I.2b).
10

Early in the first dynasty funerary enclosures with a palace faade panelling (Talbezirken) (figure I.2a)
were developed in the royal necropolis of Abydos and built in the desert near the edge of the valley,
11

a feature which was directly incorporated in the general design of the larger mastabas (figure I.2b).
12

The mastabas directly along the northern part of the eastern escarpment of the Saqqara plateau are all
examples of 1
st
dynasty mastabas, with the exception of some intrusive burials of the 2
nd
dynasty.
13
All
these mastabas have a palace faade paneling on all sides and are surrounded by one or more walls.
14

In the 2
nd
dynasty the walls of the mastaba were plain, save for two niches placed on its eastern wall.
These niches were not equal in size, the larger being placed at the southern end of the wall. The form
of the roof of the mastaba is not known as no mastaba with its roof still intact has ever been found. It
is possible that the roof had the vaulted form that was found in the wooden coffins of the 2
nd
and 3
rd

dynasties with a palace faade panelling (figure I.3),
15
and later in the stone sarcophagi of the 4
th
and
the 5
th
dynasties with the same type of decoration.
16

8
Reisner, History mastaba, 579ff.
9
Emery, Archaic Egypt, plates 14 and 17; tomb 3505: temp. Qaa (end 1
st
dynasty) and tomb 3506: temp. Udimu
(middle 1
st
dynasty) (PM, III , 446).
10
PM, III, 444 -5 dates this tomb to queen Merytneit; Lauer attributes the tomb to her (Lauer, Saqqara, fig. 8,
page 86-7), and so do Emery (Emery, Archaic Egypt, 66), and Stevenson Smith (Stevenson Smith, Art and
Architecture, fig. 16B).
11
Helck, Talbezirken; Kaiser, Talbezirken; OConnor, Funerary enclosures; Kemp, Anatomy, plate 2 (page 54).
12
It is not possible to determine whether the royal tombs of Abydos had the same serekh type false door design
because their superstructures disappeared due to time and human interference. All 1
st
dynasty tombs of Saqqara
were constructed with this type of paneling (Emery, Archaic Egypt, plates 5 and 6).
13
L, V, 387-400, s.v. Saqqara, Nekropolen der 1.-3. Dyn., Abb. 1, the mastabas QS 2103, 2105 and 3031 are
all dated in the 2
nd
dynasty (Reisner, Tomb Development, resp. 253, 70 and 250-1).
14
Ib. Abb. 2.
15
Although the main part of the (exterior) chapel of the mastaba of Kanufer (G 1203, PM, III 57) had a vaulted
ceiling, its roof was flat (Reisner, Giza I, figures 94a and b, and page 187[2].
16
Mller, Monumentalarchitektur, 18, figures 15 and 19.
Figure I.2b: The reconstruction
of mastaba S 3503, dated to the
period of queen Merytneit (PM,
III, 444-5; Emery, Archaic
Egypt, figure 30; date: 1
st

dynasty), (detail from Lauer,
Saqqara, figure 8).
Chapter I
4

Already in the 2
nd
dynasty a difference between the form of royal tombs and private elite tombs
existed, but this was more a difference in richness and grandeur than in underlying tradition. From the
3
rd
dynasty onward a real architectural dichotomy based on a changing royal funerary tradition
develops between these tombs. From this time onward the pyramid and its accompanying
constructions constitute the royal funerary complex,
17
while, throughout the Old Kingdom, the
mastaba remained the tomb for private individuals. Although early in the 3
rd
dynasty private mastabas
were still being built with plain walls and two niches on the eastern wall, later in that dynasty palace
faade panelling returned, but almost exclusively on the eastern side of mastabas (an exception is
mastaba T at Giza, which has palace faade panelling on all sides).
18
In the necropolis of Giza the
southern niche on the eastern wall, being the more important of the two,
19
had a simple, mud brick cult
chapel in front of it (figure I.1),
20
which was replaced by a construction of stone from the reign of
Khufu onward.
21
This cult chapel showed the following development:

1. The exterior cult chapel became multi-chambered and eventually roofed over to protect the
niche and the offering place in front of it (figure I.4a).
2. The next step was the incorporation of a niche inside the body of the mastaba, which
eventually became a cruciform cult chapel. Here also a mud brick building was placed in front
of the entrance (figure I.4b).
22

17
The first pyramid complex is the one of king Zoser at Saqqara (early 3
rd
dynasty); it still has a north-south
orientation and its accompanying constructions are dummy temples (plates I.1 and I.2). It was from the
beginning of the 4
th
dynasty on that the royal funerary complex consisted of the east-west oriented complex of
the pyramid with its temples (the pyramid complexes at Maidum and Dahshur) (plate I.3).
18
L, V, 387-400, s.v. Saqqara, Nekropolen der 1.-3. Dyn., 397; L, V, 400-409, s.v. Saqqara. Private tombs
of the 4. 6. Dyn.. According to Haeny, Platten, 164 the orientation of the false door was completely
determined by the location of the tomb in the valley. A mastaba on the western bank has its false door(s) on its
eastern wall, and on the eastern bank the false door(s) were placed on its western wall (Heluan). In L, V, 563-
74, s.v. Scheintr, 567 it is proposed that the older tombs on the eastern bank on the Nile had their false door
on the western exterior wall of the superstructure.
19
Reisner, Tomb Development, 249.
20
The entrance to the chapel is mostly on its northern side (Junker, Baukunst, 9).
21
Jnosi, Giza, 154-5.
22
Stevenson Smith, Art and Architecture, figure 66. The cruciform cult chapel of Nefermaaet at Meidum was
originally not intended to be such. At first it was a normal niche, which was eventually turned into a cruciform
chapel by means of adding another layer of mud brick against the wall of the mastaba (figure I.4b).
Figure I.3: A wooden coffin for a
contracted burial, (Cairo, JE
43794), 2
nd
or 3
rd
dynasty. Taylor,
Coffins, figure 4.
Also see: Emery, Archaic Egypt,
figure 77 and plates 24a, b.
Chapter I
5
3. Decoration in relief, carved in stone was introduced on sections of the false door and the walls
of the cult chapel (to be discussed in part II of this chapter).

All these developments can be dated to the transition from the 2
nd
to the 3
rd
dynasty.
The cruciform cult chapel was further developed during the 3
rd
dynasty.
23
The entrance into the cult
chapel was constructed through the inner niche of the original false door on the eastern wall of the
mastaba. The cruciform cult chapel is an earlier development than the L-shaped cult chapel and, since
the former was never generally adopted in Giza, this type of chapel remained almost completely
limited to the necropolis of Saqqara.
24

No proof can be found either that the predominant presence of the cruciform cult chapel in the
necropolis of Saqqara influenced the choice of the type of cult chapel eventually adopted in the
necropolis of Giza or that the cruciform chapel is the direct precursor of the L-shaped cult chapel,
which would make the choice of the L-shaped chapel in the necropolis of Giza a logical step in the
chronological development of the cult chapel.

With the start of the 4
th
dynasty from a royal point of view the necropolis of Saqqara fell into disuse
because the kings of the 4
th
dynasty decided to build their mortuary complexes initially in Maidum and
Dahshur (Snefru (IV.1)),
25
and then on the Giza Plateau, the only exceptions being Raazedef (IV.3),
the successor of Khufu, who had his pyramid constructed in Ab Rawsh and Shepseskaf (IV.6), the
last king of the 4
th
dynasty whose pyramid is situated in the necropolis of Saqqara .
26
The Layer

23
In Harpur, Maidum, 9 the cruciform cult chapel is called a north-south oriented chamber with an inner niche.
24
Harpur, DETOK, table 5.1 (page 315) shows that in the list of the cruciform and T shaped cult chapels in Giza
only one cult chapel is really cruciform (Sekhemka, PM, III
1
, 221-2, plan XXXI).
25
This notation is an abbreviation of the first king of the 4
th
dynasty (see table II.10).
26
Although the city of Memphis was the administrative capital from the 1
st
dynasty on, from the start of the 3
rd

dynasty to the end of the 6
th
dynasty it was the royal residence too (L, IV, 24-41, s.v. Memphis, 27). Saqqara
had been the residential necropolis from the 1
st
up to and including the 3
rd
dynasty. Snefru, the first king of the
4
th
dynasty, moved the royal necropolis to Dahshur, and Khufu, his successor, moved it north of Saqqara (Giza).
N
Figure I.4a: A multi-chambered exterior
cult chapel. (G 1207) (after Jnosi, Giza,
Abb. 17-2).
offering place
mud brick wall
Figure I.4b: The southern chapel of the
mastaba of Nefermaaet at Maidum.
(detail from Harpur, Maidum, figure
38).
1
st
mud brick wall
niche
niche
2
nd
mud brick wall
Chapter I
6
Pyramid at Saujet el-Arjan cannot be included as an exception because it is not dated to the 4
th

dynasty but to the 3
rd
.
27

During the construction of the first pyramid on the Giza Plateau, several necropolises on the eastern
and western side of the pyramid were laid out.
28
The first to be built were cemeteries G 7000, G 4000,
G 2000 and G 1200 (for a plan of the necropolis: see figure I.20).
29

The oldest cult chapels are those of the mastabas in cemetery G 1200, west of the pyramid of Khufu
(see PM, III, plan VII). They have an exterior mud brick chapel in front of a slab stela in the eastern
wall of the mastaba (figure I.6). The slab stela appears only during a short period early in the reign of
Khufu.
30
The mastabas that were built in later periods of his reign had L-shaped interior cult chapels.
However, the basic idea of the L-shaped cult chapel is already visible in the plan of the mud brick
exterior cult chapels of the mastabas with a slab stela (figure I.6).
31

The royal necropolis being in one place did not prevent contemporary high officials having their tombs
elsewhere. Methen (PM, III, 493-4), although a contemporary of Snefru, had his tomb constructed in the
necropolis of Saqqara.
27
The most probable date of the Layer Pyramid at Saujet el-Arjan (possibly build by king Kha-ba (Huni ?), a
hardly known king of the 3
rd
dynasty) is the end of the 3
rd
dynasty (L, V, 495-7, s.v. Saujet el-Arjan; L, IV,
1205-63, there 1217-8, s.v. Pyramiden, AR, also see Dunham, Zawiyet el-Aryan, IX-X).
28
Jnosi, Giza, 91 proposes that either the complete layout of the mortuary complex of the first pyramid was
already known, or that the construction of the complex had already been started, when the laying-out of the
eastern necropolis was undertaken. Reisner called the necropolises west of the pyramid of Khufu the nucleus
cemeteries (Reisner, Giza I, 13-4).
29
Jnosi, Giza, figure 1. See also Jnosi, AEP, figure 34; Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, figure 174.
30
Most of the slab stelae have been found in cemetery G 1200 and the earlier mastabas of cemetery G 4000 (Der
Manuelian, Slab stelae, figure 175). In cemetery G 7000, east of the pyramid of Khufu, no slab stelae have been
found. Haeny, Platten, proposes that the introduction of these slab stelae was not the result of a change in style,
but the result of a delay in the construction of the outer casing of the newly built mastabas. Possibly the lack of
stone and/or labor force, due to the construction of the nearby pyramid, meant that the casing could not be made
right away. In order to make the mastabas fit for the burial and the cult of the deceased, as a temporary measure,
slab stelae were placed in the cult chapels.
31
Jnosi, Giza, 283. According to Der Manuelian (Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, 36) four phases can be
distinguished in the construction of the chapel of mastaba G 1201 (Wepemnefert, PM, III, 57). During the
second phase the construction of an exterior stone chapel in L-shape form was introduced.
Figure I.5: A cruciform cult chapel (Methen,
PM, III, 493-4, plan XLIX, Saqqara, date:
IV.E)
(Harpur, DETOK, 378, plan 2).
N
Chapter I
7

In the necropolis of Giza the slab stela is eventually replaced by a false door (figure I.7). Most of the
early L-shaped cult chapels had one false door on their western wall, but soon after a second false door
was added to this wall.
32
According to Reisner the introduction of the exterior L-shaped cult chapel

32
Strudwick, Administration, 41 indicates that the second false door was introduced during the reign of Khufu
(IV.2). Reisner, History mastaba, 584 gives for the introduction of the second false door the start of the reign of
Menkaure. The addition of a second false door is not just the doubling of an architectonic feature; it reflects a
change in basic ideas about funerary tradition and about the architecture of the tomb (Jnosi, Giza, 284).
Figure I.7: An exterior mud
brick cult chapel (G 1201).
(After Der Manuelian, Slab
stelae, figure 7).
= slab stela

= false door
N
mud brick wall
= slab stela

Figure I.6: An exterior mud
brick cult chapel (G 1205).
(After Der Manuelian, Slab
stelae, figure 36).
N
mud brick wall
offering place
Chapter I
8
was a return to the form of the chapels as constructed in the pyramid complex of Zoser (III.1) at
Saqqara (figure I.8).
33

The L-shaped interior cult chapel with one false door is, by far, the most frequently employed form on
the mastaba field east of the pyramid of Khufu at Giza.
34

This chapel could also be an exterior construction which was built against the eastern wall of the
mastaba (figure I.9).

From the reign of Khufu on, the L-shaped cult chapel was incorporated into the superstructure of the
mastaba. In the latter case an exterior building, made from mud brick or stone, would be erected in
front of the entrance (figure I.10).
35

At the end of the reign of Menkaurea (IV.5) or early in the reign of Shepseskaf (IV.6) the L-shaped
cult chapel with two false doors is introduced (figure I.11).
36

According to Harpur,
37
the L-shaped cult chapel with two false doors is the most common form on the
cemeteries west of the pyramid of Khufu (IV.2).
38

33
Reisner, Giza I, 9. Reisner, History mastaba, 583. Stadelmann, Pyramiden, Abb. 12 shows that two forms of
extension were constructed in front of the chapels around the Heb-sed court. Despite their differences, the basic
form of both types of rooms is L-shaped.
34
For a plan of the necropolis of Giza: see figure I.20. Harpur, DETOK, 64. Of 28 chapels on this cemetery 25
have an L-shaped cult chapel with one false door (= 89%) and only 2 have two false doors (= 7%) (G 7510 and
G 7650), while one is cruciform (G 7540) (Jnosi, Giza, figure 3, page 85).
35
Jnosi, Giza, 193 mentions 16 mastabas on cemetery G 7000 (east of the pyramid of Khufu) of which 7 have
an exterior building, of which 4 were built of stone.
36
Reisner, Giza I, 219. In table V.1.Vol.2 the tomb of Akhtihotp (PM, III, 200-1) has two false doors on the
western wall and is dated to IV.2-4.
37
Harpur, DETOK, 64.
38
Contrary to the proposition in Reisner, Giza I, 219 and in Reisner, History mastaba, 583, it is concluded that at
the end of the reign of Khephren (IV.4), the L-shaped cult chapel with one false door was replaced by the same
chapel with two false doors. This statement is in accordance with the claim that the introduction of the rock-cut
tomb and the L-shaped cult chapel with two false doors was simultaneous (Reisner, Giza I, 219; Jnosi, Giza,
305), a claim which does not imply a causal connection between the two.
Figure I.9: An exterior L-
shaped cult chapel with one
false door.
(G 4430, PM, III
1
, 128, after
Jnosi, Giza, figure 29)
N
= False door
mud brick wall
Figure I.8: The ground-plan of
a chapel at the western side of
the Heb-sed court of the
pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara
(detail from Stadelmann,
Pyramiden, figure 12).
N
Chapter I
9

The southern niche on the eastern wall of the mastaba was the more important of the two niches placed
there.
39
Very often a construction in the form of a cult chapel was present in front of it, possibly either
to protect decoration and offerings or to provide privacy. The consequence of the introduction of a
second false door on the western wall of this cult chapel is the disruption of the original relation
between the southern exterior niche, the eastern wall of the mastaba and the cult chapel in front of the
southern niche. This is because the introduction of a second false door on the western wall of the
construction in front of the southern niche turned this wall into a compacted equivalent of the eastern
wall of the mastaba itself, thus making the northern niche on this wall of the mastaba redundant.
40
The
original function of the eastern mastaba wall now being lost, this function was transferred to the
western wall of the interior or exterior cult chapel.

Starting during the reign of Menkaurea, rock-cut tombs were constructed in the quarry from which the
stone for the pyramid of Khufu and partly for the pyramid of Khephren had been taken.
41
These tombs
were at first meant for the burial of members of the family of Khephren, and consisted of a cult chapel
cut horizontally into the rock, a rock-cut substructure for the burial and in some cases buildings in
front of the entrance of the cult chapel.
42

39
See page 3 last alinea.
40
Sometimes this northern niche remained in use as an (additional) offering place for the deceased (G 5210, PM,
III, 155), or for another person (LG 20 and LG 21, PM, III, 48-9).
41
This is the quarry situated south-east of the pyramid of Khephren (Lehner, Development, 121, fig. 3B; Lehner,
Giza mapping project, Fig. 1.6). Tombs were constructed in this quarry from the reign of Mycerinos (IV.5) until
the start of the 6
th
dynasty (Harpur, DETOK, 104; Reisner, Giza I, 219). For the problems around the
nomenclature of tombs, See Van Walsem, Iconography, 10-11.
42
Reisner, Giza I, 219; Jnosi, Giza, 301-2 and abb. 71.
Figure I.11: An interior L-shaped cult
chapel with two false doors.
(G 2150, PM, III
1
, 77-8, after Jnosi,
Giza, figure 63).
N
= False door
mud brick wall
Figure I.10: The cult chapel of Khufukhaaef [I]. (G
7140, PM, III, 188-9, after PM, III, plan XXX).
N
A B
Chapter I
10
The architecture of these chapels seems completely different from that of the L-shaped cult chapels as
constructed in the mastabas in the cemetery west of the pyramid of Khufu, yet it can be concluded that
both types of cult chapels are based on the same concept, a conclusion supported by the fact that rock-
cut tombs had two false doors too.
43
Also there was a resemblance between the tombs because often a
mastaba like structure was constructed on the escarpment above the entrance of the rock-cut tomb.
44

In the course of the 5
th
dynasty other forms of cult chapel were introduced in Giza. These innovations
increased the surface area available for decoration.
45
A first step in this tendency to increase the
available surface had already been made in Maidum during the reign of Snefru.
46
The tendency to
increase the surface available for decoration culminated in the cult chapel with multiple rooms
(Reisners type 12), the most famous being the mastabas of Kagemni and Mereruka at Saqqara, but
some examples can also be found in the necropolis of Giza. Examples include the superstructure of the
tomb of Raawer (PM, III
1
, 265-9, plan XXXIII, date: VI), the mastaba complexes of the Kaemnefert
family (PM, III
1
, 263-5, plan XXXIV, date: V.M or later),
47
and the Senezemib family (see figure
I.12).
48

Figure I.12: Plan of the interior chapel of Senezemib (Mehi) (PM, III
1
, 87-9; after Harpur, DETOK,
441, plan 136; Brovarski, Gmast 7, plan 2).
49

II. The development of the decoration of the cult chapel.
50

The introduction of stone relief decoration on the walls of the cult chapels of mastabas during the
transition from the 2
nd
to the 3
rd
dynasty is also part of the development of the cult chapel as a whole,
and it is discussed as such.
51

The oldest examples of these reliefs in the cult chapels were the niche stones, the precursors of the
later slab stelae and the panels of the false door (figure I.13). Reisner dates them to the 3
rd
dynasty, but
in Giza the oldest of them can be dated to the reign of Khasekhemwy (last king of the 2
nd
dynasty).

43
Jnosi, Giza, 316.
44
Reisner, Giza, 219 ; Jnosi, Giza, 297.
45
Reisner, Giza I, 301-2. The introduction of the rock-cut tomb led to an increase of wall space available for
decoration (Jnosi, Giza, 310).
46
The introduction of the cruciform cult chapel in the mastabas of Rahotep (PM, IV, 90-2) and Nefermaet (PM,
IV, 92-4) at Maidum.
47
Harpur, DETOK, 270 [261] V.6-8E?
48
Apart from on the walls of the cult chapel (III), decoration is now also placed on the walls of antechamber II
and portico I.
49
It was impossible to place the entrance of the chapel in the eastern wall of the mastaba due to the presence of a
south-north oriented escarpment directly next to this wall (Brovarski, Gmast 7, 2).
50
The decoration of the false door is considered to be part of the decoration of the cult chapel.
51
L, V, 224-9, s.v. Relief.
N
= False door
III I
II
Chapter I
11
Other scholars suggest dates like I.L or II.E.
52
Haeny concludes that the ceiling stelae of Heluan are
niche stones which were re-used in the burial chamber, although for a completely different purpose.
53

On these stones the iconography of the decoration is already identical to the one which is later placed
on the panel of the false door. A precursor is the stela of Merka (1
st
dynasty) on which the table with
offerings is not depicted (figure I.14).
54

The oldest relief decorations found in situ are the wooden stelae in the tomb of Hesyrea (figure I.15).
The oldest stone reliefs found in situ are the ones in the niches in the cult chapels of Khaabausokar and
his wife Neferhotep-Hathor (figures I.16a and I.16b, page 12).
55
All of these reliefs show the tomb
owner sitting in front of an offering table.

52
Reisner, History mastaba, 581. The indications E = early, L = late. Scharff, Grabplatte, 353, details that the
tradition of adorning the panel with the tomb owner in front of the offering table goes back to the second half of
the 1
st
dynasty (a date based on a study of the stela of Berlin, inv. no. 23217). Vandier, Manuel I, 736 ff.
places this stela in the last part of the 1
st
dynasty (1.L) or at the start of the 2
nd
dynasty (II.E).
53
Haeny, Platten, 150; Kahl, Grabplatten, 143.
54
The iconography of the panel, in later periods placed in the false door, consists of the tomb owner sitting at an
offering table laden with loaves. His/her name and title(s) are given, while around (sometimes above) the table
offerings are depicted in the form of ideograms.
55
Hesyrea, PM, III, 437-9, date: III.E (Vandier, Manuel I, 711 ff.); Khaabausokar, PM, III, 449-50, S 3073, date
according to PM, III: III.M IV.E; Reisner, History mastaba, 581: transition from 3
rd
to 4
th
dynasty. Harpur,
DETOK, 275 [462] gives dynasty III. Bolshakov, Double, 34-5 concludes that the date of these tombs is not
certain, but mentions the 3
rd
dynasty as the period in which the first decoration appears on the walls of the cult
chapels.
Figure I.13: A niche stone, 2
nd

dynasty.
(from Smith, Art and Architecture,
Figure I.14: The
stela of Merka, 1
st

dynasty, Saqqara,
S 3505,
PM, III, 446.
(from Smith, Art
and Architecture,
figure 21).

Figure I.15: The stela
of Hesyrea. (Cairo,
CG 1426, PM, III,
437-9, Lauer, Saqqara,
plate 27).
Chapter I
12

Tombs were the primary site for the cult for the ka of the deceased: consequently a special place where
the cult could take place was included in their architectural design.
As it was of the utmost importance to identify who was buried in the tomb, at first the name and titles
of the deceased were given by inscribing them on a stone stela which was placed either in front of the
tomb or against its flat or niched wall.
56
The stelae for private individuals soon came to include a

56
An early example for royalty is the stela of king Djet found at Abydos (the 4
th
king of the 1
st
dynasty) (Emery,
Archaic Egypt, plate 2b), examples of a later date for private individuals are the stelae in front of the southern
cult niche of Netjer-aperef (date IV.1-2) (Alexanian, Netjer-aperef, plates 8a/b and 10) and Rahotep (date IV.1-
2) (Harpur, Maidum, 50-1 and figure 61). Another early example is the stela of Merka (figure I.14) which shows
the tomb owner sitting but not in front of an offering table. His name and titles are placed above and in front of
him. Already the mastabas of the 1
st
dynasty at Saqqara show that one of the palace faade doors at the southern
end of the eastern wall was meant as an offering place (L, IV, 589-90, s.v. Opferstelle). In the tomb of
Hesyrea (PM, III, 437-9, date : III.E) eleven of these stelae were placed in niches in the western wall of the
Figure I.16a: The false door niche of Khaabausokar.
(PM, III, 449-50).
(from Stevenson Smith, Art and Architecture, figure 49).
Figure I.16b: The false door
niche of Neferhotep-Hathor.
(PM, III, 449-50).
(from Stadelmann, Strenge
Stil, plate 59a).
Chapter I
13
depiction of the sitting tomb owner, but now with an offering table in front of him.
57
This feature
would remain dominant, whether used on a slab stela or on the panel of the false door.
58
About the
decoration of both, Reisner concludes that from the start their decoration was executed in relief (late
2
nd
early 3
rd
dynasty). The name and titles of the tomb owner were not only placed on the slab stela
or on the panel of the false door,
59
but also on the architraves over the entrance of the interior chapel
and over the false door.
At an early stage of the development of these tombs, an open air cult chapel was built in front of the
false door on the eastern wall of the mastaba.
60
Technically this rendered the false door a part of the
western wall of the cult chapel.
61
As the cult chapel was originally meant as a shelter, without a direct
cultic meaning of its own, the eastern wall of the mastaba as a whole still retained its original
function.
62

The slab stela, and later the false door, were the most important features of the cult chapel.
63
The
program of the type of (sub)themes on the false door had been fixed from the period late 2
nd
early 3
rd

dynasty.
64
Yet, some variations were possible and most of these were on the sides of the outer recess
of the false door.

corridor cult chapel constructed at the eastern side of the mastaba (for one of these stelae: see figure I.15)
(Vandier, Manuel I, 710 ff., Klasens, Stela, plate I).
57
Smith, Art and Architecture, figures 31 and 32. In Barta, Opferliste, pages 6 and 22-3 it is stated that this
theme is placed on stelae from the second half of the 2
nd
dynasty on. L, V, 1128-1133, s.v. Speisetischszene,
indicates that the theme itself already existed on cylinder seals which can be dated to the 1
st
dynasty.
58
On the stela of Netjer-aperef (Alexanian, Netjer-aperef, figure 21, plate 10) the tomb owner is depicted as a
standing figure and not sitting in front of an offering table. The offering table theme itself had been placed on the
panel over the back of the southern niche of the mastaba (now nearly completely lost) (Alexanian, Netjer-aperef,
58 ff. and figures 28 and 29). The stela was one of a pair in front of the niche and on it his name and titles were
given. Beneath the effigy of the tomb owner goods were carried towards the cult chapel by personified estates.
The simultaneous use of this type of stela and the panel show that the stela had no direct cultic function and must
be considered as a precursor of the decoration which was in a later period placed on the eastern wall of the
mastaba at both sides of the entrance to the cult chapel.
59
The concept of a door allowing the ka of the deceased to move about, is probably already present in tomb U-j
in Abydos witness slits in the walls between the chambers of the tomb (Dreyer, Umm el-Qab, 34-35 and figure
4; Ziegler, Pharaons, 23, plate 5). Its concept might have been taken from the door of a house, but it was
primarily meant to give the ka the opportunity to pass from one room to another (L, VI, 659-676, s.v.
Totenkult, Totenglauben). Discussion still continues as to whether the stela that was placed near the tomb later
became the slab stela that eventually developed into the panel of the false door, or whether in the 4
th
dynasty this
false door panel was taken out of the false door and as such placed against the western wall of the cult chapel
of the tombs at Giza (Junker, Giza, I, 23 ff.; Heany, Platten, 152 ff.; Scharff, Grabplatte, 346-357).
60
Reisner, History mastaba, 580. No archaeological proof of the decoration of the walls of these mud brick cult
chapels has been found. The slab stela and later the false door were the only decorated features there.
61
This was already the case in the 1
st
dynasty tomb mastaba 2038 at Tarkhan (Reisner, Tomb Development,
71, figure 53). In Giza this can be seen in the plan of the mastabas with a slab stela against the eastern wall
(Jnosi, Giza, figure 17).
62
The original function of the niche on the eastern wall of the mastaba was to make a connection between the
world of the living and that of the tomb owner in its interior or in the western world of the dead. Reisner called
this niche (later the false door) the ka-door (Reisner, Giza I, 330), a term that has given rise to
misunderstanding, because Reisner gave the same name to the openings between subterranean compartments in
the tombs of the 1
st
dynasty at Abydos (Reisner, Tomb Development, 23; Dreyer, Grab U-j, plan tomb U-j
between rooms 2 and 3, see also Ziegler, Pharaons, 23, plate 5).
63
El-Metwally, Grabdekoration, 20, proposes that the false door in the form of a niche was introduced in the
period II.L III.E.
64
An early example is the tomb of Hesyrea (PM, III, 437-439, date: III.E). On the eastern wall of the inner
corridor of this cult chapel all the decoration has been painted. The eleven niches in the western wall of the inner
corridor were painted and contained a wooden tablet showing a relief of the deceased with name and titles, one
of them showing the deceased sitting in front of a table with loaves and above it an early form of the offering list
in which most of the offerings necessary for the cult are already given (wine, incense, the washing of the hands
and a libation) (figure I.15). The decoration of the false door of Methen (PM, III, 493-4, date: IV.E) was already
fully developed (LD, II, 3 to 7; Cherpion, Mastabas, plates 1 and 2).
Chapter I
14

The first decoration to appear in the cult chapel was on the panel over the door in the niche. The name
and titles of the tomb owner were written on the other elements of the door and sometimes an offering
list was placed on it.
65
The figure of the tomb owner was often placed in the center of the false door
either standing or sitting.
66

The above mentioned facts indicate that the first decoration to appear in the cult chapel was on the
false door and only at a later stage decoration was introduced on the remaining surface of the western
wall.
67
The development of the decoration on the latter part of the western wall took place during the
3
rd
dynasty, witness the fact that the walls of the cruciform interior cult chapel of the 4
th
dynasty tomb
of Rahotep at Maidum (PM, IV, 90-2, date: IV.1-2) were already fully decorated.
68
In cemetery G
7000 of the necropolis of Giza individual mastabas were combined into twin mastabas with interior L-
shaped cult chapels.
69
One of these, the chapel of the tomb of Khufukhaaef [I] (PM, III
1
, 188-90, G
7130-40, date: IV.2-4) was fully decorated.
70

The wall against which the false door was placed was decorated,
71
and part of this decoration was
human figures. Of these a first idea might be that their main purpose was to focus the attention of the

65
See the niche in the tomb of Khaabausokar (PM, III, 449-50, III.M IV.E; El-Metwally, Grabdekoration, 24)
(see infra figure I.16a, page 12).
66
The southern niche of the tomb of Iynufer (PM, III, 894, date: IV.E) shows the tomb owner standing in the
inner door opening (see figure I.17), while in the northern niche the tomb owner is sitting (but not at an offering
table) (Alexanian, Netjer-aperef, plate 17a). A later example is the false door in the chapel of Nihetepkhnum
(PM, III, 50, date: V.M or later) (Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 4).
67
This is also shown in the corridor cult chapel of Hesyrea (see above) where the eastern wall is decorated with
painted depictions of the goods that were to be given to the tomb owner (the inventory offering list), while the
western wall remains without any decoration other than the wooden panels.
68
This was before the cult chapel was walled up during the period of the reign of Snefru in which the change in
style of architecture and two-dimensional art was introduced (Stadelmann, Strenge Stil, 162; Harpur, Maidum,
figures 61 and 90).
69
Twin mastabas first appeared on cemetery G 7000 and were constructed by combining two adjacent two-
niched mastabas, thus converting them into an enlarged mastaba with four niches on the east faade. The
northern niche of each of the mastabas was usually omitted (Harpur, Maidum, 35-6; Jnosi, Giza, 94, figure 5b).
70
Simpson, Gmast 3, plate 24 -34. Janosi, Giza, 104 proposes that the twin mastaba of Khufukhaaef [I] came into
use, at the earliest during the reign of Khephren.
71
In the necropolis of Giza there has been an interruption in the development of the decoration of the cult chapel,
because, contained within some of the cult chapels of the mastabas in the cemeteries west of the pyramid of
Figure I.17: Detail of the false door of
Iynufer (PM, III, 894).
(detail from Alexanian, Netjer-aperef,
plate 15a).

Chapter I
15
visitor(s) on the false door. However, in Harpur, DETOK, 377-450, the ground-plans of 60 tombs in
Giza are given which makes an analysis of the orientation of the major figure in relation to the
principal false door reliable enough. In 29 tombs the tomb owner is depicted looking towards the false
door and in 31 tombs he/she is looking away from it. This indicates that there is no preference for a
specific orientation and the supposition that the figures on the western wall were added in order to
focus the attention of the visitor on the false door is not valid.

The fully developed decoration of the western wall of the cult chapel consists of a concise program of
(sub)themes that can be divided into three main groups:
72

1. (Sub)themes concerning the food supply of the deceased
a. The offering (sub)themes: offering bearers with food or with equipment for the cult;
individuals leading animals.
b. The presentation (sub)themes: personified estates; presentation of e.g. food and/or
animals to the standing tomb owner with or without family, the tomb owner with or
without family sitting at the offering table.
c. The offering list (ideographic and non-ideographic).
73

d. Piles of food sometimes depicted with offering bearers adding more food to it.

2. (Sub)themes concerning the production of the offerings and funerary equipment for the tomb
owner e.g.
a. The production of the food that is brought to the deceased (e.g. the butchery scene). In
this category the (sub)themes depicting agriculture, hunting in the desert or the
marshes and fishing could also be mentioned, but at a later stage of this research
project it is determined that their employment on the western wall of the cult chapel is
extremely rare.
b. The production of funerary equipment that has to be placed in the tomb during the
funeral.

3. (Sub)themes showing scenes from the (idealized) daily (profane) life of the tomb owner (with
or without family) e.g.
74

Khufu, the only decoration was a slab stela (Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, xxxi). This development of an
increasing simplification of the decoration appears to have been initiated by Snefru in Maidum and Dahshur and
in Giza this locally restricted interruption continued and resulted, during the reign of his successor Khufu, into
what has been called by Junker Der strenge Stil (Stadelmann, Strenge Stil, 155). Yet, this development is not
visible in the eastern cemetery field of the necropolis of Giza. It turns out that this interruption lasted only for a
short period (the reign of Khufu, because of the 25 actual slab stelae or stela-emplacements found, only two can
be dated after the reign of Khufu (G 4840, Wenshet (Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, 106); G 4860, anonymous (Der
Manuelian, Slab stelae, 111), with the proviso that the latter could be the product of archaism). The employment
of slab stelae was restricted to the Western Field of the Giza necropolis. In most of the mastabas in which slab
stelae had been placed, the eastern wall (and sometimes also the stela) was later covered with a new layer of
building material and the slab stelae were either removed or hidden behind it. In front of this new cover a cult
chapel with a monolithic false door was built.
72
For the term (sub)theme see the table technical terms and abbreviations (page iii ff.).
73
The ideographic offering list is a short list of the supplies that the tomb owner had to receive during the daily
offering cult. This makes this list a Ritualopferliste according to the definition given by Barta (Barta,
Opferliste, 7). In this list the offerings are written as ideograms and are invariably placed near the offering table.
The text is xA t xA Hno.t xA mnx.t xA Ss xA kA xA Apd a thousand
loaves of bread, a thousand jars of beer, a thousand pieces of cloth, a thousand alabaster vessels, a thousand
oxen, a thousand fowl. At first the non-ideographic offering list was an inventory list (Barta, Opferliste, 7),
detailing the goods that were considered necessary for the ka of the tomb owner which was living in the tomb.
74
Van Walsem, Iconography, 33 specifies that most of the scenes on the walls of the cult chapels are scenes of
daily life. The oldest of these depictions have been found in Saqqara in the tomb of Methen (PM, III, 493-4,
date: early IV) and in Maidum in the tomb of Rahotep (PM, IV, 90-2, date: early IV) (Harpur, Maidum, figures
Chapter I
16
a. The rendering of accounts, a scribe presents a person to the tomb owner or a papyrus
scroll is handed over or read by a scribe.
75

b. Scribes alone or in a row standing or sitting in the act of writing.
c. Rows of animals in front of the tomb owner which can be interpreted as the inspection
of a herd.
d. The tomb owner sitting with or without family and watching dancers, musicians and
singers.
e. The tomb owner playing a board game with a person opposite.
f. The tomb owner hunting fowl or spearing fish in the marshes.
76

g. The tomb owner transported by carrying chair.

In the above list it is possible to interpret the (sub)themes to be scenes from the daily life without a
connection to the production of goods for the offerings to the tomb owner, and to consider them as
depictions of various aspects of his/her daily life with or without family.

III. The secular versus the non-secular content of (sub)themes.

Scholarly opinions about the purpose, the origin and the development of the false door are still far
from unanimous,
77
but the persistent placing of this element on the western wall of the cult chapel is
indicative that both the western wall of the cult chapel and the false door which was inseparably
connected to it, had a special significance.
The main purpose of this research project is the description and interpretation of relations between
(sub)themes which were placed on this western wall of the cult chapel and on its false door. In order to
do this, a description of the cultic character of the (sub)themes is necessary.
78
However, this
description is based on the terms funerary, cultic and ritual, terms which have to be defined.

92, 93, 94 and 95). These tombs are also the ones mentioned by Mller who proposes that these types of
(sub)theme might already have been in cult chapels during the 3
rd
dynasty. The oldest tombs he mentions in the
article are those of Methen and Rahotep (Mller, Kultkammer, 79). Reisner, Giza I, 322 states that the cruciform
chapels of Maidum and Saqqara have scenes from the daily life of the tomb owner on their walls, but that nearly
all the L-shaped chapels of Giza are bare of these scenes (for possible exceptions see: Reisner, Giza I, 322, note
1).
75
From the table in Harpur, DETOK, 75 it can be inferred that the line of scribes and the rendering of accounts
do not occur on the western wall, which is in contradiction with the results of this research project (see table
IV.1.Vol.2). Der Manuelian, Scroll, 581-585 mentions 28 tombs with (sub)themes in which a written text is
shown to the tomb owner with a caption to explain the action (no mention is made of the wall on which the scene
is depicted). Some of these captions indicate that the scene is cultic because the scroll enumerates the offerings
for the deceased. However, some of them leave open the possibility that the theme is a depiction of a scene from
the profane life of the tomb owner. Leaving aside the pose of the scribe who shows the scroll, 8 captions
describe offerings to be given to the tomb owner, and are therefore cultic and 17 captions describe actions that
can be considered to be profane. Three tombs have this theme with a caption that mentions funerary estates,
making it difficult to decide whether this (sub)theme is profane or cultic. The result is that the theme of the
presenting of the scroll is not automatically directly involved with the cult itself. El-Metwally, Grabdekoration,
101 states that, based on the translation of the word sS (Hannig, gyptisches Wrterbuch, 1219 gives sS n
orst.t which is translated as Liste der Grabausstattung), the presenting of the scroll can be considered to be
the presentation of a (written) compilation of the totality of the offerings.
76
The (sub)themes of the tomb owner watching dancers, playing games or hunting ((sub)themes 12-17 as
mentioned in chapter IV) are rare on the western wall of the cult chapel (see table IV.1.Vol.2).
77
L, V, 563-574, s.v. "Scheintr", 563 just mentions that different points of view concerning purpose, origin
and development still exist. A more elaborate compilation of them is given in Wiebach, Scheintr, 63-6.
78
In chapter VII the various types of cultic character are discussed.
Chapter I
17
III.1. The terms ritual and cultic.

According to the definitions given by Mhlmann and Mowinckel, a distinction can be made between
the terms ritual and cultic.
79
This distinction is based on the type of use in the chapel of a basic
unit, the cultic act, which is defined in the following way: die sichtbaren und gesellschaftlich
festgesetzten und geordneten, wirkungskrftigen Formen, durch die das religise Erleben der
Gemeinschaft zwischen Gottheit und Gemeinde verwirklicht wird und ihre Wirkungen ausbt.
80
If
the sequence of the cultic acts (the basic units) is always repeated in the same order it becomes a
ritual.
81

The cult performed for the sustenance for the ka of the deceased is an action that is supposed to take
place on a daily basis (whether or not a festival day) in the cult chapel of the mastaba. Because this
cult is intended to be performed regularly and always in the same way, the totality of the actions in the
chapel becomes a ritual, which is also evident from the name lasting offerings (jmn.y.t) given to the
goods mentioned in the ritual offering list.
82

However, the definitions are strongly based on modern Christian theology, and are therefore purely
etic. As a consequence, it is possible that modifications have to be introduced in order to adjust
them to the emic situation of the actual cult as it was performed in the chapel of the mastaba.
83

Although in definitions given for Christian Ritus and Kultus magic is not mentioned as an
element, it is important that it is accepted as one of the integral components of the cult in the chapel of
the mastaba, and at the same time as a means to provide for the sustenance of the ka of the deceased.
84

III.2. The terms funerary and mortuary.

The actual funeral is an integral part of the total mortuary cult for the deceased and according to the
definition given in section III.1, the funerary ceremony as a total must be considered to be a ritual,
because, although it is performed only once for every deceased, the ceremony itself was a ritual
because as a standardized sequence of cultic acts it was performed (repeated) during every funeral.
85

Contrary to the daily ritual for the sustenance of the ka of the deceased, the cult performed during the
burial ceremony, although also for the ka of the deceased, apparently was not confined to the cult
chapel. It is probable that part of it took place on the roof of the mastabas, as is shown by a scene
placed on the southern wall of the cult chapel of Debhen (LG 90, PM, III
1
, 235-6) in which bearers
carry food offerings up a ramp to a statue standing on what can be interpreted as the roof of the
mastabas (figure I.18).
86

79
Mhlmann, Ritus, 1127-8 and Mowinckel, Kultus, 120-6.
80
Mowinckel, Kultus, 120-1.
81
Mhlmann, Ritus, 1127 So wird die genaue Wiederholung der Aktablufe zum Muster des Verhaltens und
somit habituell. The lemma Rite in Wikipedia defines the term rite in the following way : un rite ou
rituel est une squence d'actions strotypes, charges de signification (action symbolique ), et organises
dans le temps ; Alexanian, Ritualrelikte, footnote 1 employs the following definition : Ein Ritual is eine
geordnete, standarisierte und sich wiederholende Abfolge von Worten und Aktionen.
82
L, IV, 587, s.v. Opferliste; Hannig, gyptisches Wrterbuch,141-3 translates jmny.t with dauerndes,
tgliches Opfer. The basic function of the cult chapel is to be the place where, on a regular basis, supplies can
be brought in order to be offered to the ka of the deceased. This offering action is a cult which is repeated on a
sequential basis, and which is strongly dictated by rules based on social acceptance. Consequently, the sum of
these actions conforms to the definition of a ritual. Proof of the repetitive character of the offering cult is evident
in the text of the offering formula where the deceased asks to receive offerings every day, and not only on festive
days (Simpson, Gmast 2, 20-1, figure 33, plate 15c).
83
For the terms emic and etic, see part IV of this chapter.
84
L, III, 1138, s.v. Magie; CT, IV, 23i, Sq6C.
85
Alexanian, Ritualrelikte. L, I, 743-5, s.v. Bestattung . The term repeated is necessary to turn a series of
acts into a ritual.
86
Alexanian, Netjer-aperef, figure 16, page 36-8; Kanawati, el-Hawawish, figure 12. For the ramp complete
with stelae giving the name and a title of the tomb owner Shepseskhafaankh, see : Reisner, Royal stewards,
figure 3; Weeks, Gmast 5, plate 52b.
Chapter I
18
Kees reaches the same conclusion,
87
while Hassan refers to the building as the embalming house.
88

The term funerary has not been included in the description of the character of (sub)themes, because
it is ambiguous for the following reasons:

1. The tomb complex and everything pertaining to it has to be considered to be funerary,
because it is primarily meant for the burial of the tomb owner. The term funerary in the
sense of burial rites however, is also strongly connected with the cult performed during the
burial itself. In literature it is mentioned that parts of the burial ceremony were considered to
be of such importance that they were sometimes depicted on the walls of the chapel.
89
The acts
shown include the transport of the coffin or sarcophagus, of one or more statues or of a chest
mounted with feathers, and various articles of furniture.
90
Also depicted are buildings
connected with the burial and priests performing ceremonies. This shows the cultic
importance of priests because they are also connected with activities directly adhering to the
sustenance of the ka of the deceased.

2. It was only after the burial that the second function of the complex, the cult for the sustenance
of the ka of the deceased, became apparent. This means that the burial and the cultic activities
pertaining to it are only a small part of the purpose of the complex.
91
Ideally the cult for the ka
of the deceased continues for ever and it seems justified to conclude that it is the more
important of the functions of the cult chapel. This conclusion is corroborated by the
observation that (sub)themes that can be interpreted as funerary are not abundant in the cult
chapel itself, and if present, they do not occur on the western wall of any of the cult chapels
known to us.
92
In multi-chambered mastabas these funerary scenes are frequently placed on
the walls of rooms which are not intended to be cult chapels. It is clear that, being placed
there, they confirm in a general sense the funerary nature of the tomb but have nothing to do
with the regular mortuary cult for the ka of the deceased.
93

87
Kees, Totenglauben, 125-6.
88
Hassan, Giza IV, figure 122, page 177-8. For the funerary ritual see: L, I, 745-65, s.v. Bestattungsritual;
Roth, Funeral, 56-8; Roth, Funerary ritual, 576-77.
89
PM, III, 357. Examples are given in Wilson, Funeral services, plates XII XVIII.
90
Meresankh [III], Dunham, Gmast 1, fig. 8; Iymery, Weeks, Gmast 5, figure 32.
91
Roth, Funerary ritual, 575.
92
The only exception might be found on the western wall in the chapel of the tomb of Zaty (PM, III, 161; G
2337 X) where a boat journey is depicted which can be interpreted as the funerary procession crossing the river
to the necropolis (Simpson, Gmast 4, 29-30, figure 41; www.oxfordexpeditiontoegypt.com/Database.html, scene
15.7 ; www.gizapyramids.org, photo A3655P_NS).
93
Roth, Funeral, 57-8.
Figure I.18: Detail of the
decoration of wall 5 in the tomb
of Debhen (LD, Plates, II, 35;
LG 90, PM, III, 235-6).
Chapter I
19

The term mortuary applies to every activity which relates to every aspect of the way the Egyptians
not only dealt with their deceased but also with death as a physical phenomenon. These mortuary
activities are divided into funerary rituals and the rituals of the daily offering for the sustenance of the
ka of the deceased. These two main rituals are themselves again subdivided into other rituals.
94

III.3. The tomb as an architectural construction.

The tomb consists of two parts (figure I.19)
95

1. A substructure that was considered to be inaccessible after the burial of the
tomb owner.
2. A superstructure that was meant for the funerary cult during the burial and
later for the offering cult for the ka of the deceased.

The latter activity takes place in the cult chapel, which is, as a consequence, the most important part of
the superstructure, both for the living and the deceased. In the cult chapel the offering place was
marked either with a slab stela or with a false door. Both of them bore decoration identifying the tomb
owner by his effigy and his name with or without his title(s).

94
L, I, 745-65, s.v. Bestattungsritual , there 746.
95
Dodson, Tomb, figure 7, page 14.
N
Southern niche or
entrance to the
interior cult chapel
Shaft to the
burial chamber
Burial chamber Figure I.19: A schematic
representation of both
parts of a mastaba (after
Alexanian, Netjer-aperef,
fig. 5).
Chapter I
20

III.4. The decoration of the tomb.

III.4.1. The decoration of the tomb (the superstructure).

The oldest tomb decoration found yet is the painting on plaster on one of the walls in tomb 100 at
Hierakonpolis.
96
It already featured scenes that would be placed on the walls of the later chapels for
many centuries to come (e.g. hunting, boating, fighting and some important person (tribal chief?)
subduing smaller persons placed on a register). At the start of the 4
th
dynasty in the cruciform internal
chapels of the elite tombs of Nefermaat and Rahotep at Maidoum a large scala of decorative scenes
was already painted on the walls.
97
The catalogue contained the following scenes:

1. The tomb owner with or without wife and/or children (later (sub)themes 1 and 2).
2. The tomb owner carried in a palanquin.
3. The tomb owner with estates, offering bearers, herdsmen with cattle (later (sub)themes 5
and 6).
4. Desert-hunting, fowling (later (sub)theme 17).
5. Boat building, boatmen returning.
6. Butchery, fish netting and the preparation of the fish thus caught, bird netting (later
(sub)theme 9).
7. Vintage, agriculture (later (sub)theme 15).

Already here the same division as given on pages 15-6 can be made between effigies of the tomb
owner with or without his family, food production and its bringing to the tomb owner. Although the
third group is still less evident, some of the main themes of this group are already present, thus giving
us a glimpse of the daily life of the owner.
98
Throughout the Old Kingdom the catalogue of decoration
never remained the same; throughout the whole period (sub)themes were disappearing and new ones
were being introduced, although their number remained quite stable.
99

The presence of this decoration, combined with the fact that the remaining wall surface of the cult
chapel was also decorated, might lead to the conclusion that decoration was an integral part of the
function of the chapel, and it is one of the main goals of this research project to find proof for this
assumption.

However, this does not imply that each (sub)theme included in the decoration on the walls was placed
there to play a direct role in the offering ritual. There is a distinct possibility that (sub)themes can have
different functions. An example of this is the depiction of the tomb owner together with his family (in
chapter IV designated as (sub)theme 2), and of which the frequency of occurrence (FO) is high enough
(53% in table IV.1.Vol.2) to indicate that it has a certain importance.
100
However, this high FO does
not automatically indicate that the (sub)theme is important for the offering ritual itself. It is possible
that it just shows the tomb owner in the more profane setting of his/her earthly life as a father/mother
of children, and a member of a family. Such a depiction does not necessarily show the real family
situation, but more probably rather the ideal of a family with at least one male child or more children
of various sexes.
101
Possibly this was a Sinnbild and considered important enough to rate a high
frequency of selection.
102
If the deceased is a man, the role of provider could also be implicated.

96
Crowfoot Payne, tomb 100. Stevenson Smith, Art and Architecture, figure 9, page 31.
97
Harpur, Maidum, figures 72 78, 81 88 and 92 97.
98
Especially in Harpur, Maidum, figures 76-7, 92 and 94.
99
Infra figure IV.1.
100
It is clear that a selection was made of the (sub)themes that were placed on the walls of the cult chapel
(Weeks, Art, 60; Van Walsem, Iconography, 51-61).
101
L, II, 101-3, s.v. Familie, soziale Funktion.
102
Van Walsem, Iconography, 71-83.
Chapter I
21
Another example is (sub)theme 1 (the tomb owner alone), which might be important for the offering
ritual itself, but it could also be nothing more than a depiction of the deceased placed on the wall in a
signaling and/or identifying role.

Another consideration is that the frequency of occurrence of (sub)themes might not only be
determined by their cultic importance, this frequency can also be influenced by the presence of
absence of other (sub)themes in their vicinity.

III.4.2. The decoration of the tomb (the substructure).

During the Old Kingdom some (but not many) of the elite tombs also had decoration on the walls of
the burial chamber, but the themes chosen for this room consisted of food offerings and burial
equipment.
103
It is probable that this was a pictorial transformation of the old tradition of placing burial
equipment and a meal in the burial chamber.
104
From the end of the Old Kingdom on the decoration
was increasingly placed on the coffin itself.
105

IV. The etic versus the emic interpretation.
106

It is for ever hidden in the past exactly how an individual, living in Egypt in pharaonic times, would
react to certain situations. Although their reaction to the most basic needs of physical existence would
not differ much from ours in our own time, their reactions to more sophisticated situations were
culturally determined, and therefore out of our reach.
Despite these considerations we cannot only give a description of the (sub)themes as they are
employed in the decoration of the funerary complexes (the pre-iconographic and iconographic
description), but we can also express an opinion about their possible meaning.
107
The latter, which is
called the iconological description, is more difficult and can easily miss the mark due to the fact that
the Egyptologist is working from an etic point of view.
108
These arguments are the reason for the
difficulties sometimes encountered in attempting to give an iconological description of the
(sub)themes making up the decoration of a mastaba.
109
Kemp proposes an intuitive approach as a
possible solution of the emic/etic problem.
110

However, the iconological content of a (sub)theme can change over time in two ways:
111

1. With an unchanging content, the depiction (symbol) used for it changed.
2. The content changes, but the depiction does not.

In the first case a change is apparent while in reality no such thing takes place, and in the second case
the change remains invisible.
Considering that the interpretation of the iconological content of many of the (sub)themes is already
problematic, it will be hard to observe, let alone interpret, these two types of change.
112
A consequence

103
L, II, 853-7, s.v. Grabdekoration , there 854. In the necropolis of Giza this feature has only been found
on the walls of the burial chambers of Kaemankh (G 4561, PM, III, 131-3) and Seshemnufer (PM, III, 238-9).
104
Emery, Archaic Egypt, plate 29.
105
The coffin of Idu [II] (6
th
dynasty) (PM, III, 165-7).
106
Polz, Recording methods, 123 ff..
107
Panofsky, Iconography.
108
The term etic indicates that a culture as a whole or one of its subsystems is described, interpreted or
influenced by a person or stimulus not pertaining to it. The term emic has the same definition but now from
within the culture or subsystem (Van Walsem, Iconography, 49).
109
Haeny, Platten, 153.
110
Kemp, Anatomy, 47. Also with this approach, however prudently applied, the perspective of the culture under
study remains etic.
111
Ibidem, 46.
Chapter I
22
of this is that in this research project only the pre-iconographic or iconographic description of a
(sub)theme is taken into consideration.

To avoid misguided etic interpretations as much as possible, this research project employs methods
based on calculus wherever and whenever possible to reach its conclusions.
113
But the argument that
this method too is etic to the culture under study still remains valid, from a strict point of view.

112
It is already difficult to find examples of symbols that have changed in meaning enough in our own culture;
although some can be found in language. An example is the word shift of which the medieval meaning of a
ladies loose undergarment has been lost. A non-linguistic example is the swastika, which originated as a Sanskrit
symbol of unknown meaning (symbol of the sun, the wind, phallic symbol?). Later it was adopted by Buddhism
as a symbol of holiness and happiness, and in the 20
th
century as the symbol of Nazism.
It is easier to find examples of symbols that lost their meaning over time, an example being the owl as a symbol
of photophobia in the sense of fear for the truth (The three ages and death, a painting by Hans Baldung Grien,
AD. 1539, Museo del Prado, Madrid, (Cohen, Naakte mens,103)).
113
Van Walsem, Iconography, 41 ff..
western field
cem. en chelon
eastern field
central field
G 7000
G 1200
G 2000
G 4000
G 6000
GIS
Khufu
Khephren
rock cut tombs
Menkaure quarry

LG 100
Menkaure
Figure I.20: Plan of the Giza necropolis.
Chapter II
23

Chapter II

Preliminary considerations.

In this chapter the purpose of the research project is explained, together with its most important definitions,
its general procedure and the restrictions imposed on it.
The chronology, which acts as the basis for the research project, is determined and applied. Possible
discrepancies with the dates given in the literature are discussed.

I. The purpose of the research project.

In the period covered by this research project the false
door was the centre and raison dtre of the cult
chapels of the tombs. It was decorated and integrated
into the western walls of the cult chapels, walls that
themselves also bore decoration. In several cult
chapels offering tables, libation basins and offering
stands have been found in situ in front of the false
door (figure II.1).
1
This contributes to the assumption
that the false door was the primary cultic part of the
chapel,
2
possibly supported by the cultic significance
of the decoration on the remaining surface of the
3

The supposition that all, or at least, most of the
(sub)themes of the decoration of both the western wall
and the false door(s) against it were of a cultic nature
is not a priori true, it is only so if the (sub)themes
placed on both elements of the western wall are
identical.

1
Reisner, Report, plate III.1; Der Manuelian, Slab stelae, figures 40 and 197; Reisner, Giza I, plate 66d. In
the tomb of Sonb (PM, III
1,
101-3) an offering table had been dug into the ground, leaving only its upper
part visible (Junker, Giza, V, 3-122, figure 2; Bolshakov, Hinting, 9-29). On the false door in the cult
chapel of Khufukhaaef [I] (PM, III
1,
188-90) offering stands are depicted on the front side of the posts (8 c/d
in plan XXX of PM, III
1
; Simpson, Gmast 3, figure 32). On the false door in the tomb of Merib (PM, III
1
,
71-2; LD, II, 20) these stands are painted on the inner sides of the posts. In the chapel of the mastaba of Ipi
at Dahshur (DAS 9) a libation basin has been found in situ (Alexanian, Residenznekropole, 5).
2
Brta, Serdab, 70 details that in the tomb of Hesyre (PM, III, 437-9) a pottery stand meant for votive
offerings has been found in situ in front of the serdab. Also see L, V, 874-9, s.v. Serdab .
3
Fitzenreiter, Grabdekoration, 78 concludes that the decoration on the walls cannot be separated from the
utensils handled during the cult in the chapel. The decoration of both the false door and the remaining
surface of the western wall probably served a specific purpose in the cultic actions.
Figure II.1: An offering stand in front of the false
door (Nefertnesut, G 1457, PM, III, 64).
(from Reisner, Report, plate 3).
Chapter II
24

As already discussed in chapter I, part III.4.1, it is highly probable that

1. some of the (sub)themes of the western wall and possibly the false door were not only
placed there for purely cultic purposes.
2. some of the (sub)themes on the false door and the western wall were less important for
the offering cult than others, and it is even possible that some of them were of no
importance at all for the cult itself.
3. (sub)themes influenced each others presence on the elements of the western wall. These
influences (interactions) can be divided into associations and dissociations.
4

The goal of this research project is to establish by means of the methods discussed in chapter III

1. the cultic character and cultic importance of the (sub)themes on the false door and on the
remaining surface of the western wall, by way of the interactions between these
(sub)themes and the prime (sub)themes.
5

2. whether the cultic importance of the various (sub)themes on the false door or the western
wall were subject to chronological developments, which can lead to conclusions about
changes in the cultic role of the chapel of the mastaba as a whole or of parts of it.
3. whether the role and place of a non-cultic (sub)theme changed during the period under
study.
4. if a change took place in the ideas underlying the total cultic activity for the sustenance of
the ka of the deceased.

4
El-Metwally, Grabdekoration, 7 concludes that a strong association exists between the (sub)themes of the
offering table and the offering list. The ideographic offering list details quantities, making it an inventory
list that can be interpreted as an abstract of the big inventory list (El-Metwally, Grabdekoration, 9-10),
which disappeared from the panel of the false door during the middle of the 5
th
dynasty. This abstracted list
is closely connected to the offering table scene on the panel of the false door and on the western wall. (For
the definition of the terms association and dissociation: see table Technical terms and abbreviations).
5
The remaining surface of the western wall is further referred to as the western wall. In this research
project the cultic character of a (sub)theme is determined by the type of interaction between this (sub)theme
and one of the prime (sub)themes (see table Technical terms and abbreviations), while its cultic
importance can be deduced from the degree of interaction between them.
Chapter II
25

Western wall of the cult
chapel
II. The research project.

II.1. The definitions.

In order to describe possible relationships or interactions between the (sub)themes on the false
door(s) and on the wall against which it(they) is(are) positioned, it is first of all necessary to
define the terms that will be used for the different elements that can be distinguished on the
western wall and the false door(s) of the cult chapel (see figure II.2).
6

II.2. The sequence of the research project.

The research project proceeds in the following steps:

1. For the false door:

6
The wall space over the doors is always part of a wall section left or right of the false door (chapter VI,
section I).
Elements
False door

(Remaining surface of) the western wall
False door parts

1. central panel above the
door
2. lintel/architrave
3. right/left jamb
4. door recess

Wall sections

1. left of the door
2. right of the door
3. in case of two doors:
3.1 the central field between them
3.2 the section left of the door on the left
3.3 the section right of the door on the right

Figure II.2: Diagram of the
division of the western wall
Registers Registers
Chapter II
26

a. The place of this element on the western wall of the cult chapel has to be
determined, because the place occupied by the false door on the western wall,
determines the division of this wall into wall sections.
b. The descriptions of the (sub)themes that are placed on the parts of the false door
are not given in detail, but in their overall meaning. E.g. offering bearers will not
be subdivided by such categories as male or female, the kind of goods they are
bearing, etc.
7

c. Possible interactions between the (sub)themes per part of the false door are
determined.
d. Possible interactions between the (sub)themes of the different parts of the false
door are determined.
e. The cultic or non-cultic character of the (sub)themes and their frequency of
occurrence on the different parts of the false door is investigated.
f. The overall cultic character of the false door parts and of the false door as a
whole is determined.

2. For the western wall:

a. The (sub)themes occurring on the wall are described in the same way as the
(sub)themes on the false door (see point 1b above).
b. The location of the (sub)themes on the wall is determined. For this the wall will
be divided into wall sections, a division that is defined by the location of the false
door(s) on this wall (see chapter VI).
c. The first step is to number these wall sections without a further dimensional
subdivision.
8

d. The location of a (sub)theme is allocated a number according to the wall section
on which it is placed.
e. The co-occurence of the placements of (sub)themes on the undivided western
wall is determined. This makes it possible to establish whether, irrespective of
the location on the wall, associations or dissociations exist between (sub)themes.
9

f. For the same reason the co-occurence of (sub)themes within the same wall
sections and between the different wall sections of the western wall is
determined.
g. For every (sub)theme the number of times it is located on more than one wall
section (combinations) is determined.
h. The possible cultic or non-cultic character of the (sub)themes and the preference
for placing them on a certain section of the western wall is investigated.

II.3. Restrictions imposed on the research project.

The research project has been carried out under the following restrictions:

7
Although conclusions can be drawn from that kind of information, for the research project at hand it is not
taken into account. If an offering bearer is carrying an item necessary for ritual activities, he is included in
the group of priests.
8
This means that for this research project a wall section and/or certain parts of the false door are not further
(sub)divided into registers and columns. This is due to the consideration that a possible connection between
the location of a (sub)theme on the western wall and its prominence to the beholder(s) is of no importance
for this research project.
9
For the term co-occurence see table technical terms and abbreviations.
Chapter II
27

1. Because there are indications that a difference in choice of (sub)themes exists between
the tombs in the necropolises of Giza and Saqqara,
10
only tombs in the necropolis of Giza
are included.
11

2. Although the tomb consists of a super- and a substructure (figure I.19), this research
project is restricted to the decoration on the elements of the cult chapel in the
superstructure of the tomb.
3. Only those tombs, which have a western wall in a state of conservation that does not
exclude valid conclusions, are included.
4. The design of the false door is not included because it is not related to the research
project.
12

5. In most cases texts accompanying the decoration on the western wall are captions of the
action involved, and as such they are not included.
6. The texts on the false door(s) consist of a recitation of the name and the title(s) of the
tomb owner and, according to Barta, from the start of the 4th dynasty they also included
the offering formula.
13
However, in this research project, only different types of text are
considered as (sub)themes, not their textual content.
14

7. No difference is made between a niche and a true false door.
15

8. The research project only involves tombs that can be dated from the 4
th
dynasty up to and
including the 6
th
dynasty.

10
Van Walsem, Iconography, 95-6 states that those differences are to be found more in the details than in
the (sub)themes as a whole.
11
A preliminary comparison of the frequency with which the most important (sub)themes are chosen in the
necropolises of Giza and Saqqara shows that that frequency is equal for the depiction of the tomb owner
either sitting or standing with or without staff, or young or corpulent (Giza 49% and Saqqara 51%). For
(sub)themes with members of the family this is for Giza 30% and for Saqqara 70%. (Sub)themes depicting
boat building, fishing, fowling, papyrus gathering have nearly the same frequency (Giza 31% and Saqqara
69%) and for (sub)themes showing the diverse aspects of agriculture this is resp. 38% and 62% (Harpur,
DETOK, tables 6.1 6.26, pages 323 54).
12
For the various layouts of the parts of the false door see Wiebach, Scheintr, figures I and II.
13
Barta, Opferformel, 3; L, IV, 584-586, s.v. "Opferformel". From the start of the 4th dynasty on, the
offering formula had been placed on the architrave of the false door, and it is in the period V.L/E that it is
more frequently placed on the door jambs (figure VIII.3).
14
This means that in the list of (sub)themes admitted to the research project offering formula and name
and title(s) etc. are included, but neither the content of the texts nor the meaning and importance of the
title(s) are taken into account.
15
The precursor of the later false door is the niche in the serekh type false door design of the outer walls of
the tombs that were built in Saqqara during the 1
st
dynasty. These niches served as virtual doors, but one
(later two) of the niches in the eastern wall was marked as the places where offerings for the ka of the
deceased could be placed. In a later stage the serekh type false door design of the wall disappeared but the
two doors remained visible on the wall. Examples of niches are the offering places of Netjer-aperef and
Iynufer (Alexanian, Netjer-aperef, figures 4 and 20, plates 8b and 14a). As a next step, a niche with the
door recess lined with stone (Reisner, Tomb Development, 267), is placed against the serekh type design
western wall of the cult chapel. An example is the niche in the chapel of Khaabausokar (PM, III, 449-50;
Reisner, Tomb Development, figs. 158 and 160). Later, the false door, now fully developed, was placed
against the plain western wall of the cult chapel. An example of the fully developed (true) false door is
the one of Thethi (PM, III
1
, 302), (Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 32). Although the ground-plan of a niche is
identical to the one of a false door, there is a large difference in depth, e.g. the depth of the southern niche
of the mastaba of Netjer-aperef is 200 cm, but for the false door in the cult chapel of Iteti this is 25
centimeters (Curto, Gli Scavi, fig. 7).
Chapter II
28

9. False doors and decoration placed on the exterior eastern wall of the mastaba, without
added cult room, are not included because they cannot be considered to be on the western
wall of a chapel.
16

III. The catalogues.

III.1. Considerations regarding the catalogues.

The research project deals with the decoration of the western wall of the cult chapels and the
decoration placed on the false door(s) against it. As time and human interference left their traces
on these decorations, there are tombs in which those elements are still intact, but there are also
tombs in which they are partly or completely destroyed. Another consideration is that in some
tombs, for unknown reasons, the false door and/or the western wall remained anepigraphic. As a
result three catalogues have to be set up:

1. A catalogue with tombs in which both the western wall and the false door(s) are partly or
completely present and decorated (catalogue IV.1.Vol.2).
2. A catalogue with tombs in which only the false door(s) is (are) partly or completely
present and decorated (catalogue IV.2.Vol.2).
3. A catalogue with tombs in which the decoration of the remaining surface of the western
wall is partly or completely present (catalogue IV.3.Vol.2).

In the three catalogues the state of completeness of the false door and the western wall is taken
into account in the way described in section II.1.1. of chapter III.

The catalogues are made up on the basis of the tombs mentioned in PM, III
1
, although this is a
compilation which is no longer completely up to date.
17
Therefore more recent sources also have
to be taken into consideration.
In the catalogues the kind of spelling of the names of the tomb owners is taken from PM, III
1
.
18
If
the name is not mentioned there, the spelling given in recent literature is adjusted to the spelling
in PM, III
1
.
The excavation of some of the tombs has either been poorly published or not at all;
19

consequently, if no publication is available, the tomb is excluded from the catalogues.
Through compilation of the catalogues, an inventory of the location of false door(s) on the
western wall, and the location and types of (sub)themes placed on the false door(s) and the
western wall can be made. It is with this information that the methodology employed in this
research project and described in chapter III has been developed.

16
In analogy with the true false door, the decorated fronts of the door jambs of a niche are considered as
part of its decoration.
17
PM, III
1
, the revised and augmented version of the original bibliography, as executed by J. Mlek, dates
to 1974.
18
This can lead to discrepancies as e.g. the name Sonb in PM, III and the more modern orthography of
Seneb.
19
Tombs at Giza, excavated by Reisner in the first half of the 20
th
century, are now being published by the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts in the series Giza Mastabas, edited by W.K. Simpson and P. Der Manuelian
and online in The Giza archives project (Der Manuelian, Giza archives) (www.gizapyramids.org).
Chapter II
29

The three catalogues mentioned above serve the following purposes:

catalogues combined purpose

IV.1.Vol.2 and
IV.2.Vol.2
The description of the place and type of the decoration on the false door(s).
IV.1.Vol.2 and
IV.3.Vol.2
The description of the place and type of the decoration on the rest of the
20

In some of the chapels the ground-plan is such that a decision has to be made whether this tomb
can be admitted to the catalogues of this research project. Such chapels include those with the
following ground-plans:
21

20
The total number of tombs given in PM III comprising a chapel with one of more of the walls bearing
decoration is 167, of these 64 tombs has been admitted to catalogue 1/3.Vol.2. The final choice is mainly
determined by the presence of decoration on the western wall and the certainty of the dating.
21
Although the ground-plan of certain tombs is such that it might be worth considering taking the
decoration of walls other than the western wall into account, it has been decided not to admit these tombs to
the catalogues of the research project.
Figure II.3: Plan of the cult chapel of
Senezemib.
Kednufer.
1. A long and narrow E/W oriented cult
chapel in which the false door takes
up the whole of the western wall.

(Senezemib, good name Mehi; G 2378;
PM, III
1
, 87-89;
Kednufer; G 1151; PM, III
1
, 56, plan
XXIV; Harpur, DETOK, plan 427[108]).
.
Because any false door which is not
bordered on both sides by other relief
scenes on the same surface is excluded,
such as those shown in figures II.3 and
II.4 are not admitted to the catalogues of
the research project.

false door
false door
N
N
Chapter II
30

2. The false door has been placed in the southernmost corner of the western wall.

(Hetepheres; PM, III
1
, 227-8; LG 54; Harpur, DETOK, plan 388[25]).

On the western wall no space is left between the southern false door and the southern wall of
the cult chapel (figure II.5). In this type of cult chapel the decoration of the southern wall of
the cult chapel will not be added to the compilation of (sub)themes.

3. Cult chapels with on the western wall niches with half-statues.

(Khuwiwer; LG 95; PM, III
1
, 254-5, plan XXXV; Harpur, DETOK, plan 439[134]).

Because statues and half-statues are not considered to be reliefs, they are not part of the
decoration in the context of this research project.
22
This situation occurs on the western
wall of the cult chapel of Khuwiwer (figure II.6): here a cavetto cornice (B) has been
placed over a deep niche (A), and two half-statues flanking this niche.
23
The western wall
of niche A is completely taken up by the false door. This situation resembles that of
figures II.3 and II.4, and it is the presence of the cavetto cornice B that means that the an
entire false door folded out into portions separately located: a cavetto cornice (B)
overarches the ensemble of the niche compartment (with false door proper and side walls
a and b, while the half-statues might be considered as having stepped out of the two-

22
Schfer, Principles, 74-5.
23
Rusch, Grabsteinformen, 114 considers the half-statues part of the false door.
Figure II.6: Detail of the plan
of the cult chapel of
Khuwiwer.
false door
B
half-statues
N
Figure II.5: Plan of the cult chapel
of Hetepheres.
A
N
false door
a b
Chapter II
31

dimensional decoration. Altogether, this build-up considerably differs from standard
decoration patterns and is therefore left out of the catalogue.

4. A recess at the northern side of a narrow corridor.

(Nimaaetrea ; G 2097; Roth, Gmast 6, 127-34 ).

The cult chapel of the tomb has no decoration on the western wall (figure II.7).
24
Although
decoration has been placed on the northern and southern wall of the recess (A), it cannot be
considered to belong to the western wall.

5. Serekh type of false door

(Itisen; PM, III
1
, 252-3, plan XXXII; Harpur, DETOK, 430[113]).

If the false door on the western wall is a serekh type of false door, the question arises as to
whether or not this type of false door must be considered to be part of the decoration on this
wall. Both the true and the serekh type of false door must be categorized as false doors, but
the difference between them is the lack of representational decoration on the latter.
Therefore, it is not included in this research project.
25

If on the western wall two or more false doors are placed and one of them is a serekh type of
false door (Itisen; PM, III
1
, 252-3, plan XXXII; Harpur, DETOK, 430[113])), it depends on
the presence or absence of decoration on the western wall and/or the true false door which
catalogue the tomb will be assigned to (figure II.8).

24
Roth, Gmast 6, plate 90 shows that the western wall is completely covered by a serekh type false door.
25
In private tombs sometimes a serekh type of false door was added to the false door on the western wall,
but in royal tombs the former was the only type of false door that was placed in its chapel (L, IV, 646-7,
s.v. Palastfassade). Wiebach, Scheintr, 45 proposes that the normal false door must be seen as a
simplified form of the ceremonial false door and that the two forms of false doors exist next to each other
(see also L, IV, 511-3, s.v. Nischengliederung). The fact that elements of the serekh type false door
were sometimes introduced into the normal false door (Cherpion, Mastabas, plates 21, 32 and 33 show part
of a serekh type false door next to the panel of the true false door) indicates that the ideas behind both types
of false doors must have been, at least partly, identical and that a serekh type false door can be seen as a
false door without representational decoration. Because even the false door itself is not included in the list
of (sub)themes under study, tombs with only this type of false door on the western wall are not included in
the catalogues.
N
serekh type of false door
Figure II.7: Plan of the cult
chapel of Nimaaetrea .
A
Chapter II
32

6. Some of the tombs are poorly published and only a description of the (sub)themes is
available without any further information about their location on the wall. However,
some of the methods given in the chapter about the methodology of the research project
only need information about the type of (sub)themes, and not about their location on the
walls of the cult chapel. Consequently, they can be admitted to catalogues that only need
a description of the (sub)themes.

7. If a slab stela has been placed in a cult chapel, this tomb will not be included in the
catalogues. However, it can be included if in a later (building) stage the slab stela has no
longer an actual role but has either been removed or covered with a new layer of building
material, and a true false door has been constructed and decoration has been placed on the
false door and/or the western wall (figure II.9).
8. Cruciform chapels are not included in the catalogues.
Figure II.8: Plan of the cult
chapel of Itisen.
true false door
serekh type of false door
N
N

slab stela
monolithic true
false door
Wepemnefert (G 1201, PM, III
1
,

57; Der
Manuelian, Slab stelae, figure 7).

Chapter II
33

9. No difference will be made between the tombs of men and women.

III.2. The organization of the catalogues.

In the catalogues the following information is included:

1. The PM, III
1
page reference of the tomb (if available).
2. The name of the tomb owner and, if present, the number of the tomb as given in PM, III
1
.
3. The date according to the system given in the table in figure II.10.

In the catalogues the following number of tombs is compiled:

1. 57 tombs in catalogue IV.1.Vol.2.

IV. Considerations concerning chronology.

The chronology of the tombs is based on the following considerations:

1. The dating given in PM, III
1
is based on the information available at the time it was
revised and augmented.
26
This dating is upgraded with more recent information.
27

2. Only in a small number of tombs is textual information available which makes it possible
to give a fairly reliable date,
28
and even for these tombs it is nearly always impossible to
date them to the reign of a particular king. Consequently, in this research project tombs
are not assigned to a particular reign. The Old Kingdom is divided into periods, and
tombs are assigned to a certain period, thus avoiding the ongoing discussion about the
length of the reigns of some kings (figure II.10).
29

3. In this way a group of tombs can be gathered by period, but some kind of chronological
order has still to be established. This can be done by means of the more precise dating
that can be found for many of the tombs in the available literature (the more precise
dating assigned to the tombs is given in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2).

26
Baud, Critres, 72 note 256, concludes that the datings given in PM are strongly based on Baer, Rank
and Title, the reliability of which sometimes is doubtful.
27
Cherpion, Mastabas, although the dating method proposed by the author is still controversial and has
been and still is the subject of much dispute (see e.g. Cherpion, Seneb; Mlek, Mastabas, 93-100; Roth,
Mastabas, 55-58; Baud, Critres, 31-97; Baud, Famille royale, 13-7; Jnosi, Giza, 41-4). The datings given
by Baer, Rank and Title; Harpur, DETOK; Strudwick, Administration, Baud, Famille royale, and Kanawati,
Administration are also taken into consideration. If the dating employed in the catalogues shows a
discrepancy with the dating given in PM, III
1
, the arguments for this revision are stated.
28
For a discussion of the various dating criteria see Jnosi, Giza, 36-74; Baud, Famille royale, 5-104. For
problems encountered in dating, see Jnosi, Datierungsproblem.
29
The dating designations are the following: the symbols IV, V and VI give the dynasties; E, M and L give
the division in periods per dynasty meaning resp. early, middle and late. In a later stage a period came to be
divided in subperiods /E and /L, meaning early and late. The chronological division is: dynasty period
subperiod.
Chapter II
34

Tombs that cannot be directly assigned to a period pose a problem because of a dating of e.g.
IV.L/V.E or V.E/V.M. In that case the available data obtained from literature are weighed against
one another, and the final placement must be considered as a working hypothesis.

30
The abbreviations used in the time scale are: IV, V and VI meaning resp. 4
th
, 5
th
and 6
th
dynasty, V.E =
early 5
th
dynasty, V.M = middle of 5
th
dynasty, V.L = late 5
th
dynasty and this is the same for the 4
th
and the
6
th
dynasty.
31
This king is given as Baka in Stadelmann, Pyramiden, 311 and as Bicheris and Nebka in L, I,
785-6, s.v. Bicheris. Jnosi, Giza, 64-5.
32
In Manethos list this king is mentioned as Thamphthis which is a conversion of Djedef-Ptah (L, IV,
1180, s.v. Ptah-djedef. Jnosi, Giza, 66. Gardiner, Egypt, 434). There are no known monuments of this
king.
33
L, VI, 901, s.v. Userkare.
34
The extreme length of the reign of Pepy II is hard to fit into the scheme of dating. In Harpur, DETOK, 34
the total reign is taken as 85 years (L, IV, 927-9, s.v. Pepi II gives 64 as a corrupted hieratic reading of
94, a point of view defended in Henige, Pepy II). Harpur divides the reign up into three parts (VI.4, VI.5
and VI.6), and in figure II.10 this is done as VI.4E/M/L.
35
L, IV, 77, s.v. Merenre II.
36
L, IV, 513-4, s.v. Nitokris. Newberry, Nitocris, 54 places this queen in the infancy of Pepy II.
dynasty
30
number name kings per period period

IV IV.1 Snefru IV.1 IV.3 IV.E
IV.2 Khufu
IV.3 Raazedef
IV.4 Raakhaaef IV.4 IV.6 IV.L
(Baka)
31

IV.5 Menkaurea
IV.6 Shepseskaf
(Thamphthis)
32

V V.1 Userkaf V.1 V.3 V.E
V.2 Sahurea
V.3 Neferirkarea
V.4 Shepseskarea V.4 V.6 V.M
V.5 Raa neferef
V.6 Neuserrea
V.7 Menkauhor V.7 V.9 V.L
V.8 Zadkarea Isesi
V.9 Unis
VI VI.1 Teti VI.1 VI .2 VI.E
(Userkare)
33

VI.2 Pepy I
VI.3 Merenrea VI.3 VI.4E VI.M
VI.4E Pepy II
34

VI.4M Pepy II VI.4M VI.4L VI.L
VI.4L Pepy II
(Merenre II)
35

(Nitokris)
36

Figure II.10: Table of the
kings of the Old Kingdom
and the division in periods
(after Harpur, DETOK, 34).
Chapter II
35

Appendix II.1. The decoration south of the false door.

The decision as to whether the decoration south of the false door is part of the western or the
southern wall depends on whether a connection can or cannot be found between the wall section
south of the (southern) false door on the western wall and the southern wall itself.
A way to establish this possible connection is to make a compilation of the tombs in which
decoration is present both on the southern wall and on the section south of the southern false
door.
37
A possible connection between the decorations of the two adjacent walls can be now be
determined by means of the orientation of the human figures in it.
38
If the orientation is not
towards each other, the absence of connection can be concluded and the decoration of the two
walls can be studied independent of each other.

37
In the plan of the tomb of Zaty (figure app.II.1.3) the orientation of the offering table scene on the
southern wall is not given in literature, and has been deduced from photo A6941_NS in the website The
Giza Archives of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts (www.gizapyramids.org or www.mfa.org/giza). The
negative has not been inverted during printing because the tomb owner at the offering table on the panel of
the false door has the proper orientation. The orientation of the offering bearers next to the false door as
given in literature (Harpur, DETOK, plan 15, page 384-5) is to the right. However photo A6940_NS in the
above mentioned website shows the offering bearers moving to the left.
38
The term connection is used here instead of interaction
priests
offering table scene
estates
scene of clapping, dancing
tomb owner with wife
= orientation of the human figures
Figure app.II.1.2: Nefermaet, PM, III, 183,
G 7060, date IV.L.

Figure app.II.1.1: Khufukhaef [I], PM, III,
188-90, G 7130-7140, date IV.

Chapter II
36

decoration destroyed
offering bearers
butchery scene, priests
priests
food offerings
offering bearers
offering bearers, family
Figure app.II.1.3: Zaty, PM, III, 204-5, G
7810, date IV.L/V.E.

Figure app.II.1.4: Nesutnefer, PM, III, 143-
4, G 4970, date V.E.

Figure app.II.1.6: Kanenesut [I], PM, III,
78-9, G 2155, date V.E.

Figure app.II.1.5: Kanufer, PM, III, 77-8, G
2150, V.E.

Chapter II
37

With one exception (figure app.II.1.3) the orientation of the figures on the wall section south of
the southern false door is directed towards that door. The southern wall of that tomb has been
partly destroyed and it is impossible to determine whether human figures are present and what
their orientation might be, as a consequence the tomb is not taken into consideration..

On the southern wall there are several possibilities:

1. A main (sub)theme and a group of (sub)themes which can be ascribed a direction
(offering bearers, priests, family, etc.) are placed on the wall.
a. They are oriented toward each other, thus forming a closed design (figures
app.II.1.1, app.II.1.4 and app.II.1.8).
b. They are both oriented in the same direction, in which case their orientation is
away from the western wall (figure app.II.1.2).
2. One main (sub)theme is placed on the wall and the rest of the wall is taken in by non-
directional (sub)themes (food offerings, an offering list), in that case the main (sub)theme
is directed away from the western wall (figures app.II.1.5, app.II.1.6 and app.II.1.7).

Because the decoration of the southern wall itself either forms a closed design or is oriented away
from the western wall, and the decoration on the southern wall section of the western wall is (with
one exception) directed toward the false door(s), it can be concluded that there is no connection
between the decoration of these two walls.
priests, son
musicians, family, bearers, etc.
tomb owner, son
Figure app.II.1.7: Kapunesut, PM, III, 135,
G 4651, date V.E/V.M.

Figure app.II.1.8: Rakhaefankh, PM, III,
207-8, G 7948, date V.M.

Chapter III
38
Chapter III

The methods employed in the research project

All interactions between (sub)themes can be traced back to either associations or dissociations. Therefore it
is important to develop criteria, with which such an association or dissociation can be reliably determined,
described and quantified. The methods employed in the research project have been developed to do that.

1. The frequency of occurrence (FO) of the (sub)themes, and its derivative FO/chronological period
is defined.
2. The chronological development of the (sub)themes on the western wall and on the parts of the
false door is described by means of chronological orderings and/or diagrams.
3. The co-occurrence of (sub)themes on the western wall is given as co-occurrence percentage
(CP), a criterion which can also be expressed as CP/(chronological) period. A derivative of the CP
value of a (sub)theme is the CPSD value pertaining to it (see table Technical terms and
abbreviations). This CPSD value expresses the degree of association or dissociation between
(sub)themes.
4. For every (sub)theme the percentage of occurrence on the same section of the western wall (SWS)
is determined. An interaction between two (sub)themes is thus defined by a combination of a CP
and a SWS value. The SWS value cannot be applied to the (sub)themes on the false door.
5. In order to determine whether the CP/SWS combination of an interaction indicates an association
or a dissociation, the CP/SWS combination is linked with the +/ sign of the CPSD value adhering
to it and placed in a CP/SWS diagram. In this diagram areas of + sign (association) and areas of
sign (dissociation) preponderance are determined. An interaction can thus be interpreted as an
association or as a dissociation by way of its location in the CP/SWS diagram.
6. The cultic character of (sub)themes is determined employing the various methods previously
mentioned and starting from the predetermined cultic character of the prime (sub)themes (see
Technical terms and abbreviations).
7. Once these cultic characters have been determined, the various chronological developments and
interactions can be discussed and a working hypothesis can be developed.

I. Introduction.

Although statistics is useful in controlling large quantities of archaeological data and drawing
conclusions from them, the conclusions reached in this research project have been drawn from
results obtained by employing arithmetical methods. The methods described in this chapter,
although basically statistical, are not interpreted as such.

II. Methods.

II.1.Frequency of occurrence.

II.1.1. The frequency of occurrence (FO) of the (sub)themes.

Both the false door and the remaining surface of the western wall of a cult chapel (the latter
further referred to as western wall, unless otherwise stated), included in one of the catalogues
of tombs, can either be complete or incomplete.
All tombs, (sub)themes, tables, chronological orderings, diagrams, etc. introduced as part of the
development of the methods for the research project at hand are totally fictitious and have no
connection with the tombs and (sub)themes forming the base of the research project in the
following chapters.
Chapter III
39

On an architecturally and decoratively completely finished and preserved western wall the
presence, or absence, of a (sub)theme is unambiguous in the sense that it was intentionally chosen
or not from the repertoire of available (sub)themes. However, a western wall may be completely
architecturally preserved and yet be incomplete in decoration, indicating that its decoration

Figure III.1: Table of the FO values calculated from the presence/absence of (sub)themes.

remained unfinished. Another possibility is that the western wall has been partially destroyed.
Therefore, the reason for the absence of a (sub)theme on the western wall can be the following:

1. The (sub)theme has never been placed on the wall, as on an unfinished western wall.
2. The (sub)theme has been lost, as on a finished western wall that has been (partially)
destroyed.

(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tomb no. (sub)themes
/tomb
A x - - x - - x - 3
B x o o x x o x o 4
C x x o x x - - - 4
D o o o x x o o o 2
E - x - x - - x - 3
F x x - x x x - - 5
G x x o o o o o o 2
H - x - x x x - - 4
I o o o x x o o o 2
J x x - x - x - - 4
K x x x o x o o x 5
L - - x x - x - - 3
M x o x o o x o o 3
N x - x - - x - x 4
O x o x o o o o o 2

number of x and - 13 10 10 11 12 9 9 9
number of x 10 7 5 10 7 6 3 2
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 77 70 50 91 58 67 33 22
x = present on the complete
or incomplete western wall
= not present on the
complete western wall
o = not present on the
incomplete western wall
Chapter III
40

In both cases, there is no certainty as to which of the following categories apply to the
(sub)theme:

1. It was planned, but never placed there because the wall was never finished.
2. It was never chosen by the tomb owner.
3. It was originally placed on the western wall, but subsequently lost due to the destruction
of a section of the wall (however, in some cases it is possible to create a reliable
reconstruction of the missing section of the wall, in which case the western wall is
considered to be complete).
1

The following methods have been applied to the surface of the western wall that is not taken up
by (a) false door(s). In practice some of the methods can be employed for the elements of the
false door(s) too.
In the table in figure III.1 the western walls of 15 (fictitious) tombs, designated A to O, and
chronologically ordered,
2
have been examined for the certain/uncertain absence or presence of a
set of (fictitious) (sub)themes, numbered 1 through 8.
3

It is necessary to distinguish between certainty and uncertainty in the presence or absence of a
(sub)theme. In the table in figure III.1 x indicates certainty in presence and the same
certainty in absence. The uncertainty in presence or absence is marked as o.

In this table it is evident that the western walls of tombs B, D, G, I, K, M and O are incomplete.
In tomb C the presence/absence of (sub)theme 3 is uncertain, but the absence of (sub)themes 6, 7
and 8 could be established with certainty.

The reason(s) for the incompletion of the (sub)themes (either unfinished or partially destroyed) is
not given in the table, because this criterion is not important for the research project at hand.

In the table in figure III.1 the number of (sub)themes placed on the western wall of a tomb has
been determined, this criterion can be interpreted as a measure of the popularity of decorating
this wall.
4
In order to determine this popularity only complete walls can be taken into account
(tombs A, E, F, H, J, L, N, marked in grey).

II.1.2. The popularity of (sub)themes.

If the mean value of the popularity of (sub)themes in tombs with a complete western wall is
calculated, the result over the whole period is 4,
5
but more information can be obtained from a
diagram that shows the chronological development of popularity in employment of decoration on
the western wall of the cult chapel.

1
Cf. on this also Van Walsem, Iconography, 44 - 6 and 60 - 1.
2
The order is in a vertical direction from the oldest tomb at the top to the most recent one at the bottom.
3
When and where necessary the methods are explained employing these fictitious (sub)themes.
4
This can show whether a chronological development took place in the number of (sub)themes chosen on
the western wall.
5
This is calculated by adding the number of (sub)themes of the tombs with complete western walls as
given in figure III.1 (26) and dividing the sum by 7 (the number of tombs with a complete western wall).
The resulting 3.71, and because of the uncertainty inherent in the catalogues this is rounded up to 4.
Chapter III
41

Because in figure III.1 the order of the tombs is chronological, the diagram of figure III.2 shows a
kind of chronological development of popularity. The development over the whole period does
not differ much from a horizontal line.
6

II.1.3. The determination of the FO/period of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

Although in the table in figure III.1 the tombs have been ordered chronologically, no division into
chronological periods has been made.
The FO values calculated in figure III.1 are a measure for the employment (or popularity) of
the (sub)themes over the whole of the Old Kingdom, but they give little information about its
chronological development. In order to determine this, a chronological division is introduced into
the table (see figure III.3). In each period the FO values of all the (sub)themes are calculated (this
is called the FO/period).

6
The chronological development determined here would not be very reliable, because every point is based
on one tomb. A more reliable result is obtained by taking the popularity per chronological period. The
horizontal tendency of the diagram is shown by the dotted line called linear (for considerations about the
meaning of the term linear: see appendix III.3).
3 3
5
4 4
3
4
0
5
A E F H J L N
popularity Linear (popularity)
Figure III.2: The chronological development of the
popularity of decorating the western wall.

Chapter III
42

With the results inferred from the table in figure III.3, it is possible to make a diagram of the
chronological development of the FO/period for each (sub)theme. Examples of these are given in
figures III.4 III.6.

period (sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tomb
IV A x - - x - - x -
B x o o x x o x o
C x x o x x - - -
number of x + - 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 2
number of x 3 1 0 3 2 0 2 0
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 100 50 0 100 67 0 67 0
V.E D o o o x x o o o
E - x - x - - x -
F x x - x x x - -
number of x + - 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2
number of x 1 2 0 3 2 1 1 0
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 50 100 0 100 67 50 50 0
V.M G x x o o o o o o
H - x - x x x - -
I o o o x x o o o
number of x + - 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
number of x 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 0
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 50 100 0 100 100 100 0 0
V.L J x x - x - x - -
K x x x o x o o x
L - - x x - x - -
number of x + - 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 3
number of x 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 67 67 67 100 33 100 0 33
VI M x o x o o x o o
N x - x - - x - x
O x o x o o o o o
number of x + - 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 1
number of x 3 0 3 0 0 2 0 1
FO (%) (= (x . 100) / (x + -) 100 0 100 0 0 100 0 100
100 100
0
100 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 4
Figure III.4
Figure III.3:
FO values per
period.
Chapter III
43

II.2. Chronological orderings.

In this research project chronological orderings are not of the utmost importance. They are only
employed in order to determine whether a chronological development takes place (see appendix
III.4).

III. The co-occurrences between (sub)themes.
7

III.1. The co-occurrences between (sub)themes on the wall sections of the cult chapel.

In a compilation of (sub)themes it is possible to determine which (sub)themes are placed together
on the wall or a section of it. For this the term co-occurrence is adopted. There are two
possible forms of co-occurrence on a wall:

1. The two (sub)themes are placed on the western wall and it is of no importance whether or
not they are together on the same section of the wall.
2. Because a wall can be divided into wall sections (see chapter VI, section I), two
(sub)themes may not only be placed together on the western wall, they may even be
placed together on the same wall section (see figure III.7 below).

7
For this being together of (sub)themes another term might be coincidence, but this term implies a
more random conjunction, and the design of the decoration on the walls of the chapel certainly is not the
result of a random action.
100 100
50 50
67
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Figure III.5
Figure III.6
0
50
100 100 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Figures III.4, 5 and 6: Examples of FO/period curves, derived from figure III.3.
Chapter III
44

In figure III.7 two (sub)themes X and Y are placed either on different wall sections, here wall
sections 1 and 3 or on the same wall section, here wall section 2.

III.1.1. The determination of co-occurrences between (sub)themes and the calculation of the Co-
occurrence Percentage (CP).

The co-occurrence of (sub)themes can be determined either in a chronological ordering or in a
table, an example of the latter is the determination of the number of co-occurrences between
(sub)themes 1 and 7 in figure III.1.
(Sub)theme 1 is placed on the wall 10 times and (sub)theme 7 only 3 times. The conclusion is that
the theoretical maximum number of co-occurrences between (sub)themes 1 and 7 is three. In
tombs A and B both (sub)themes are placed together on the western wall, which is 67% of the
maximum number of co-occurrences.
8
For this value the term co-occurrence percentage (CP) is
used. The result is a CP of 67% (for considerations concerning the degree of uncertainty of these
values, see section III of appendix III.3 of this chapter).
A CP value can be determined for the interaction between each couple of (sub)themes, provided
that they overlap in time (since there is no overlap in time between (sub)theme 7 and (sub)themes
3, 6 and 8, no CP value can be determined).

III.1.2. How to determine association or dissociation between (sub)themes from their CP values.

The (sub)themes 1 through 8 are, both horizontally and vertically, arranged in an increasing order
of their FO values (see figure III.1),
9
and for every interaction the CP value is determined in the
chronological ordering of figure app.III.4.4.
10

8
In order to stress the fact that the percentages calculated in this research project have a relatively high
degree of uncertainty they are always given without decimals unless otherwise stated. The percentages are
calculated up to one decimal point and after that rounded up/down according to the rule that the number of
an integer X and with a decimal y (e.g. 9.4) is rounded off to X if 1 y 4 (e.g. 9.4 becomes 9) and to X+1
if 5 y 9 (e.g. 9.5 becomes 10).
9
The decision to employ this type of ordering is based on the consideration that two (sub)themes have a
higher change of being placed together on the same wall if each of them has a relatively high FO value.
This means that in a table as depicted in figure III.8 there is a tendency to have higher CP values in its
lower right-hand corner than in its upper left-hand corner.
10
If two (sub)themes have no overlap in time, their lack of interaction is given as ---, if there is an
overlap in time, but they have no co-occurrences then the value 0 is given.
1 2 3

X Y

X, Y

Figure III.7: The division of the western
wall in wall sections and possible co-
occurrences of (sub)themes X and Y.

N

Chapter III
45

All the CP values that can be determined are compiled in figure III.8. In such a table every
interaction occurs twice, consequently half of the table is left empty.

It is possible that two (sub)themes rarely coincide on the western wall, although they completely
overlap in time. In this case the CP value will be lower than expected from the FO values on the
interacting (sub)themes. Consequently, if both (sub)themes have a high FO value, the low CP
value of their interaction will be embedded in an area where the CP values normally are high. An
example is the low CP value of the interaction of (sub)themes 2 and 3 (CP value = 20%) which is
embedded in a field of higher CP values. This is a situation that indicates a possible dissociation
between the (sub)themes.

It is also possible that a positive interaction (an association) exists between two (sub)themes, in
this case the CP value will be higher than expected, and if this positive interaction is between two
(sub)themes with low FO values, the higher CP value will be embedded in a surrounding field of
lower CP values. An example is the interaction between (sub)themes 4 and 5 (CP value = 86%).

III.1.3. The determination of the degree of difference between a CP value and its surrounding.

For the determination of the degree of difference of a CP value with its surrounding CP values, a
central value surrounded by a field of 8 CP values is taken as a standard.

There are several methods to calculate and represent the degree of difference CPSD between the
central value and its surrounding field,
11
but all of them have the disadvantage that the graduated
scales at both sides of the midpoint (the point that indicates a difference of zero between the
central value and the surrounding field) are not identical and in most cases do not have opposite
signs (see appendix III.1).
As a measure of the difference between the central value and the values of the field in which it is
embedded, a calculation method giving equal scales with opposite signs at both sides of the
midpoint is introduced (appendix III.2).

11
For the term CPSD: see the table technical terms and abbreviations.
(sub)theme 8 7 3 5 6 2 1 4
FO value 22 33 50 58 67 70 77 91
8 22 - --- 100 50 50 50 100 0
7 33 - --- 33 --- 33 67 100
3 50 - 20 60 20 80 20
5 58 - 33 57 57 86
6 67 - 50 67 67
2 70 - 71 71
1 77 - 50
4 91 -
20 30 25
35 50 25
20 20 30
Figure III.9: A hypothetical CP value diagram with a
central value higher than the surrounding field.

Figure III.8: The CP values of the
(sub)theme interactions in figure
app.III.4.4.

Chapter III
46
Apart from the type of surrounding field as in figure III.9, also other types of surrounding fields
are possible, all of them derived from the standard field (figure III.10). The following types of
surrounding fields are also acceptable for the calculation of CPSD values.

20 30 25 20 30 25 30 25
35 50 25 50 25 50 25
20 30

30

20 30

Not just the value, but also the sign of the CPSD value is of importance. The sign can either be
negative or positive. A positive CPSD value signifies an association between two (sub)themes,
and a dissociation between two (sub)themes is indicated by a negative CPSD value. The value
itself can be seen as an indication of the relative strength of the interaction.

The CPSD values cover a range running from a high positive value through zero to a high
negative value and this means a range from a strong association through no interaction, to a
strong dissociation between (sub)themes (figure III.11).

In this method adjectives like strong and weak in expressions like strong
association/dissociation and weak association/dissociation can be employed in the text, but
they have no mathematical or arithmetical meaning or significance, and distinctive ranges of
CPSD values cannot and will not be attached to any of these designations, because the two terms
are exclusively employed in a comparative context.

Relative strength
of association

Relative strength
of dissociation

In the table in figure III.8 two interactions marked in grey have been selected as examples of a
possible association and dissociation between (sub)themes. Of the two interactions the CPSD
value is calculated in the way given in appendix III.2.

CPSD = 1.2
12
CPSD = 1.1

12
The --- has not been included in the count, consequently the total number of values is 8.
--- 33 67
60 20 80
33 57 57
80 20
57 86
67 67
CPED
0
CPED
0
0
Figure III.11: Graphic
representation of CPED
value range in connection
with relative strength of the
interaction.
Figure III.10: Other types of CP
value diagrams derived from the
diagram in figure III.9.
Figure III.12: Examples
of CP value fields with
positive and negative
CPED values.
Chapter III
47

The sign of the thus calculated CPSD values can serve as an indication of a possible association
or dissociation for these interactions.

IV. Co-occurrences of (sub)themes in relation to their location on the wall.

IV.1. The placement of the (sub)themes on the different wall sections.

As already pointed out, two (sub)themes can be placed together on the same wall section or on
different wall sections. The placement of the (sub)themes can be introduced into the
chronological ordering of figure app.III.4.4 (also see figure III.13).
13

In the chronological ordering of figure III.13 there are in total 68 placements (33 single
placements, 16 double combinations and 1 triple combination).
14
The following data can be
obtained from this chronological ordering:

13
These placements are based on a western wall with two false doors (type A) and are totally arbitrary.
14
A single placement means that the (sub)theme is placed on one wall section only, a double placement
signifies that it is placed on two wall sections, etc.. Multiple placements are called combinations.
15
In calculating the total placement, a multiple placement is counted as the number of placements it
contains (e.g. (sub)theme 5 contains 4 single and 3 double placements, which totals to 10 placements).
16
A combination is the placement of a (sub)theme on more than one section of the same wall.
(sub)theme 7 4 2 5 1 6 8 3
period tomb
IV A 1 2 2
B 1 2 2 2
C 2 3 2 1
V.E D 3 2
E 2 2 3
F 1.2 3 1 2 1.2
V.M G 2 1.2
H 1.3 2 2.3 1.2
I 2 1.2
V.L J 2 2 1.2 1
K 2 1.2 2 1.3 1.3
L 2 2 2
VI M 1.2 1.2 2
N 1.3 1.2.3 1 1.2
O 2 1.2

total placements
15
68 3 12 7 10 14 11 3 8

combinations
16

single 33 3 8 7 4 6 2 1 2
double 16 2 3 4 3 1 3
triple 1 1
Figure III.13: The placement of
the (sub)themes on the wall
sections (the numbers 1, 2 and
3 indicate the wall sections as
given in figure III.7), (squares
marked in grey are the
midpoints of the use life of the
(sub)themes).

Chapter III
48

1. A possible chronological development of the employment of combinations.
2. A preference for placing (sub)themes on certain wall sections, and a possible
chronological development for the various (sub)themes.
3. The co-occurrence of (sub)themes (CP values) on the western wall as a whole and on the
same wall sections.

IV.1.1. The co-occurrences between (sub)themes in relation to the wall sections.

Although not necessary for determining the CP values of the interactions, the (sub)themes are
placed in increasing order.
17
In this case it is done by counting the total number of placements per
(sub)theme and ordering them according to an increasing number of placements.
18

For the ordering the number of placements per (sub)theme is taken from figure III.13 (line total
placements) and the order of (sub)themes is: 8-7-2-3-5-6-4-1.
19

This order is transferred to the table of figure III.14, and the number of co-occurrences between
the (sub)themes is determined in the chronological ordering of figure III.13. Two of these CP
values (marked in grey in figure III.14) show a notable difference with their respective
surrounding fields.

The number of co-occurrences involving multiple placements, as is the case between (sub)themes
3 and 8 in figure III.13, is determined in the following way:

17
Although ordering is not strictly necessary, it is done because if a table of CP values is ordered in this
way, it is possible to detect interactions which deviate strongly from their surrounding field. The ordering is
obligatory if CPSD values are to be calculated from the CP values.
18
Although in figure III.8 the FO value has been employed as a criterion for the ordering of the
(sub)themes, the number of placements must be employed here, because the significance of the choice of
wall section has to be incorporated into the determination of the CP values.
19
The order 7-8-2-3-5-6-4-1 is also possible, but in this case the result is identical.
(sub)theme 8 7 2 3 5 6 4 1
no. placements 3 3 7 8 10 11 12 14
8 3 - --- 67 167 133 100 0 133
7 3 - 33 --- 33 --- 100 67
2 7 - 29 86 71 100 100
3 8 - 50 100 13 125
5 10 - 60 110 50
6 11 - 82 109
4 12 - 58
1 14 -
Figure III.14: The CP
values of placement
interactions.

Chapter III
49

In figure III.15 two (sub)themes X and Y are placed on the western wall. (Sub)theme X is placed
on wall section 1 (notation: 1) and (sub)theme Y is placed on wall sections 1 and 2 (notation:
1.2). Between the (sub)themes two co-occurrences are possible(in figure III.15 given as ):

X Y = 1.1 (a co-occurrence on the same wall section)
X Y = 1.2 (a co-occurrence on different wall sections)

In the table in figure III.16 the number of co-occurrences between other possible placement
combinations is given.

One of the results of this method is that the calculation of the CP value can give rise to
percentages over 100%. An example of this is the interaction between (sub)themes 4 and 5:

The number of placements for (sub)theme 4 is 12 and for (sub)theme 5 it is 10 (see figure III.13).
This means that, in the case of single placements, the maximum number of co-occurrences would
be 10. In figure III.17 the co-occurrences between the two (sub)themes are given:
21

The result is a total of 11 co-occurrences. Consequently the CP value is 11/10 x 100% = 110%
(marked in grey in figure III.14).

20
The abbreviation co-oc. stands for co-occurrence.
21
A, B etc. indicate the tomb, and 1-1, 2-3 etc. the interactions between (sub)themes on the various wall
sections.
(sub)theme X (sub)theme Y no. co-oc.
20
co-occurrences
1 1.3 2 1.1 1.3
1 1.2 2 1.1 1.2
2 1.3 2 1.2 2.3
3 1.2 2 1.3 2.3
1.3 1.3 3 1.1 3.3 1.3
1.3 2.3 4 1.2 1.3 2.3 3.3
1 1.2.3 3 1.1 1.2 1.3
1.3 1.2.3 5 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.3 3.3
1.2.3 1.2.3 6 1.1 2.2 3.3 1.2 1.3 2.3
1 2 3
X Y Y
Figure III.15: The determination of
the number of co-occurrences on more
than one wall section.
Figure III.16: (Theoretical)
number of co-occurrences
involving combinations.

Chapter III
50
tomb interaction tomb interaction tomb interaction tomb interaction

B 2 - 2 F 1 - 1 H 1 - 2 I 1 - 2
C 2 - 2 1 - 2 1 - 3 2 - 2
D 2 - 3 2 - 3
3 - 3

Figure III.17: The possible co-occurrences between (sub)themes 4 and 5.

Of these 11 co-occurrences 5 are on the same wall section (1 for tombs B,C and I on wall section
2, 1 for tomb F on wall section 1 and 1 for tomb H on wall section 3). Of 11 co-occurrences 5 are
on the Same Wall Section (SWS) and this gives a SWS value of 5 x 100/11 = 45%.
22

As with the FO value, the CP value of an interaction can not only be determined over the whole
Old Kingdom, it can also be determined per period, and so can the SWS value belonging to it.

So far the methods developed for this research project has been:

1. The FO value of a (sub)theme only gives information about its popularity throughout
the whole period (here the Old Kingdom). The FO/period gives information about the
possible chronological development of this popularity.
2. The CP value indicates whether a association or an dissociation exists between two
(sub)themes.
3. The CPSD value not only indicates the type of interaction (association/dissociation), but
also its relative strength.
4. The interaction between two (sub)themes can be described by two values, the CP and the
SWS value. The former shows their tendency to be together on the same wall, on which
they can nevertheless be far apart. The latter describes their tendency to be close together
on that wall (on the same wall section).

The information that can be drawn from the components of the method has a different degree of
reliability.

22
SWS is the percentage of the co-occurrences between two (sub)themes that take place on the S(ame)
W(all) S(ection).
Compilation presence (sub)themes
FO CP
FO/period CPSD SWS
CP/period
Chapter III
51
1. When two (sub)themes both have a high FO value, the CP value of their interaction is not
automatically high because an dissociation or a weak or non-existing overlap in time is
possible.
2. A high CP value indicates a strong co-occurrence on the same wall, but no information is
given about its being on the same wall section.
3. A high SWS value indicates a strong co-occurrence on the same wall section. This is the
strongest possible indication of a close interaction.

The conclusion is that the percentage of co-occurrences situated on the same wall section (the
SWS value) gives the most reliable information about the interaction between (sub)themes.

An interaction with a low SWS value indicates that the (sub)themes have an dissociation on the
same wall section, and it can be caused by:

1. a reluctance to place the two (sub)themes on the same wall section based on cultic or
other symbolic considerations.
2. the practical consideration that the two (sub)themes are too large to be placed together on
the same wall section. This can be one of the reasons why the interactions of prime
(sub)themes have low SWS values.
23

In figure III.14 the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 4 has a low CP value (13%), which is
(partly?) caused by the fact that they have a small overlap in time. They coincide once on wall
section 2 (figure III.13), but the SWS value of the interaction is high, namely 100%.
In figure III.14 the interaction between (sub)themes 4 and 5 has a CP of 110% and a SWS value
of 45%, the latter indicating that the association is caused by the fact that frequently the
(sub)themes are placed together on the western wall, but without a very strong preference to
placing them on the same wall section.

IV.1.2. The CP and SWS values of the interactions.

The CP and SWS values are determined for all the interactions in the chronological ordering in
figure III.13, and compiled in the table of figure III.18 (below).
The CP and SWS values are graphically displayed in a diagram with the SWS value on the X-axis
and the CP value on the Y-axis (figure III.19).
Some general conclusions may be drawn about the cloud of CP/SWS points in the diagram in
figure III.19.
24

1. The clustering of the cloud of points leads to the conclusion that a high SWS value is not
coupled to an extremely low CP value, because the points with high SWS values are
situated high on the CP-axis.
2. Points with a low CP value are always coupled to a low SWS value. This indicates that
two (sub)themes with an interaction with a low CP value, if placed together on the
western wall, are preferably not positioned on the same wall section.

23
For the term prime (sub)theme see table Technical terms and abbreviations.
24
The diagram in figure III.19 has been made with a Microsoft Excel calculation matrix.
Chapter III
52

Figure III.18: The CP and SWS values of the interactions (all values are percentages).

Yet, this type of diagram does not make it possible that the designation association or dissociation
of an interaction between two (sub)themes can be reliably based on its CP and SWS values. The
introduction of the CPSD value of the interaction makes it possible to find a solution (this is
discussed in part V.1.2. of this chapter).

(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 - CP = 100
SWS = 43
CP = 125
SWS = 30
CP = 58
SWS = 57
CP = 50
SWS = 40
CP = 109
SWS = 50
CP = 67
SWS = 0
CP = 133
SWS = 25
2 - CP = 29
SWS = 0
CP = 100
SWS = 14
CP = 86
SWS = 33
CP = 71
SWS = 20
CP = 33
SWS = 0
CP = 67
SWS = 0
3 - CP = 13
SWS = 100
CP = 50
SWS = 25
CP = 100
SWS = 50
--- CP = 167
SWS = 60
4 - CP = 110
SWS = 45
CP = 82
SWS = 44
CP = 100
SWS = 33
CP = 0
SWS = 0
5 - CP = 60
SWS = 33
CP = 33
SWS = 0
CP = 133
SWS = 25
6 - --- CP = 100
SWS = 33
7 - ---
8 -
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
SWS
C
P
U+ U-
Figure III.19: The graphical display
of the relation between the CP and
SWS values of interactions.

Chapter III
53

V. The cultic character of (sub)themes.

V.1. The determination of the cultic character of (sub)themes.

The determination of the cultic character of a (sub)theme is based on the definition of the term
prime (sub)theme. This term is given to the two major (sub)themes of the western wall: the
offering table scene ((sub)themes 3 and 40) and the tomb owner standing and in physical contact
with family ((sub)themes 2, 41 and 61).

The types of cultic character of (sub)themes are defined in chapter VII (section I, figure VII.3),
where a division in types Ia (the daily professional and familial life of the tomb owner), Ib (the
tomb owner responding to the offerings, IIa (unifying (sub)themes) and IIb (signalling/guiding
(sub)themes) is made.

The determination of the cultic character is based on the following assumptions:

1. Two (sub)themes have the same cultic character if their interaction has a CP/SWS value
indicating an association. This means that the designation of the cultic character of a
(sub)theme depends on the reliability of determining its type of interaction with other
(sub)themes of which the cultic character is known or defined.
2. On the false door and the remaining surface of the western wall those (sub)themes that
can be considered to be the prime (sub)themes of the cult chapel are likely to be chosen.
25

The cultic character of these prime (sub)themes determines the cultic character of the
other (non-prime) (sub)themes by the type of their interaction (association or
dissociation).

V.1.1. The determination of the cultic character of (sub)themes by way of CP/SWS values.

The cultic character of a (sub)theme is determined by the CP/SWS values of its interaction with a
prime (sub)theme:

1. The use lives of the (sub)theme (see appendix III.4 below) of which the cultic character
has to be determined (in figure III.20 that is (sub)theme 4) and of the prime (sub)theme
(here (sub)theme 1), are given as bars. The cultic character of the chosen prime
(sub)theme is introduced (here type Ia).
26

2. The chronological division is given next to the bars.
3. The CP/SWS values of the interaction of the two (sub)themes is calculated for every
period from figure III.13.

Because both the CP and the SWS values have to be taken into account, it is in the chronological
ordering in figure III.13 that the interaction between (sub)themes 1 and 4 is studied separately for
every period (the population per period is only three tombs and thus too small to give relevant
results in a realistic situation).

25
The term prime (sub)theme is not identical with the term main theme as used in the research program
of the Leiden Mastaba Project (LMP). There the term main theme is attributed to every theme that is a
conglomerate of a number of (sub)themes and/or attributes.
26
The cultic character of the prime (sub)themes is defined as a working hypothesis.
Chapter III
54
The interaction between (sub)themes 1 and 4 in the period IV, consists of 3 co-occurrences of
which 2 are on the same wall section.
27
The conclusion is that the CP = 100% and the SWS =
67%. In the same way, these values are determined for the other periods.

During the period V.M, due to a complete lack of co-occurrences of the two (sub)themes, the CP
and SWS value are given as zero.
28
However, in order to describe the cultic character of a
(sub)theme the cultic character for the other periods has to be determined.
In the periods where the SWS values of the interactions with (sub)theme 1 are relatively high
(here the period IV), it is possible to conclude whether or not the interaction with (sub)theme 1 is
an association, thus enabling the conclusion of a type Ia cultic character for (sub)theme 4 during
this period.

However, if the SWS value is relatively low (in figure III.20 the periods V.E and V.L) no such
conclusion is possible, because it cannot be concluded out of hand whether the value SWS = 50%
indicates an association or a dissociation. So a method must be developed that makes it possible
to decide whether the SWS value indicates an association or a dissociation, thus making it
possible to conclude whether during a certain period the interaction between (sub)themes 1 and 4
is such that (sub)theme 4 also has a type Ia character or not.

IV V.E V.M V.L VI
29

CP = 100 200 0 100 ---
SWS = 67 50 0 50 ---

V.1.2. The determination of the cultic character of (sub)themes by way of CPSD values.

In figure III.14 the CP values as determined in the chronological ordering of figure app.III.4.4
have been gathered. From this table the CPSD values for each interaction can be calculated
(figure III.21).
30

27
Multiple placements are treated according to the number of placements they contain.
28
In this case 0 has been given as value, because the use life of the (sub)themes was not yet over (figure
III.16) so there is no question of lack of overlap between the (sub)themes during that period.
29
The interaction in this period are shown with --- instead of 0 because in this period no interaction is
possible between (sub)themes 1 and 4.
30
The CPSD values that are marked by --- cannot be determined because the population is too small or
because the CP value is not present.
(sub)theme 4
type Ia
(sub)theme 1
(prime
(sub)theme)
Figure III.20: Type-diagram giving interaction per period of (sub)themes 1 and 4.
Chapter III
55

Figure III.21: The CPSD values determined from figure III.14.

The CPSD value of the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 4 (CPSD = 2.0, marked in grey ),
is based on only one co-occurrence, and consequently its reliability is small.
The CP/SWS values from the table in figure III.18 are graphically rendered as points in figure
III.22, but contrary to the diagram of figure III.19, the sign of their CPSD value (positive or
negative) is also included.
It is evident that the CP/SWS = 13/100 of the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 4 gives a
point that is completely unacceptable, due to a small overlap in time. Consequently this
interaction will not be incorporated in the discussion. The CP/SWS point 167/60 (interaction
(sub)themes 3 and 8) has to be taken into account because it is not due to a small overlap in time.

The diagram shows that the interactions that have a negative CPSD value are strongly confined to
the area of the diagram where the CP and SWS values are low. It is possible to draw two lines
that give an indication of the demarcations between the two regions. The conclusion is that at a
SWS value of ca. 40 (the vertical line) the CPSD value of the interactions switches from negative
(dissociation) to positive (association). For the (horizontal) CP line the value is ca. 65. The
conclusion is that within this set of CP/SWS and CPSD values association and dissociation are
determined by a SWS value of ca. 40 and a CP value of ca.. 65.

This switch of the CPSD value from negative to positive at a certain value of CP and SWS can be
used as a criterion by which it is possible to decide whether the SWS value of the interaction is
high enough to consider the CPSD value positive thus indicating an association between the
(sub)themes.

In figure III.20 all the SWS values (except the doubtful value for the period V.M) are higher than
44 45, and with this method it is possible to conclude that, if based on the SWS value, all the
interactions between (sub)themes 1 and 4 are associations. This conclusion is corroborated by the
CP values which are higher than 65. The conclusion is that (sub)theme 4 can be of type Ia.

(sub)theme 8 7 2 3 5 6 4 1
no. placements 3 3 7 8 10 11 12 14
8 3 - --- --- 1.5 0.5 0.5 - 1.8 1.2
7 3 - - 0.7 --- - 1.2 --- 0.4 - 0.4
2 7 - - 0.8 0.9 0.1 0.5 0.4
3 8 - - 0.7 0.9 - 2.0 1.1
5 10 - - 0.3 0.8 - 0.8
6 11 - 0.2 1.1
4 12 - ---
1 14 -
Chapter III
56

As a deduction from the above methods, it can be gathered that the procedure to determine the
character of a (sub)theme is as follows:

1. A chronological ordering of (sub)themes is made (figure III.7).
2. The placements of the (sub)themes are compiled in this chronological ordering (figure
III.13).
3. The CP and SWS values of the interactions are calculated from figure III.13 (figure
III.18).
4. The CPSD values of the interactions are calculated from the CP values in figure III.14
(figure III.21).
5. A CP/SWS diagram is made, and the CP and SWS values of the switch from negative to
positive CPSD values is determined (figure III.22).
6. A type-diagram is made and in this diagram the character of the (sub)theme being studied
is determined (figure III.20).

VI. The determination of the influence between two (sub)themes.

VI.1. General considerations.

Two (hypothetical) (sub)themes X and Y can influence each others chronological development
e.g. in the way that the growing presence of (sub)theme X provokes a decrease in the occurrence
of (sub)theme Y, it is hereby irrelevant whether the two (sub)themes are placed on the same or on
different elements of the western wall.

The only criterion to determine whether an influence over time exists between (sub)themes X and
Y, is the CP/period diagram of their interaction.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SWS
C
P
U+ U-
Figure III.22: Diagram showing the
connection between the CP/SWS
values and the sign of the CPED
values of the interactions.

Legend:

= CPSD > 0,

= CPSD < 0 x
sth 3 sth 4
Chapter III
57
In order to do this it has to be determined whether in comparison with the FO/period diagrams of
the two (sub)themes over time the CP/period diagram of the interaction between the two
(sub)themes

1. is exceptionally high or low.
2. shows a different pattern which might indicate a special connection between the two
(sub)themes.
31

There are several possibilities:

1. The CP/period diagram has much higher values than the two FO/period diagrams (an
example in figure III.23). Such a CP/period diagram could be explained by supposing a
strong positive interaction between the two (sub)themes (in this case an association
throughout the whole period).
2. The CP/period diagram of their interaction has much lower values than the two FO
diagrams (an example in figure III.24). This development of the CP/period over time can
be explained by a negative interaction between the two (sub)themes (a dissociation
throughout the whole period).

31
The bandwidth depicting the uncertainty of each of the FO/period curves is irrelevant because it is just
their tendencies that are compared.
40
30
20
15
10
45
47
43
35
30
90
85
75
65
55
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO sth X FO sth Y CP/period X-Y
CP/period X-Y
FO/period
(sub)theme X
Figure III.23: The CP/FO diagram of (sub)themes X and Y that have a positive influence.
FO/period (sub)theme Y
80
70
60
55
50
85
97
93
75
70
30
25
20
15
10
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO sth P FO sth Q CP/period P-Q
FO/period (sub)theme Q
FO/period
(sub)theme P
CP/period
(sub)themes P-
Q
Figure III.24: The CP/FO diagram of (sub)themes P and Q that have a negative influence.

Chapter III
58
3. A change in interaction is depicted in figure III.25 (below). Until the period V.M the
CP/period diagram lies between the FO/period diagrams of the two (sub)themes, and thus
does not indicate any special connection between them. However, after the start of this
period the CP values decrease which can be explained by a growing negative interaction
between (sub)themes X and Y.

VI.2. The determination of group formation.
32

The above given considerations can be applied to determine whether (sub)themes, which appear
to be closely linked, do really form a group.
In a hypothetical situation (sub)themes U, V and W seem to be closely linked because their
FO/period curves have a strong resemblance (figure III.26).
However, this is no proof that a close connection between them really exists, because, despite this
strong resemblance, the CP/period values of their interaction can be low, thus excluding this close
relationship.

If a connection really exists between two (sub)themes, then the CP/period curve, the only
criterion capable of indicating a connection between two (sub)themes, should closely resemble
the FO/period curve with the lowest values (this is based on the reasoning that the FO value of a
(sub)theme is a measure for the number of its occurrences, and that the maximum number of co-
occurrences of an interaction is determined by the (sub)theme with the lowest number of
occurrences).
33

32
For the term group, see table Technical terms and abbreviations.
33
Also here the bandwidth of the uncertainty of each of the FO/period or CP/period curves is irrelevant
because it is just their tendencies that are compared.

20
60
75
80 80
90 90 90 90 90
55
75
85
65
35
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO sth R FO sth S CP/period R-S
FO/period (sub)theme S
Figure III.25: The CP/FO diagram of (sub)themes R and S that develop a negative influence.
CP/period (sub)themes R-S
FO/period (sub)theme R
Chapter III
59

As an example, in figure III.27 the FO/period diagrams of (sub)themes U and V have been
gathered from figure III.26 and their (hypothetical) CP/period curve has been added to the figure.
The CP/period curve at first closely resembles the FO/period curve of (sub)theme V, and when
this curve drops to zero the CP/period curve follows the then lowest FO/period curve, which is
the lower part of the FO/period curve of (sub)theme U. The conclusion is that (sub)themes U and
V form a group.

In a group of (sub)themes (in this example U, V and W), one of them always serves as the prime
(sub)theme, and if this is (sub)theme U, then the CP/period diagrams of interactions U V and
U W have to be determined.

90
35
0 0
45
0 0 0
60
25
0 0 0
50
100
IV V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth U FO/period sth V FO/period sth W
FO/period sth W
FO/period sth U
FO/period sth V Figure III.26: FO/period
(sub)themes U, V and
W.
90 88
35
0 0
45
23
0 0 0
55
30
15
5
0 0
50
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth X FO/period sth Y CP/period
FO/period sth V CP/period (sub)themes U-V
FO/period sth U
Figure III.27: The CP/FO diagram of (sub)themes U and V that form a group.
Chapter III
60
Appendix III.1. Various methods of calculating the difference factor CPSD.

Method I: In a hypothetical field the mean value of the field surrounding the central value of 50
is calculated (200 / 8 = 25). The difference coefficient CPSD is calculated as

The midpoint can be calculated when the central value is identical to the mean value
of the surrounding field, here 25. This gives a midpoint of 1.0.
If the central value is higher than the mean value of the surrounding field, e.g. 50,
the CPSD is 2.0 in a scale going to + .
If the central value is lower, e.g. 10, the CPSD value becomes 10/50, giving 0.2 in a scale going
to 0.
Values situated in the part of the scale between 0.0 and 1.0 must then be considered to be
negative, and values over 1.0 as positive.

+

0.0 1.0 + .

It is apparent that the two scales at both sides of the midpoint (1.0) are completely different and
the values therein cannot be compared.

Method II: In the same hypothetical field the CPSD value is calculated in two steps:

1. Central value mean value surrounding field.
2. The result of step 1 is expressed as a percentage of the mean value of the surrounding
field.

The midpoint can be calculated by taking a central value of 25 (25 25 = 0), the result 0 is 0% of
the mean value of the surrounding field.
If a central value of e.g. 100 is taken, the result is 100 25 = 75, 75 x 100/25 = 300% on a scale
going to + .
A central field value of 10 gives 10 25 = 15 and the second step gives 15 x 100/25 = 60%.
This scale goes to 100%.
Again the two scales at both sides of the midpoint (0.0) are not identical; however the only
advantage of this method is that a sign is automatically introduced by the calculation method.

+

100% 0.0

+ .

25 30 25
25 50 25
20 20 30
CPSD = central field value / mean value surrounding
field
Chapter III
61
Appendix III.2. Calculating the difference factor (CPSD) of the central value.

Method I (the CPSD calculation).

The calculation method is demonstrated on a field of CP values surrounding a (much higher)
central CP value of 50 (marked in grey).
34

The first step is the calculation of the arithmetic average M of all the values in the field by
means of the formula:

The sum of all the CP values in the diagram is 255 and the number of CP values is 9.
The result M = 255 / 9 = 28.3.

The next step is the calculation of the square of the difference between a value of the
surrounding field (called x) and the arithmetic average M of the group (x M). In formula:

This is calculated for every member of the group.
The square of the difference for every value of the field is:

(2028.3) = 68.89 (3028.3) = 2.89 (2528.3) = 10.89
(3528.3) = 44.89 (5028.3) = 470.89 (2528.3) = 10.89
(2028.3) = 68.89 (2028.3) = 68.89 (3028.3) = 2.89

The next step is that the sum Sof all the (x M) values is determined.

The result is S = 750.01.

This sum S is then divided by the number of members of the group (here 9), giving the value
S
mean
, the result is 750.01 / 9 = 83.33.

The last step is the calculation of the square root R of the value 83.33 thus obtained. The result
is 9.13.

34
This calculation method is originally meant for the calculation of the eccentricity or the deviation
existing between a measured value and the normal distribution of all the measured values, a method which
is described in Wijvekate, Statistiek, 60 ff..
20 30 25
35 50 25
20 20 30
M = sum of all the values in the field / number of values

(x M)
S = sum of all (x M) values

S
mean
= S / number of values
Chapter III
62

As calculated above, the arithmetic average M of the total field is 28.3 and its difference
(x M) with the central value is 50 28.3 which comes to 21.7.

This value is higher than the calculated value of R of 9.13, in fact it is 21.7 / 9.13 = 2.4 x
higher. This value (x M) / R) is called the CPSD of the central value.

In the same way this calculation can be made for a central CP value that is lower than the
surrounding field.

50 45 55
30 10 50
45 55 35

The CPSD of the central value is calculated in the same way as the previous example.

The arithmetic average M = 41.7 and the values of the squared difference between the CP value
and the arithmetic average are:

(50 41.7) = 68.89 (45 41.7) = 10.89 (55 41.7) = 176.89
(30 41.7) = 136.89 (10 41.7) = 1004.89 (50 41.7) = 68.89
(45 41.7) = 10.89 (55 41.7) = 176.89 (35 41.7) = 44.89

The sum S of these squared differences is 1700.01 and when divided by the number of values
(= 9), the S
mean
comes to 188.89, and its square root R is 13.74.

The CPSD of the central CP value is (x M) / R) = (10 41.7) / 13.74 = 2.3.

In this case the value of the CPSD is negative, thus expressing dissociation.

With this method the scales at both sides of the midpoint (0.0) are identical and a sign is
automatically introduced (see figure III.11).

Methode II (the chi-square ( ) test).

There is another calculation method which is developed to determine whether observed values
differ significantly from expected values the latter being based on an assumed (basic) hypothesis.
This method is called the (chi-square) test.
35

In this research project the test is based on the assumed hypothesis (the a priori theory) that the
value of the CP in the middle of the field does not differ from the values surrounding it and with
the test it is determined whether a difference exists between the central value and the surrounding
field and whether this difference is significant (real) or not (is due to coincidence).

Basically the two calculation methods do not differ much, yet method I is more direct. Method II
results in a value p, but its interpretation depends on the number of degrees of freedom

35
Moroney, Figures, 249 ff..
R = S
mean
Chapter III
63
available for the test at hand. The final result is a conclusion about the acceptability and the
significance of the measured value compared to the basic hypothesis.
The disadvantage of the method is that no comparable value and sign attached to it, while both of
them are directly available using method I.

Appendix III.3. Some aspects of the curves in this research project.

I. The plotting of a curve through a series of points.

The following discussion concerning curves as they are encountered in this research project is
based on some preliminary considerations. Already the statement that a series of measurements
can be turned into a curve just by joining these points by means of a line leads to the realisation
that curves displaying a chronological development are basically non-continuous.
The resulting curve can have the appearance as in figure app.III.3.1, however, an appearance as in
figure app.III.3.2 or even worse is also possible. Yet, the latter cannot a priori be rejected because
it is the result of existing measurements, and is, as a consequence, dependant on the reliability of
the points making up the diagram.
36

1. Some values, like FO and CP, are derivatives of other values and depend
a. on the number of tombs per period.
b. on the number of occurrences per period of a certain (sub)theme.
c. on the number of co-occurrences.
2. Some values, like CPSD and SWS, are calculated from two, thus obtaining a higher
uncertainty.

But even primary data, like the type of (sub)themes placed on the western wall during a certain
period, depend on a number of considerations that have no direct connection with the (sub)themes
themselves.
Of these the most important and the one that affects the final appearance of the curve most is the
consideration that everything pertaining to the chapel, like cult, decoration, and layout, is based
on ideas concerning life after death, thus the sustenance of the ka of the deceased. These ideas are
basically religious, and religion is conservative. This means that, although changes do occur, they
are gradual.
A curve of a random appearance, like the one of figure app.III.3.2, even though it is the result of a
series of measurements, has to be reconsidered taking into account the preceding discussion. The
final curve, which has the least possible random appearance, is not going to be the result of
sketching an approximately best fitting line, but of a calculation.
In the course of such a calculation the points, depicting the measurements, are connected by
means of a line calculated to give the best fit. This does not mean that the calculated line really
connects the points, most of them will not even be points of the calculated line, but the line
approaches them as much as mathematics allow.

In figures app.III.3.1 and app.III.3.2 two (hypothetical) series of FO values are depicted.

In order to determine the most probable form, the curve formed by the points of the
measurements is compared against two types of curves which have the following appearance:

36
If the points have a high degree of uncertainty, the curve can easily be rejected, which is not the case if
the points of the curve have a relatively high degree of certainty.
Chapter III
64

1. A straight line, in the legend of the diagram called linaire or linear. This line
represents the calculated best fit that can be found for a straight line in the population of
points.
37

2. A non-linear line, called polynomial. This is the best fitting non-linear line that can be
found between the points of the population.
38

As already mentioned, the points of the population are not necessarily also points of the
calculated line, and a criterion has to be defined by which the type of curve that is ultimately
chosen (that has the best fit) is going to be determined.

The reliability of the calculated curve (the fit) is expressed by way of its coefficient of
determination (R).
39

37
Moroney, Figures, 279 ff..
Also see the sections coefficient of determination R and statistical properties of the parameters in
http://www.aiaccess.net/English/Glossaries/GlosMod/e_gm_regression_linear_simple.htm
38
The mathematical background of the calculations leading to these two curves is beyond the scope of this
research project.
39
The value of R is automatically calculated while constructing the curve connecting the measured points.
The value of R is given with four decimals, which means that in figure app.III.3.3 the values introduced
into the calculation are not 25 and 80 but 25.0000 and 80.0000. Consequently, the resulting line is based on
data that are interpreted as far more precise as they really are. The points of the diagrams each have their
own absolute error and while calculating the term R all of these add up to the final (absolute) error
(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Accuracy.html). This means not only that the calculated curve can just be
80
25
0 0 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth X
Figure app.III.3.1:
The FO/period of
(sub)theme X.
80
25
60
65
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Y
Figure app.III.3.2:
The FO/period of
(sub)theme Y.
Chapter III
65

This value is calculated from the difference between the proposed curve and the measured or
calculated points of the population. The value of the coefficient is between 0 and 1, and the closer
it is to 1, the more reliable the calculated curve is.

In figures app.III.3.3 and app.III.3.4 both types of curves are drawn.

It is evident that the polynomial has the best fit here, and the resulting curve is not the straight
line of figure app.III.3.3 but the curved line of figure app.III.3.4.

However, if the same is done for the population of points in figure app.III.3.2, the result is
completely different (see figures app.III.3.5 and app.III.3.6).
The spread of the points is such that both the linear and the polynomial give a bad fit, bad enough
to conclude that there is no real connection between the points of the population and that they do
not represent a chronological development in the sense in which the term is employed in this
research project.

utilized as an indication, but also that the R value is of no avail for the determination of the best fitting
curve because, due to the high uncertainty of the measurements its decimals are without meaning. The
mathematical background of this term is beyond the scope of this research project.

80
25
0 0 0
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/Period sth X Linear (FO/Period sth X)
Figure app.III.3.3: The linear in the diagram of FO/period (sub)theme X.
80
25
0 0 0
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth X Poly. (FO/period sth X)
Figure app.III.3.4: The polynomial in the diagram of FO/period (sub)theme X.
Chapter III
66

In this type of curve both lines do not give an acceptable fit. Taking into account the assumed
hypothesis about religious conservatism, this means that the values measured and/or calculated
are biased by circumstances beyond control. Although just as the result of a series of
measurements the curve has to be accepted, within the assumed hypothesis it is hardly acceptable
as the result of a chronological development.

Another problem is a diagram with a curve of the form given in figure app.III.3.7.

80
25
60
65
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Y Linear (FO/period sth Y)
Figure app.III.3.5: The linear in the diagram of FO/period (sub)theme Y.

Figure app.III.3.6: The polynomial in the diagram of FO/period (sub)theme Y.

80
25
60
65
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Y Poly. (FO/period sth Y)
0
60 60 60 60
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Z
Figure app.III.3.7: Hypothetical curve of
FO/period of (sub)theme Z.
Chapter III
67

Here there are three possible curves instead of two:

1. The linear (in figure III.3.8, the fit of this type of curve is extremely poor.
2. The polynomial (see figure III.3.9), this curve has a better fit than the linear.
3. The curve as it is. In this case this appears the best solution; the curve obtained in figure
III.3.7 is possible.

II. The algebraic equation of a straight line.

A straight line is defined by the equation y = ax + b. Here is a the direction coefficient which
defines the angle that the straight line has with the horizontal axis (figure app.III.3.10 below),
and a = tg . This means that if the value a is very small (approaching zero) the angle is small and
the line is nearly horizontal, if the value a is high the line is nearly vertical.

0
60 60 60 60
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Z Poly. (FO/period sth Z)
Figure app.III.3.9:
The polynomial in
the diagram of
FO/period
(sub)theme Z.

Figure app.III.3.10: The definition of the
direction coefficient.
0
60 60 60 60
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth Z Linear (FO/period sth Z)
Figure app.III.3.8:
The linear in the
diagram of
FO/period
(sub)theme Z.

Chapter III
68
III. Some considerations concerning the reliability of the results.

As in all research employing data directly obtained by means of exploration in the field (be it a
laboratory, be it a desert) they are biased by errors. In the case of the research project at hand,
which employs the decoration in the chapels of Old Kingdom mastabas in Giza as its raw
material, these data can be and, no doubt, are biased by several major errors, some of them being:

1. In case the decoration has been documented epigraphically, systematic errors are
possible, but certainly random errors which are introduced by the epigraphist are inherent
to the result.
40

2. If the decoration has been photographed the most probable error is the inverted printing
of the negative.
3. If the result of the excavation is finally printed, despite modern scanning and printing
techniques, relevant detail can be obscured

Another source of uncertainty is an unreliable or wrong dating of one or several tombs in the
catalogue of chosen tombs. This leads to a fault in the chronological ordering of the tombs, and
because this ordering is going to be the foundation of the further research project, such a fault
introduces a systematic error.

This error also is the source of a possible faulty division in the chronological periods,
41
which are
necessary for the determination and depiction of chronological developments. This error
introduces deviations in all diagrams showing values of a quantity per period (e.g. FO/period or
CP/period).

The division in chronological periods might introduce another problem; not only the number of
tombs per period can be too small to allow reliable FO/period calculations,
42
but if in such a small
population of tombs the number of co-occurrences per period between two (sub)themes is small,
the thus calculated CP percentage has a large degree of uncertainty.
43

The consequence of this is that all diagrams, tables, etc. in which CP and/or FO values are
directly or indirectly employed are more or less influenced by this uncertainty. This appears to
render the curves employed in this research project useless. However, the curves are not used as
entities in which the measured points are absolute. Keeping in mind that the time-scale is non-
continuous, they are used as figures representing areas of probability which are depicted as the
parts of the vertical lines that are between the two dotted lines in figure III.3.11.

The probability inherent in every value makes it possible to draw several valid curves in the
diagram. The lines A
1
B
2
and A
2
B
1
are for several of the measured points situated outside the
area of probability, and do not represented possible curves. The (not represented) line A
1
C
2

D
1
B
2
is completely embedded within the probability areas and is possible. Although this line
does not follow the line through the measured points, it remains within the tendency-area of the
original line and can be interpreted as such.

40
John Robert Taylor (1999). An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical
Measurements. University Science Books. p. 94, 4.1.
41
An (fictitious) example is if in figure III.3 tomb C has not been placed in period IV, as it is here, but in
period V.E.
42
The degree of uncertainty in the FO values (expressed as a percentage) depends on the value of the
number of tombs in the period.
43
The degree of uncertainty in the CP values (expressed as a percentage) depends on the value of the
maximum possible number of co-occurrences.
Chapter III
69

Figure III.3.11. A (fictitious) curve with the probability areas of some points of the curve.

The R value has been rejected as a means to determine the best fit for a curve, because
considerations concerning the certainty of the FO and CP values in a diagram have demonstrated
that these values are too uncertain to be given with decimals. This makes a four-decimal quantity
like R completely out of place.

The above mentioned considerations are taken into account only then when this is necessary for
the interpretation of the diagrams at hand.

75
30
25
20
60
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
A
1
B
1
B
2
A
2
C
1
C
2
D
1
D
2
Chapter III
70
Appendix III.4. The making of a chronological ordering.

A chronological ordering is the best fitting order of attributes according to a predetermined
criterion, and in this case the attributes are (sub)themes 18 and the predetermined criterion is the
period of occurrence of the (sub)themes.
44

Chronological orderings can be made with a simple chart,
45
or by means of a computer program.
46

In this example the number of tombs is not sufficiently large to make a computer-aided
chronological ordering useful, nor is this the case for the chronological orderings involved in the
research project itself.

The general organization of a chronological ordering of 8 (sub)themes is shown in figure
app.III.4.1.

The lines representing the use life of an attribute can be placed in the chronological ordering in
three ways:

1. According to their point of first appearance.
2. According to their midpoint.
3. According to their point of last appearance.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
IV

V.E

V.M

V.L

VI

The result for (sub)themes 1 8 in figure III.3 is given in figure app.III.4.2. The lines in the
chronological ordering represent the use life of the (sub)themes, and the midpoint is given as a
dot.
47

From this type of unorganized representation, it is not possible to form conclusions about
chronological developments of the (sub)themes in the set.

44
Renfrew, Archaeology, 104 8.
45
As was the case in the sequence dating of Flinders Petrie.
46
Kemp, Dating, 259-291 and Kemp, Automatic analysis, 5-15.
47
Polz, Recording methods, 122.
Figure app.III.4.1: General organization of
a chronological ordering.
Usually the time scale is from up = IV, to down
= VI. The (sub)themes can be placed in any
arbitrary order (here from 1 to 8).

(initial) order of (sub)themes
time scale

Chapter III
71

IV

V.E

V.M

V.L

VI

In the chronological ordering in figure app.III.4.2 the next step is to change the order of the
(sub)themes in such a way that the total development becomes a smooth continuation of lines
(based on the descending order of the midpoints (see figure app.III.4.3). In the process of finding
the proper order of (sub)themes, the tendencies of the diagrams of the FO/ period of the
(sub)themes (e.g. figures III.4-III.6) can be helpful. In this research project the chronological
orderings are made in this manner.
48

IV

V.E

V.M

V.L

VI

The chronological ordering given in figure app.III.4.3 is only theoretical, but as a method it can
be directly applied in the research project.

48
Kemp, Dating, 262-3.
Figure app.III.4.2: The use life of (sub)themes
1 to 8.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
It is possible that this is not yet the
definitive order, because in some cases
small adjustments in the order of the
(sub)themes are necessary to obtain the
desired smooth continuation of the lines.
From figure app.III.4.3 it is evident that the
order of (sub)themes is different for a
chronological ordering based on midpoints
than one based on first appearance.

7 4 2 5 1 6 8 3
Figure app.III.4.3: Chronological ordering of
the use life of (sub)themes 1 to 8.

Chapter III
72

This method is employed in making the same chronological ordering employing the (sub)themes
and data compiled in figures III.1 and III.3. In order to enhance visibility, all the xs given in
table III.3 are introduced as dots in figure app.III.4.4.
49

The order of the (sub)themes in figure app.III.4.4 is identical to the one in figure app.III.4.3.
(The even number of places of (sub)theme 8 is only a problem caused by this way of presenting a
chronological ordering. However, the use life of a (sub)theme in a chronological ordering is a
continuous line and the midpoint can be placed anywhere, because it has no chronological
reality).

In this type of chronological ordering the assigned place of a tomb is based on its dating.
Although the chronological ordering may give the impression that a vertical change of place of
one of more tombs might lead to a smoother chronological ordering, that would cause the date of
these tombs to change.

However, a chronological ordering is not a refined dating tool, and such an indication of a change
in dating has to be supported by other, more conclusive evidence.

49
Only the xs can be introduced in this figure because they represent placements which are certain.
(sub)theme 7 4 2 5 1 6 8 3
period tomb
IV A
B
C
V.E D
E
F
V.M G
H
I
V.L J
K
L
VI M
N
O
total 3 10 7 7 10 6 2 5
Figure app.III.4.4: The result of the (midpoint)
chronological ordering of (sub)themes 1 through
8.

Chapter IV
73
Chapter IV

The western wall of the cult chapel

An inventory is made of the decoration placed on the sections of the western wall that are not taken up by
its false door(s). From this inventory a number of separate (sub)themes are selected. For every tomb
included in the relevant catalogue, the (sub)themes employed on its western wall are determined, and for
every (sub)theme the overall frequency of occurrence (FO) is calculated. A chronological ordering is made
of the chronological development of the (sub)themes. The FO/period values are calculated, and the
chronological development of the (sub)themes is depicted in the form of FO/period diagrams. From these
diagrams preliminary conclusions are drawn.

I. The (sub)themes on the western wall.
1

A compilation is made of (sub)themes placed on the western wall of the cult chapels included in
the catalogues IV.1.Vol.2 and IV.3.Vol.2, and from the available literature an illustration is given
as an example of the (sub)theme:
2

1. The tomb owner, standing or sitting alone (plate IV.1).
3

2. The tomb owner in physical contact with members of the family,
4
standing or sitting
(plate IV.2).
5

3. The tomb owner sitting at the offering table (with of without family) (plate IV.3).
6

4. Members of the family not in physical contact with the tomb owner who is present (plate
IV.11).
7

1
The description of the (sub)themes on the western wall, together with the description of those employed
on the false door and the entrance thicknesses, have been compiled in an appendix which has been
separately added to this report (pages xxi - xxii).
2
The table given by Harpur (Harpur, DETOK, 70) has been the template for this compilation. The
(sub)themes given by Harpur are found in the tombs in the necropolises of Giza and Saqqara. This means
that it is possible that some of the (sub)themes she mentions are not present in the chapels in the necropolis
of Giza. All the examples given are placed on a western wall as defined for the research project.
3
Some depictions do not easily fit the defined (sub)themes. An example in tomb G 2100-I-annexe of Merib
(PM, III, 71-2, plan XXIV) is the group on wall 5 (LD, II, 20). In Harpur, DETOK, 396-7, plan 43 this
group is mistakenly called a table scene. The group consists of the following attributes:
1. The tomb owner sitting alone.
2. A standing person with a cloth (a strip of linen?) opened in front of the tomb owner.
3. A sitting scribe (?), offering a roll of papyrus (?).
4. A sitting person.
Although it could easily be mistaken for a combination of (sub)themes 1 (tomb owner sitting alone) and 7
(priests), it probably depicts a scene out of the daily (professional) life of Merib. Therefore, the scene is
designated as (sub)theme 8 (the rendering of accounts).
4
Physical contact can be direct (the son touching, see plate IV.2), indirect (by means of the son holding the
staff, see plates IV.2 and IV.10) or just standing together (plate IV.11).
5
In the cult chapels of all the tombs included in the catalogues the family consists of wife and/or children;
in this (sub)theme other members of the family like the mother and/or the father are never included.
6
Harpur, DETOK 70 employs the term table scene. The meal at the offering table is very often
accompanied by bearers and/or priests. It is of no importance whether the tomb owner is sitting at the
offering table with his wife or another member of his family or if one or two offering tables are used. This
(sub)theme is in fact a conglomerate of the following components: the ideographic offering list, utensils to
wash the hands, loaves on the table and sometimes heaps of food piled up in the vicinity of the table.
7
These are depictions of members of the family who are sitting or standing in front of the tomb owner, but
without direct or indirect physical contact (direct meaning that the member of the family is actually
Chapter IV
74
5. Servants bringing offerings (plate IV.4).
8

6. Personified estates bringing goods (plate IV.9).
7. Priests (plate IV.10).
8. Scribes in a row or alone, writing, rendering of accounts, leading people (plates
IV.6/IV.9).
9. Butchery scenes (plate IV.4).
10. Piles of food offerings (plate IV.8).
9

11. The non-ideographic offering list (plate IV.3).
10

12. Musicians, dancers (plates IV.6/IV.7).
13. Indoor diversion (plate IV.6).
11

14. Kiosk scene (plate IV.8).
15. Agricultural activities.
12

16. Craftsmen (plate IV.5).
17. Hunting in the desert or in the marshes (plates I.6/I.7).
13

18. Servants making a bed (plate IV.6).

The tombs studied are compiled in catalogues IV.1.Vol.2 (decoration western wall and false door
present, in total 57 tombs) and IV.3.Vol.2 (decoration western wall present, decoration false door
absent, in total 7 tombs). For the research of the (sub)themes on the western wall these two
catalogues are combined into catalogue IV.1/3.Vol 2 (in total 64 tombs).
In table IV.1.Vol.2 the (sub)themes present on the western wall of all the tombs mentioned in
catalogue IV.1/3.Vol.2 are compiled. The marking of the certain or uncertain presence or absence
of the (sub)themes is carried out as discussed in chapter III.

touching the tomb owner, indirect here meaning holding the staff of the tomb owner) (see plates IV.10 and
IV.11).
8
The offerings that are brought are animals, fowl, food, oils, garments and furniture.
9
These are the depictions of large piles of food for the deceased, sometimes even with bearers adding more
to it. Also see Robins, Offerings, 151.
10
No distinction is made between the ritual and the inventory offering list (Barta, Opferliste, 7), because
the ritual offering list, only placed on the panel in the vicinity of the offering table, is considered to be a
attribute of (sub)theme 3.
11
Harpur, DETOK, 69 calls the tomb owner sitting with dancers and musicians and sometimes playing a
board game the banquet scene, although it does not depict a banquet but a period of recreation of the
tomb owner (see plate IV.6). That which is called the kiosk scene also depicts the tomb owner sitting, but
now under a canopy with in front of him/her (sub)themes that do not depict recreation but either the cult of
the deceased or the tomb owner inspecting agricultural activities. Although a strong connection appears to
exist between (sub)themes 12 and 13 because there are often (but not always) placed closely together (thus
forming a group or scene), they are considered separately.
12
Because (sub)themes 15 and 18 are not represented on the western wall of the cult chapels included in
the catalogue, no example has been given.
13
These two scenes can be seen as a depiction of the tomb owner amusing himself; they can also be
interpreted as a(n) (archaic) depiction of the tomb owner providing for his family and/or household.
Chapter IV
75

II. Preliminary study.

II.1. The development of the number of (sub)themes placed on the wall.

In table IV.1a.Vol.2 in the column total x the number of (sub)themes placed on the western
wall has been given for every tomb. Per period the mean of the total x is calculated for the
western walls that are complete (determined in table IV.1.Vol.2), and a diagram is made of these
values (figure IV.1).
14
The chronological division is the same as in chronological ordering
IV.1.Vol.2.

A possible interpretation of the development is given by means of the polynomial in figure IV.1.
This line shows that in the period IV the repertoire of available (sub)themes increased (3 5),
but that during the rest of the Old Kingdom no further development in the number of (sub)themes
placed on the western wall took place.

II.2. The frequency of occurrence (FO) of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

In table IV.1.Vol.2 the number of (x + -) is counted per (sub)theme because both represent a
certainty. The next step is the determination of the number of x, and from these two figures the
FO is calculated as a percentage.
15

Conclusions from the FO values in table IV.1.Vol.2:

1. The FO values of (sub)themes 1218 are low (3% or less). The conclusion is therefore
that their placement on the western wall is not frequent enough to allow valid
conclusions. As a consequence, throughout the further research project these (sub)themes
are no longer included in the list of (sub)themes.
2. (Sub)themes 3 (tomb owner at the offering table), 5 (offering bearers) and 7 (priests)
have a high FO (resp. 73%, 90% and 73%) and it is evident that these (sub)themes play

14
In chapter III, section II.1.2. this is called the popularity.
15
The percentages are rounded up/down to figures with one decimal according to the rules described in
chapter III, section III.1.2.
2,9
5,2
4,4
5,1
5,4
0
2
4
6
8
10
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
no. (sub)theme/tomb/period Poly. (no. (sub)theme/tomb/period)
Figure IV.1: The chronological development of the number of (sub)themes on the western wall.
Chapter IV
76
an important role in the total representation of the (sub)themes on the western wall.
Seeing their high FO values, it is possible that there might be some kind of connection
between the three (sub)themes. (Sub)theme 5 has a notably higher FO (90%) than
(sub)themes 3 and 7 (both 73%), therefore, the role of (sub)theme 5 might be more than
just a (sub)theme connected to the table scene.
16

3. The relatively high and nearly equal FO values of (sub)themes 9 (the butchery scene), 10
(pile of food offerings) and 11 (the non-ideographic offering list) (resp. 62%, 56% and
57%), indicate that there could be a association between them.
17

III. The chronological ordering of the (sub)themes.

III.1. The chronological ordering of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

The next step is to set up a chronological ordering.
18
For the study at hand a chronological
ordering is not of the utmost importance, but it not only allows a control of the dating of the
tombs and the determination of the CP values of the interactions, it also shows whether an overall
chronological development is present or not.

The original chronological ordering is made starting from the chronological order as given in
table IV.1.Vol.2 and resulting in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2. It is obvious from the
chronological ordering that on the remaining surface of the western wall a chronological
development undeniably takes place.

III.2. The FO values (chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2).

The difference between the chronological order of chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 and table
IV.1.Vol.2 is due to the introduction of a more refined dating in chronological ordering
IV.1.Vol.2.
19
The FO/(sub)theme/period in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 is calculated in the
following way:

1. The resulting chronological order of chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 is introduced into
table IV.1.Vol.2, which results in table IV.1a.Vol.2 (with 64 tombs).
2. The FO/(sub)theme/period values are calculated and these values are compiled in the
table in figure IV.2.
3. For each (sub)theme a diagram of its chronological development is made (diagrams IV.1-
11.Vol.2).

16
Part of the research project is to determine whether such special kinds of association indeed exist
between (sub)themes.
17
According to Reisner, (sub)themes are concerned connected with the food supply for the ka of the tomb
owner (Reisner, Tomb Development, 364).
18
Kemp, Dating. Different from the description given in chapter III, the point of first appearance has been
chosen here instead of the midpoint because of the problematic incorporation of the use life of (sub)theme 1
in the chronological ordering.
19
For the term finer dating: see chapter II, section IV, point 3.
Chapter IV
77

Conclusions from diagrams IV.1-11.Vol.2.

1. In some of the diagrams it is possible to draw a straight line (linear) (diagrams IV.3,
IV.5 and IV.7). In others a better fit might be reached by a polynomial (diagram IV.11),
or by a line that follows the chronological development of the (sub)theme.
2. In diagram IV.1 the curve of (sub)theme 1 shows that this is a (sub)theme that, although
taken up in the repertoire of the western wall, never became very popular (the FO never
becomes more than 22%), and fell into disuse relatively soon.
21
It is possible that the
(sub)theme was introduced on the western wall solely for a purpose that shortly thereafter
lost its significance.
3. (Sub)themes 5 (servants bringing offerings) and 6 (personified estates bringing goods)
seem to serve the same purpose, both of them bringing goods which are possibly
offerings for the cult. Yet, there is no resemblance between the FO/period curves of both
(sub)themes (diagrams IV.5 and IV.6 show that (sub)theme 5 remained in the repertoire,
while (sub)theme 6 fell into disuse in the middle of the 5
th
dynasty). This indicates that it
is probable that they were placed on the western wall for different purposes.

20
The periods IV and VI have not been divided up in sub periods E and L because the population of each of
the periods would become too small.
21
After the period V.L the (sub)theme is no longer placed on the western wall.
(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 population
IV
20
11
x/- 4 8 4 3 10 7 4 5 8 4 4
x 0 7 1 0 9 4 3 3 6 0 1
FO 0 88 25 0 90 57 75 60 75 0 25
V.E 15
x/- 10 12 10 10 14 11 11 11 10 10 10
x 1 10 5 7 14 4 10 7 5 1 3
FO 10 83 50 70 100 36 91 64 50 10 30
V.M 12
x/- 9 9 11 10 11 9 11 9 10 10 11
x 2 2 8 4 8 0 7 2 4 6 7
FO 22 22 73 40 73 0 64 22 40 60 64
V.L 13
x/- 9 8 11 9 11 8 10 8 10 11 10
x 2 0 10 4 11 0 6 0 7 9 6
FO 22 0 91 44 100 0 60 0 70 82 60
VI 13
x/- 5 10 9 8 12 5 9 7 9 10 7
x 0 6 9 5 10 0 7 3 7 9 7
FO 0 60 100 63 83 0 78 43 78 90 100
64
total x/- 37 47 45 40 58 40 45 40 47 45 42
total x 5 25 33 20 52 8 33 15 29 25 24
Figure IV.2: FO
values/period/
(sub)theme (after
table IV.1a.Vol.2).

Chapter IV
78
4. The curves of (sub)themes 5 (diagram IV.5, servants) and 7 (diagram IV.7, priests) are
nearly identical. It is probable that they served the same purpose on the western wall, but
this resemblance is not irrefutable proof (figure IV.5).
5. When in the diagrams of (sub)themes 10 (piles of food) and 11 (non-ideographic offering
list) the linear is introduced, it turns out that both of them have practically the same
angle and are occurring much in the same place. This indicates that both (sub)themes are
probably strongly connected (figure IV.3).
6. Figure IV.3 deals with the FO/period of (sub)theme 10 and 11 and the linear pertaining
thereto; if the linear of the FO/period curve of (sub)theme 3 is introduced, the result is
that all three lines have nearly the same angle and the same place, and it is probable that a
strong connection exists between the three (sub)themes 3, 10 and 11.
22

7. In figure IV.4 the curves of (sub)themes 2 and 8 have been gathered, and the resemblance
between the two curves is evident. If the curve of (sub)theme 6 is added the conclusion is
that a connection of (sub)theme 6 with (sub)themes 2 and 8 might be possible, but,
according to chapter III, section VI, the similarity between these curves cannot be
considered to be absolute proof of a connection.

22
The algebraic equation of a straight line is y = ax + b (appendix III.3, section II) in which a gives the
angle of the curve with the horizontal axis. The a-values of the three lines are nearly equal (resp. 18.3,
18.4 and 24.5).
0
10
60
82
90
25
30
64
60
100
-50
0
50
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 10 FO (sub)theme 11
Linear (FO (sub)theme 10) Linear (FO (sub)theme 11)
linear sth 3 Figure IV.3:
Comparison of
(sub)themes 10
and 11.
88
83
22
0
60 60
64
22
0
43
57
36
0 0 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 2 FO (sub)theme 8 FO (sub)theme 6
Figure IV.4:
Comparison of
(sub)themes 2, 6
and 8.
sth 8
sth 2
sth 6
Chapter IV
79

8. In figure IV.6 the FO/period curves of (sub)themes 9, 10 and 11 are gathered. In figure
IV.3 a close connection between (sub)themes 10 and 11 can be deduced. However, in
figure IV.6, certainly during the first half of the Old Kingdom there is no indication of a
connection between (sub)theme 9 on the one hand and (sub)themes 10 and 11 on the
other. It is only beginning with V.M that a connection seems to exist between all three
(sub)themes.

9. Diagram IV.4.Vol.2 shows that the depiction of members of the family ((sub)theme 4)
increases sharply during the beginning of the 5
th
dynasty (period V.E), to remain
relatively stable during the rest of the Old Kingdom.
23

IV. Preliminary conclusions

1. (Sub)themes 3, 5 and 7 have a high FO (in table IV.1a.Vol.2, resp. 73%, 90% and 73%)
and it is probable that these (sub)themes were considered important on the western wall.
2. (Sub)themes 3, 10 and 11 are probably closely connected.
3. The FO/period diagrams of (sub)themes 5 and 7 (figure IV.5) are practically identical and
at the same time the only ones that are nearly horizontal. This indicates that the
importance of both (sub)themes did not change throughout the Old Kingdom. This
corroborates the possibility that these two (sub)themes serve a special purpose on the
western wall (but not automatically the same one).

23
Goedicke, Darstellungen, 61 infers that in the same period a similar development started in the royal
pyramid temples.
90
100
73
100
83
75
91
64
60
78
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 5 FO(sub)theme 7
Linear (FO (sub)theme 5) Linear (FO(sub)theme 7)
sth 7
sth 5 Figure IV.5:
Comparison of
(sub)themes 5
and 7.
0
10
60
82
90
25
30
64
60
100
75
50
40
70
78
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 10 FO (sub)theme 11 FO (sub)theme 9
sth 9
sth 10
sth 11
Figure IV.6.
Comparison of
(sub)themes 9, 10
and 11
Chapter IV
80
4. (Sub)themes 5 (servants bringing offerings; plate IV.4) and 6 (personified estates, plate
IV.9) both depict the bringing of goods to the tomb owner, it is evident that they are
placed on the western wall for different purposes, because (sub)theme 6 gets into disuse
relatively early in the Old Kingdom while (sub)theme 5 remains placed on the western
wall throughout the whole period.
5. The FO/period diagrams of (sub)themes 9, 10 and 11 (resp. the butchery scene, piles of
food and the non-ideographic offering list, figure IV.6).
24

a. The curves of (sub)themes 10 and 11 show some resemblance (see figure IV.3).
b. The curve of (sub)theme 9 shows a resemblance with the curves of (sub)themes
10 and 11 only from V.M on.
c. Chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 shows that each of the three (sub)themes 9, 10
and 11 is introduced in a different period.
d. A possible explanation might be that (sub)theme 9 served a certain purpose on
the western wall until in V.M a change in the purpose of the cult made the
introduction of first (sub)theme 11 and later (sub)theme 10 necessary. After this
(sub)theme 9 adapted to the new type of cult in the chapel, and formed a
connection with the two other (sub)themes. This association is plausible because
all three were from then on connected with a new kind of supply of food for the
ka of the tomb owner.
6. (Sub)theme 6 disappears from the repertoire around the middle of V.E. In the same
period also the frequency of (sub)themes 2 and 8 diminishes strongly, although these two
return in period VI (figure IV.4). Probably (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 as a group form a
scene from the daily life of the tomb owner showing his responsibility in managing his
estates, at the same time stating their names and products.
25

7. (Sub)theme 1 first appears on the western wall at the very end of the period V.E and its
last placement is early in the period V.L (chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2). This means
that possibly the (sub)theme has been introduced for a special purpose, which, due to
other developments in the chapel, lost its significance after only a short use life.
8. It is evident that the end of the period V.M plays a key role in several changes that occur
on the western wall.

24
Harpur, DETOK, 57 specifies that the butchery scene appears on the western wall after V.6, which is
contradicted by the chronological development shown in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2.
25
Helck concludes that the produce of an estate could be brought to the tomb owner during his life time,
because it was in his possession while he was still alive. This means that it is not obligatory to interpret the
depiction of personified estates carrying produce to the tomb owner as the bringing of offerings for the cult
of the deceased. (Helck, Grabbesitz, 71). The biography of Methen (PM, III, 193-4) mentions estates that
have been founded on his behalf (SrtmTn), and also there is mention of the gift of a mortuary offering of
100 loaves per day (Breasted, Ancient records, 76-9). The fact that the gift of the 100 loaves is mentioned
as a mortuary offering and the estates are not, might indicate that the latter are meant for the benefit of the
tomb owner during his lifetime. Goedicke, Darstellungen, 58 details that the estates depicted in the chapels
of Rahotep and Nefermaet at Maidum sind direkt im Irdische gebunden, d.h. als einfache Landleuten
gefasst. Van Walsem, Pragmatics, 126 calls these scenes stylised forms of selected real aspects of the
ideal elite life.
Chapter V
81
Chapter V

The co-occurrence of (sub)themes on the western wall.

Two (sub)themes can occur at the same time on the western wall, which is called co-occurrence. This can
be divided into their being together either on the western wall as a whole or on the same section of that
wall. In this chapter only co-occurrences on the western wall as a whole are investigated. The degree of
coexistence of two (sub)themes is expressed as co-occurrence percentage (CP), from which eventually
the CPSD values of the interactions are calculated (see chapter III, section III.1.3).

I. Considerations concerning the co-occurrence of the (sub)themes.

When two (sub)themes are placed on the same wall of the chapel (co-occurrence), it can be
interpreted as an indication of a association between them.
1

A first stage of the research project is to examine the co-occurrence of the (sub)themes on the
western wall without considering the wall section on which those coinciding (sub)themes are
placed; this is followed by an investigation into the co-occurrence of (sub)themes, this time
taking into account the location of the wall section on which they appear (see chapter VI).

An important consideration is that the number of co-occurrences is determined by the number of
times each of the (sub)themes occurs. The maximum number of co-occurrences between two
(sub)themes is thus determined by the (sub)theme with the lowest number of occurrences. From
the maximum and real number of co-occurrences the co-occurrence percentage (CP) can be
calculated.

II. The determination of the CP of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

The FO values of the (sub)themes given in table IV.1a.Vol.2 are ordered according to increasing
value. The result is compiled in figure V.1.

(Sub)theme 1 6 8 4 2 11 10 9 3 7 5
FO value 14 20 38 50 53 57 56 62 73 73 90
no. occurrences 5 8 15 20 25 24 25 29 33 33 52

In these figures the following discrepancies are evident:

1. A comparison between the FO values and the number of occurrences reveals that they are
directly proportional, although small discrepancies between the order of the FO values
and the number of occurrences may occur (marked in grey). These are caused by the fact
that the FO is calculated from the result of two direct measurements (number of
occurrences (x) versus the number of co-occurrences (x + -)), while the number of
occurrences is a direct measurement. The consequence is that the latter determines the
order of the (sub)themes, because it is the most direct value of the two.
2. In figure V.1 (sub)themes 3 and 7 have the same number of occurrences, and the same
FO value, in which case the order of the (sub)themes is unimportant.

1
The difference between the co-occurrence of two (sub)themes and a association between them is that the
co-occurrence is the observation on the wall and the association is a (hypothetical) conclusion from that
observation.
Figure V.1: Ordering of FO values according to increasing value.
Chapter V
82

This (sub)theme order is introduced into a table in a horizontal and a vertical direction (figure
V.2). From chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 the CP values of all possible combinations of
(sub)themes are determined and compiled in figure V.2.
2

As discussed in chapter III, it is possible that the (sub)themes were placed on the wall with
considerations given to their location, their content and the (sub)themes surrounding them,
because

Figure V.2: CP values of the (sub)theme interactions in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2.

Figure V.3: The CPSD values of the (sub)theme interactions in chronological ordering
IV.1.Vol.2.

2
Of (sub)themes 3 and 7 both the FO value and the number of occurrences are identical, as a consequence
the order of the (sub)themes can be either 9-3-7-5 or 9-7-3-5. This will have an influence on the CPSD
values that can be calculated from these CP values. Because the proper order cannot be determined with
either the FO value or the number of occurrences an other criterion, the mean FO/period of the (sub)themes
can be used. This criterion determines that the order is 9-3-7-5 and not 9-7-3-5.
FO value. 14 20 38 50 53 57 56 62 73 73 90
no. occurrences 5 8 15 20 25 24 25 29 33 33 51
(sub)theme 1 6 8 4 2 11 10 9 3 7 5

1 - --- 40 20 0 20 60 40 40 60 100
6 - 50 13 100 13 --- 38 0 63 88
8 - 33 80 7 13 33 20 67 87
4 - 35 50 50 55 75 60 85
2 - 8 12 44 24 64 84
11 - 63 50 83 54 71
10 - 60 80 56 88
9 - 59 55 93
3 - 61 82
7 - 88
5 -
FO value. 14 20 38 50 53 57 56 62 73 73 90
no. occurrences 5 8 15 20 25 24 25 29 33 33 51
(sub)theme 1 6 8 4 2 11 10 9 3 7 5

1 - --- 0.6 - 0.5 - 0.8 - 0.5 1.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 1.3
6 - 1.4 - 0.9 2.1 - 0.7 --- 0.4 - 2.0 0.1 0.7
8 - - 0.6 1.2 - 1.2 - 1.1 - 0.1 - 1.1 0.2 1.0
4 - 0.0 0.7 1.0 0.9 1.4 - 0.1 0.9
2 - - 1.4 -1.6 - 0.3 - 2.0 - 0.1 1.2
11 - 1.1 - 0.1 1.5 - 0.7 0.1
10 - - 0.5 1.5 -1.0 1.2
9 - - 0.3 - 1.2 1.3
3 - - 0.8 0.4
7 - ---
5 -
Chapter V
83

1. they were part of a group of (sub)themes forming a scene.
2. It is possible that (sub)themes were not placed together, because it was unacceptable to
depict them on the same wall (perhaps for cultic reasons, perhaps for the prosaic reason
that the (sub)themes were considered to be too large to be placed together).

These possible associations or dissociations between (sub)themes appear as CP values that differ
markedly from the CP values that surround them. The degree of this difference is determined by
calculating its CPSD value in the surrounding field (see appendices III.1 and III.2). These CPSD
values are compiled in figure V.3.

Combinations that cannot be calculated because of an absent overlap over time are indicated in
the matrix as ---. The CPSD values incorporated in the table can either be positive, indicating
various degrees of association between the (sub)themes, or negative, which means a degree of
dissociation (figure III.11).

III. Conclusions about the co-occurrences on the western wall.

1. (Sub)theme 5 (offering bearers) has a positive interaction with all other (sub)themes. A
possible interpretation is that the (sub)theme has no specific cultic content and can be
combined with any (sub)theme. This might indicate that the (sub)theme has a unifying
function. It is placed on those sections of the wall where a larger (sub)theme has left
space to be filled, thus unifying (sub)themes.
3

2. As already mentioned in chapter IV, section IV, point 6, (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 (tomb
owner with family, personified estates and scribes) probably form a group and that
preliminary conclusion is corroborated by the high CPSD value of the interaction
between (sub)themes 2 and 6 (CPSD = 2.1) and (sub)themes 2 and 8 (CPSD = 1.2).
Furthermore, the CPSD value of the interaction between (sub)themes 6 and 8 (CPSD =
1.4) is high and positive, which indicates that they are regularly together, and at the same
time connected with the main (sub)theme 2, which might be an indication that they really
form a group.
3. Between (sub)themes 4 (members of the family) and 6 (personified estates) the CPSD
value (CPSD = 0.9) indicates an dissociation, while the CPSD value of the interaction
of (sub)themes 2 (tomb owner with family) and 6 (CPSD = 2.1) indicates a association.
Hence, one may conclude, that the personified estates brought their goods to the tomb
owner, and not to members of his family.
4

3
This should not be interpreted as the result of a mistake or an oversight of the designer of the layout of the
decoration of the western wall. The designer was well aware which (sub)themes had to be placed on the
wall, but some of them were considered less important. Although less important, they were nonetheless
indispensable and they had to be incorporated in the total design. This required (sub)themes that could be
placed next to and between (nearly) all other (sub)themes, a trait which, in this research project, is called a
unifying function. However, the utilization of these (sub)themes is not due to a horror vacui, but to a
strong wish to place them on the western wall, although they were not of prime importance. These
(sub)themes were necessary on the western wall, but, because there were no rules concerning place and/or
number, the number of offering bearers and priests could fluctuate, the pile of food could be made small or
large when and where needed; consequently these (sub)themes with a unifying function were extremely
versatile.
4
The statement of W. Helck Bereits am Ende der 3. Dyn. verbindet man die Verwaltung eines Gutes mit
dem Zweck, einen hohen Beamten mit zustzlichen Einknften auszustatten, and Eins oder mehrere
dieser Gter bzw. Drfer konnte der Beamte fr seinen Totenkult beiseite setzen, (L, I, 1117-20, s.v.
Domnen) indicates that two basic interpretations of the personified estates of (sub)theme 6 are possible.
Chapter V
84
4. (Sub)themes 2 (tomb owner with family) and 3 (tomb owner at the offering table) avoid
each other strongly (CPSD = 2.0). This can be interpreted as signifying that as prime
(sub)themes they have opposite cultic characters.
5

5. The interaction between (sub)themes 3 (tomb owner at offering table) and 6 (personified
estates) (CPSD = 2.0) and 3 with 8 (scribes) (CPSD = 1.1) indicates that (sub)theme
3, considered to be the main cultic depiction on the western wall, avoids (sub)themes 6
and 8, which have a association with (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family). This
corroborates the hypothesis that (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 form a group.
6. The interaction between (sub)themes 7 (priests) and 2 (CPSD = 0.1) and between 7 and
3 (CPSD = 0.8) might indicate that the priests are not directly connected with the tomb
owner at the offering table, but the CPSD values of these two interactions are not high
enough to validate reliable conclusions.
6

7. (Sub)theme 1 (tomb owner alone) does not interact with (sub)theme 3 (CPSD = 0.0) and
has an dissociation with (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family) (CPSD = 0.8) which
might indicate that the role of this (sub)theme is not directly aimed at the cult itself.
8. (Sub)theme 4 (members of the family), which is not an attribute of (sub)theme 2 or 3, has
no interaction with (sub)theme 2 (CPSD = 0.0) and a strong interaction with (sub)theme 3
(CPSD = 1.4).
9. The relatively small overlap in time of (sub)themes 2 and 11 (non-ideographic offering
list) in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 explains their apparent dissociation (CPSD =
1.4).
10. At this stage of the research project the association between (sub)themes 1 (tomb owner
alone) and 10 (piles of food offerings) (CPSD = 1.6) cannot be explained.

On the one hand, it could be that it has a cultic character, because the estates brought their products for the
offerings during the cult for the tomb owner; on the other hand it could be that it is part of a scene from the
daily life of the tomb owner. The conclusion that the personified estates bring their goods to the tomb
owner and not to the family allows for both interpretations. However, if (sub)theme 6 depicts, in a
personified form, the estates and villages from which the offerings for the cult for the deceased are brought
to the chapel, it is of major importance for the function of the cult chapel, and, consequently, it would have
a cultic character. But its complete disappearance early in the 5
th
dynasty makes the afore said highly
unlikely, which would indicate that the character of the (sub)theme is non-cultic and that the group depicts
a scene from the daily (and professional) life of the tomb owner.
5
This strong dissociation of (sub)themes 2 and 3 is not due to a poor overlap in time (see chronological
ordering IV.1.Vol.2). The opposite cultic characters are that (sub)theme 2 is the main theme of a scene
from the daily life of the tomb owner, thus showing the tomb owner while still alive, and (sub)theme 3
shows the tomb owner reacting to the offerings, thus as a deceased person. For the distinction between the
terms cultic and cultic character, see Technical terms and abbreviations.
6
At a later stage of the research project, the result of a different method (see chapter VI) indicates that the
priests of (sub)theme 7 are only connected with the offering table scene and not at all with the tomb owner
and/or his family as depicted in (sub)theme 2.
Chapter VI
85
Chapter VI

The locations of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

The co-occurrence of (sub)themes on the western wall can also be studied by taking into account the place of the
(sub)theme on the wall. On the western wall three wall sections are distinguished for the purpose of determining
the location of the (sub)themes. This allows the calculation of the FO/period values for a (sub)theme for a certain
wall section. Once the location of the (sub)themes has been determined, it is possible to describe their preference
for
1. particular wall sections.
2. the formation of combinations.
The chronology of the relation of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3 to the wall sections they are placed on shows that a
direct connection exists between their location on the western wall and their function. The initial placement of
(sub)theme 3 on the southern wall has also been taken into account.

I. Considerations concerning the location of the (sub)themes on the western wall.

In order to describe the location of the (sub)themes on the western wall it is necessary

1. to compile the various types of western wall layouts during the period under study.
2. to determine the division of the western wall into wall sections.
3. to number the wall sections in such a way that continuity in designation is maintained.

Not all of the 64 tombs that were originally included in the study of the type of (sub)themes on the
western wall (catalogue IV.1/3.Vol.2.), are appropriate for the study of the location of the (sub)themes
on that wall.
1
The following tombs are removed from the catalogue:

1. The tomb of Shepseskafaankh (PM, III
1
, 175). The western wall was unfinished in a way that
makes it impossible to determine the place of the false door(s) and the location of the
decoration on the wall.
2. Tomb G 7560 (PM, III
1
, 200). The available information is insufficient to determine on what
part of the western wall the (sub)themes were placed.
2

3. The tomb of Zaty (PM, III
1
, 204-5). The excavation of this tomb has not been published, and
although Harpur, DETOK, 385, plan 15 gives some information about the (sub)themes placed
on this wall, insufficient information is given about their location thereon.
3

Thus the number of tombs for this part of the research project is reduced to 61 (see table VI.1.Vol.2).

The plans of the western walls of these 61 tombs are catalogued and the different types of layout of the
walls are determined. The result is that in Giza only 5 basic forms of western wall layout can be
distinguished throughout the Old Kingdom (figure VI.1).

1
This is partly due to poor publication of the decoration of the tomb, partly because the location of the false
door(s) is unknown (the false door has been lost or it was never placed against the western wall), making the
division into wall sections impossible.
2
Reisner, Giza I, 322, footnote 1.
3
The Giza Archives Project (www.gizapyramids.org) gives more information, but also there not with enough
certainty.
Chapter VI
86

Type A Type B-1

Type B-2 Type C

Type D

For the proposed types of western wall layout a division into wall sections has been made whereby
equivalent wall sections are assigned the same number.
4

In order to compile the placements of the (sub)themes, the dots in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2
are replaced by the numbers of the wall section on which the various (sub)themes are placed, resulting
in table VI.1.Vol.2.

II. The location of the (sub)themes on the wall sections.

II.1. The placements.

Some of the (sub)themes have multiple placements on several wall sections, this is called a
combination.
5

4
In types A, C and D the demarcation lines are determined by the false doors. In types B-1 and B-2 one of the
demarcation lines depends on the false door, but the other depends on the placement of the (sub)themes on the
remaining surface of the wall. The choice of the demarcation line is not based on the surface of the two sections
thus formed.
5
For the term combination see table technical terms and abbreviation.
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3
Serekh-
type false
door
Figure VI.1: The basic types of
western wall layout.
Chapter VI
87
3
4
3
4 4
3
5
6
5
6
0
5
10
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
single placements/tomb/period total placements Poly. (total placements)
total placements
Figure VI.2: The chronological
development of placements.
single placements

II.1.1. The single and total placements.

In table VI.1.Vol.2 the total placements and the single placements per period are counted and divided
by the number of tombs in that period.
6
The calculated values are compiled in figure VI.2 which shows
that the use of single placements remained the same throughout the whole Old Kingdom. The curve of
the total numbers of placements is identical with the chronological development of the number of
(sub)themes as given in figure IV.1.

The curve of the total placements is best fitted with a polynomial, while the curve of the single
placements can be considered to be a horizontal straight line.

II.1.2. The combinations.

In table VI.1.Vol.2 the combinations are counted for each period.
7
The number of combinations per
period is divided by the number of tombs in that period.
8
The chronological development is given in
figure VI.3a, and this shows that after a strong increase until the end of the period V.M, the number of
combinations remains practically unchanged until the end of the Old Kingdom.

.

The conclusion from the curves in figures VI.2 and VI.3a is that only the employment of combinations
increased strongly until the period V.M (figure VI.3a), because in that same period the number of

6
Combinations are not counted for the determination of the single placements. For the total placements the
combinations are counted as the number of placements they contain.
7
Both double and triple combinations are accepted in the count, both types are counted as one combination.
8
The percentages are rounded up/down to figures with one decimal according to the rules described in chapter
III, section III.1.2.

0,1
0,8
1,3
0,7
1
0
1
2
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
combinations Poly. (combinations)
Figure VI.3a: The chronological development
of the number of combinations.
Chapter VI
88
single placements did not change (figure VI.2). After an initial increase the same is true for the
number of (sub)themes placed on the western wall (figure IV.1).

A possible explanation of this development could be a tendency to increase the quantity of decoration
on the western wall without increasing the number of (sub)themes.
9

A more likely reason might be the fact that most of the combinations were due to the utilization of
(sub)themes 5 (offering bearers) and 7 (priests), with the later introduction of (sub)theme 10; the three
(sub)themes possibly having a unifying function (figure VI.4).
10

The employment of the combinations of these (sub)themes is calculated per period (figures VI.3b,
VI.3c, and VI.3d), and as a comparison for every (sub)theme the FO/period values have been added
(determined from table VI.1.Vol.2).
11
Only for (sub)theme 10 (piles of food) is there a resemblance in
the two developments.
It is evident that throughout the Old Kingdom (sub)theme 5 has been placed on the western wall at a
relatively constant frequency and that the introduction of repeated (sub)themes started early in the 5
th

dynasty.
From figures VI.3b and VI.3c it can be inferred that the formation of combinations utilizing
(sub)themes with a possible unifying function was increasingly employed from the start of the 5
th

dynasty on, yet the introduction and chronological development of combinations was different for the
three (sub)themes that might have a unifying function. At the end of the period V.M the percentage of
combinations reached its maximum value for all three (sub)themes.

The number of combinations shows an increasing tendency for all three (sub)themes until the period
V.L. From then on the number of combinations remains stable for (sub)themes 5 and 10, while for
(sub)theme 7 its repeated appearance begins to decrease. This would infer that (sub)theme 7 has a
different character than the two other unifying (sub)themes, and that after the period V.M a unifying
(sub)theme with this type of character was no longer necessary on the western wall.

9
However, this implies that the western wall of chapels dated to the period IV V.E would only be partly or
sparsely decorated. Of the tombs in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 with a complete western wall belonging to
this period, the decoration of the western wall is gathered from the available literature. From this it can be
inferred that from the start of the 4
th
dynasty on at least the western wall was completely filled with decoration.
10
For the term unifying function, see table technical terms and abbreviations.
11
The FO/period is calculated from table VI.1.Vol.2 by counting the number of placements (combinations are
considered as one placement) and dividing this number by the number of tombs. The values of combinations
(sub)theme X are calculated by determining in table VI.1.Vol.2 for every period the number of tombs with
placements (single or combinations) of (sub)theme X and calculating the percentage of tombs with
combinations.
80
92
67
92
71
0
42
50
27
60
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth 5 comb, (sub)theme 5 Poly. (comb, (sub)theme 5)
combinations
(sub)theme 5
Figure VI.3b.
FO/period sth 5
Chapter VI
89

(sub)theme total placements combinations %
double triple
1 5 0 0
2 24 3 13
3 32 4 13
4 20 3 15
5 49 16 2 37
6 7 0 0
7 32 4 2 19
8 14 2 14
9 28 2 7
10 24 6 2 33
11 23 3 13
total 258 49
30
69
58
50 50
0
11
57
17
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 7 combinations (sub)theme 7
Figure VI.3c.
FO/period sth 7
combinations
(sub)theme 7
Figure VI.4: Percentage
of combinations in the
total of placements/
(sub)theme.

Figure VI.3b, c, d: The chronological development of the percentage of combinations of
(sub)themes 5, 7 and 10.
0 0
50
75
64
0 0
33 33 33
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 10 combinations (sub)theme 10
FO/period sth 10
combinations
(sub)theme 10
Figure VI.3d.
Chapter VI
90
In table VI.1.Vol.2 for each (sub)theme the total number of occurrences over the whole period of the
Old Kingdom is counted and the number of combinations is calculated as a percentage of that total
(see figure VI.4).
12

(Sub)themes 5 (offering bearers), 7 (priests) and 10 (piles of food) have a relatively high percentage of
combinations (resp. 37%, 19% and 33%) and furthermore the 6 triple combinations occur with these
three (sub)themes. These high percentages might be an indication that these (sub)themes have a
unifying function, of which that of (sub)theme 7, having the lowest percentage, is the less
pronounced.
13

II.2. The spread of the placements over the wall sections.

In table VI.1.Vol.2 the total number of placements is counted.
14
The spread over the wall sections is
calculated as a percentage of the total placements (313) (figure VI.5). The result is for wall section 1 =
27%, wall section 2 = 51% and wall section 3 = 22%, indicating that there is a strong preference for
wall section 2.
The spread over the wall sections is also calculated for each of the (sub)themes.

The preference for wall section 2 is obvious for all of the (sub)themes, the only exception being
(sub)theme 1.

1. The preference of (sub)theme 1 for wall section 3 will be discussed in connection with its
possibly signalling/identifying function on this wall section.
2. In order to determine whether the late introduction of (sub)theme 10 influences the validity of
the comparison of the percentages of (sub)themes 5, 7 and 10 in figure VI.5, the percentages
of these three (sub)themes are calculated from the introduction of (sub)theme 10 on (195
placements): the corrected percentages become resp. 21%, 11% and 17%, showing that the
much stronger tendency of (sub)themes 5 and 10 to be (sub)themes with a unifying function
remains the same.

12
Combinations are counted as one placement.
13
As already mentioned for (sub)theme 5 in chapter V (section III, point 2).
14
Multiple placements (combinations) are counted as the number of placements they contain (e.g. the
combination 1.2.3 is counted as 3 placements).
(sub)theme no.
placements
% of grand
total
ws 1 ws 2 ws 3 %
ws 1
%
ws 2
%
ws 3

1 5 1.6 0 0 5 0 0 100
2 27 8.6 7 13 7 26 48 26
3 36 11.5 9 20 7 25 56 19
4 23 7.3 5 11 7 22 48 30
5 69 22.0 23 28 18 33 41 26
6 7 2.2 2 5 0 29 71 0
7 40 12.8 15 16 9 38 40 22
8 16 5.1 4 12 0 25 75 0
9 30 9.6 9 19 2 30 63 7
10 34 10.9 9 18 7 26 53 21
11 26 8.3 3 17 6 12 65 23

subtotal 99.9 86 159 68
percentage 27 51 22
grand total 313 313
Figure VI.5: The
preference of (sub)themes
for specific wall sections.
Chapter VI
91

III. The chronological development of the employment of the main (sub)themes on the wall sections.

As already discussed, (sub)themes 2 and 3 are considered to be the most important (sub)themes on the
western wall, and their presence or absence over time on its various wall sections has to be taken into
consideration.
15

III.1. (Sub)theme 2 (the tomb owner in physical contact with family).

Figure VI.5 shows that the (sub)theme is present on all three wall sections, and the curves in figures
VI.6 and VI.7 represent the chronological development of this presence.
16

The (sub)theme falls into disuse on wall section 3 during V.E and from V.M it has nearly completely
disappeared from both wall sections 2 and 3.
Interestingly, the curves in the diagram show that in period IV.L - V.E (sub)theme 2 shifts southward
from wall section 3 to wall section 2, after which period it increasingly falls into disuse.

Figure VI.7 shows that (sub)theme 2 is hardly ever placed on wall section 1, and it is also evident that
its frequency of placement on that wall section shows little change over time.

The conclusion is that

1. in the course of time (sub)theme 2 is transferred from wall section 3 to wall section 2, but that
it is hardly ever placed further south, on wall section 1.
2. after the period V.M (sub)theme 2 disappears from the western wall until at the start of the 6
th

dynasty (sub)theme 2 returned on the western wall, but this time with a slight preference for
wall section 1.

15
The percentages per period are calculated in the following way: 100 x number of placements on wall section
/ total number of tombs (this value is closely connected to the FO value). By calculating it in this way the
popularity of the wall section for that particular (sub)theme during that period has been taken into account. If
e.g. in period X wall section 2 is used 3 times for a (sub)theme and in period Y also 3 times, the use (popularity)
appears identical. However, period X comprises 5 tombs and period Y 20 tombs and this means that in period Y
wall section 2 is less popular for the (sub)theme (for period X: 100 x 3/5 = 60% and for period Y: 100 x 3/20 =
15%). The described way of calculation takes this difference in popularity into account.
16
The abbreviation ws stands for wall section, and sth for (sub)theme.
20
62
8
0
14
40
8
0
14
0 0
50
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
(sub)theme 2, wall section 2 (sub)theme 2, wall section 3
sth 2 on ws 3 sth 2 on ws 2
development of (sub)theme 2 on
wall sections 2 and 3.
Chapter VI
92

III.2. (Sub)theme 3 (the tomb owner at the offering table).

Figure VI.5 shows that the (sub)theme can be placed on all three wall sections, but with a strong
preference for wall section 2.

A study of the cult chapels of the seven tombs which have, according to table VI.1.Vol.2, (sub)theme
3 on wall section 3, proves that this placement is rare (figure VI.8).
17

17
In table VI.1.Vol.2 over the whole period 7 cult chapels have (sub)theme 3 on wall section 3. In 3 of these cult
chapels (the cult chapels of Seshemnufer [I] (PM, III
1
, 142-3), Merib (PM, III
1
,

71-2) and Kapunesut (PM, III
1
,
135), the (sub)theme is placed partly on wall section 3 and partly over the false door(s) (Junker, Giza II, 62ff)).
The cult chapel of Ankhmare (PM, III
1
,

206, plan XXXI) is problematic. In the rock-cut chapel G 7837/G 7843
(sub)theme 3 is north of the false door. The tomb has been constructed in two stages (Reisner, Giza I, 238), the
last stage being the part with the false door (G 7837). This means that originally (sub)theme 3 was on the
southern part of the western wall. In the chapel of Nufer [I] the persons at the offering table on wall section 3
are the parents of the deceased, and not the deceased himself. The conclusion is that only in the cult chapels of
Iasen and Idu (both 6
th
dynasty) is (sub)theme 3 really placed on wall section 3 of the western wall. This means
that the most important placement of the (sub)theme is always on a wall section other than 3. Furthermore, the
only two instances in which (sub)theme 3 is placed on wall section 3, it is not placed in front of the entrance of
the cult chapel.
20
62
8
0
14
20
0 0
29
8
0
50
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
sth 2 on ws 2 sth 2 on ws 1
10
15
42
50
43
0
15
8 8
21
0
25
50
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
sth 3 on ws 3
sth 3 on ws 2

Chapter VI
93

In figure VI.9 the chronological development of (sub)theme 3 on wall sections 1 and 2 has been
compared. It is evident that from V.E onward the presence of the (sub)theme on wall sections 1 and 2
develops in the same manner.
18

Figure VI.10 shows that during the period in which (sub)theme 2 prevails on wall section 2,
(sub)theme 3 is hardly ever present there. In period V.E (sub)theme 2 shifts from wall section 3 to 2
(figure VI.6), but in period V.M the placing of (sub)theme 3 on wall section 2 increases markedly at
the expense of (sub)theme 2.

III.3. (Sub)theme 1 (tomb owner alone, standing or sitting).

Its FO value in table IV.1a.Vol.2 (14%) indicates that it is not an important (sub)theme.
19
Diagram
IV.1.Vol.2. shows that the period during which it was popular enough to be chosen with an
appreciable frequency does not last long (V.E V.L). Yet its chronological development must be
considered important enough to warrant a further discussion.

18
The value for (sub)theme 3 on wall section 2 in period IV is highly unreliable because it is based on 1
placement.
19
It has the lowest FO value of the (sub)themes that eventually are admitted to the research project.
10
15
42
50
43
0 0
25 25
21
0
25
50
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Figure VI.9: The chronological development of (sub)theme 3 on wall sections 1 and 2.

sth 3 on ws 2
sth 3 on ws 1
10
15
42
50
43
20
62
8
0
14
0
25
50
75
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Figure VI.10: The chronological development of (sub)themes 2 and 3 on wall section 2.
sth 2 on ws 2
sth 3 on ws 2
Chapter VI
94
In table VI.1.Vol.2 the (sub)theme is represented 5 times and all the placements are on wall section 3.
In figure VI.12 the employment of (sub)themes on wall section 3 is given. The total lack of
resemblance between the curve of (sub)theme 1 and those of (sub)themes 30 and 60 (the tomb owner
alone on resp. the door jambs of the false door and the architrave of the false door) is evident from a
comparison of figure VI.11 and diagrams VIII.1.Vol.2 and VIII.13.Vol.2. This means that, although as
an effigy of the tomb owner they have a strong resemblance, their purpose on the western wall must
have been completely different.

IV. The interaction between (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3.

Figures VI.6 -10 enable some conclusions about the chronological development of the FO/period of
(sub)themes 1, 2 and 3 (the three (sub)themes depicting the tomb owner), and the determination of
their interaction(s). The curves have been compiled in figure VI.12. For (sub)theme 3 the frequency of
employment has also been calculated for wall section 2 (figure VI.8).
20

From figure VI.12 the following can be inferred:

1. In the period V.M the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 2 on the wall section 2 reaches
its minimum value. In the meantime (sub)theme 3 has nearly attained its maximum level on
that same wall section.
2. (Sub)theme 1, the depiction of the tomb owner alone, is introduced on wall section 3 in the
period V.E, and disappears at the end of V.L. This introduction might be the consequence of
an obligation to place a depiction of the tomb owner on wall section 3, because (sub)theme 2

20
The FO/period values have been calculated by taking the total number of placements (multiple placements are
counted as the number they contain) and dividing this by the number of tombs in the period.
40
8
0 0
14
0
8
17
0
20
62
8
0
14
10
15
42
50
43
17
0
50
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
'sub)theme 2, wall section 2 (sub)theme 3, wall section 2
sth 2, ws 3 sth 2, ws 2
sth 1, ws 3 sth 3, ws 2
Figure VI.12: The chronological development of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3 on various wall sections.
0
8
17 17
0 0
10
20
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
(sub)theme 1, ws 3 Poly. ((sub)theme 1, ws 3)
development of (sub)theme 1.
Chapter VI
95
is disappearing from this wall section. This might indicate that on wall section 3 (sub)theme 2
had a signalling/guiding role,
21
and that this function was important enough to place another
(sub)theme there to take over that role.
3. In figure VI.13 the decreasing tendency to choose (sub)theme 2 during the period V.E-V.L is
evident.
22

4. On wall section 3 the overall tendency is a decrease in frequency of employment of
(sub)themes 1 and 2 (figure VI.12).
23

It is evident that on wall section 2 the role of (sub)theme 2 is gradually taken over by (sub)theme 3.
However, this (sub)theme 3 is not newly designed for this purpose on this wall section:

1. Already at the start of period IV it is present on the southern wall of the chapel, and from the
middle of the period V.E it is employed simultaneously on the western and the southern walls
(tables VI.1.Vol.2 and VI.3.Vol.2). During the period V.L-VI (sub)theme 3 is no longer
placed on the southern wall (figure VI.13).
2. From early pharaonic times on (sub)theme 3 was dominant on the niche stones (figure I.13),
and later on the slab stelae and the panel of the true false door.
3. From the 1
st
dynasty on the (sub)theme has been found on cylinder seals placed next to the
food offerings laid down in the burial chamber.
24
The presence of these objects bearing this
particular scene proves that it already at this time played a role of the utmost importance and
that its presence was obligatory.

In table IV.1.Vol.2 tombs of which both the western and the southern wall are sufficiently conserved
to determine the presence or absence of (sub)themes 2, 3 and 11, are compiled in table VI.3.Vol.2.
25

From this table it is evident that with (sub)theme 2 placed on the western wall, (sub)theme 3 is
practically always on the southern wall of the cult chapel.
26

21
For these terms see the table technical terms and abbreviations.
22
The FO/period values are calculated from table VI.1.Vol.2 by determining the number of placements of
(sub)theme 2 per period and dividing this by the number of tombs in the period. Combinations are counted as the
number of placements they contain.
23
This is determined from table VI.1.Vol.2 by counting all the placements per period and calculating the
percentage taken up by wall section 3, the result being that the employment of wall section 3 does not change
throughout the Old Kingdom. From table VI.1.Vol.2 can be determined that after the disappearance of
(sub)themes 1 and 2 from that wall section no other (sub)themes are more preferred for it.
24
L, V, 1128-9, s.v. Speisetischszene; Emery, Archaic Egypt, plate 29.
25
Of the total of 34 tombs in table IV.1.Vol.2 which have a complete western wall, the tombs of Redi (Roth,
Gmast 6, 69 ff) and Nefer-khuwi (Roth, Gmast 6, 142) do not have (sub)themes 2 on the western wall or
(sub)theme 3 on the western or southern wall and are omitted from table VI.3.Vol.2. All the values in figure
VI.13 are determined in table VI.3.Vol.2.
26
In the tomb of Thenti (PM, III
1
,

141-2) (sub)theme 3 is placed on the northern wall (see Harpur, DETOK, 400
[54]).
Chapter VI
96

After the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family) starts to decrease,
(sub)theme 3 (offering table scene) is more and more placed on the western wall and less on the
southern wall (figure VI.13).
27

The conclusion from table VI.3.Vol.2 is that at the end of the period V.E (sub)theme 3 starts to be
transferred from the southern wall to the western wall of the cult chapel and that from the middle of
period V.M on (sub)theme 3 is no longer placed on the southern wall.

V. CP and SWS values.

From table VI.1.Vol.2 the CP and SWS values of the interactions are determined and are compiled in
table VI.2.Vol.2.
28
In this table the number of co-occurrences is given in brackets behind the CP value.

27
The same is concluded in Harpur, DETOK, 70-1.
28
The number of co-occurrences of multiple placements is determined according to the number of placements
they contain. This means that a co-occurrence between 1.2 and 1 is counted as 1-1 and 1-2 (see chapter III).
FO value. 14 18 36 50 50 57 62 53 73 73 87
no. occurrences 5 7 16 23 25 28 32 34 35 42 67
(sub)theme
1 6 8 4 2 11 9 10 3 7 5
1 - --- 40 20 0 20 60 80 40 100 160
6 - 57 14 100 0 29 --- 0 57 100
8 - 56 88 6 38 13 25 106 131
4 - 35 48 52 65 83 78 117
2 - 4 37 11 26 70 107
11 - 50 85 96 69 104
9 - 73 67 63 127
10 - 88 59 132
3 - 75 114
7 - 130
5 -
Figure VI.14: The CP values determined in table VI.1.Vol.2.
75
64
44
0 0 0
18
78
100 100
75
91
22
0
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 3, southern wall FO/period (sub)theme 3, western wall
sth 3, southern wall
sth 2, western wall sth 3, western wall
Figure VI.13: The chronological development of (sub)themes 2 and 3 on the western and southern wall.
Chapter VI
97
The CP values given in table VI.2.Vol.2 can be slightly different from those given in figure V.2,
because in the latter the multiple placements are taken as one (this is due to the fact that the co-
occurrences are determined in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 and there multiple placements are
not taken into consideration).

In figure VI.14 the determined CP values are compiled in such a way that the CPSD values can be
calculated from them (figure VI.15). The FO values as given in figures VI.14 and VI.15 are
determined in table IV.1a.Vol.2. The CP and SWS values from table VI.2.Vol.2 are plotted against
each other in figure VI.16. The points with a negative and a positive CPSD value (taken from figure
VI.15) are placed in the diagram with different symbols (see legend of figure VI.16).

Although some intermingling of points representing positive and negative CPSD values takes place, it
is evident that in the region defined by a CP value of 80 and a SWS value of 65, nearly all the points
with a negative CPSD value are included.
The three points with a SWS-value of 100 all have very low CP values (the three points being: 14/100,
6/100 and 4/100) and are based on only one co-occurrence (table VI.2.Vol.2), which invalidates them.

In the diagram of figure VI.16 the following is possible:

1. To determine the character of interactions with CPSD values which preclude interpretation (it
concerns values like CPSD = 0.0 or CPSD values close to this and interactions of which the
CPSD value cannot reliably be determined). This is the case with the interaction between
(sub)themes 5 and 7. In figure VI.15 a CPSD value of 0.9 is given, but because this value has
been calculated from only three CP values, it is unreliable. The location of the point in the
diagram of figure VI.16 on CP/SWS = 130/46 (52) makes it evident that the interaction is a
association.
2. To discuss interactions that have CPSD values which do not fit the area of the diagram in
which they are located.
a. In figure VI.16 in the region ostensibly reserved for points with a negative CPSD
value, five points have a positive CPSD value. These are the interactions compiled in
figure VI.17. According to their location in the diagram, they should be considered as
points with a negative CPSD value. In figure VI.17 the description of these
interactions makes it highly probable that they are in reality dissociations and not
associations.
b. In figure VI.16 one point, although located in the area of positive CPSD values, has a
negative CPSD value (CP/SWS = 100/29, CPSD = 0.3). This is the interaction
FO value.
14 18 36 50 50 57 62 53 73 73 87
no. occurrences 5 7 16 23 25 28 32 34 35 42 67
(sub)theme 1 6 8 4 2 11 9 10 3 7 5
1
- --- 0.4 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.4 0.8 1.4 - 0.4 0.5 1.5
6 - 1.1 - 1.0 1.8 - 1.1 - 0.1 --- - 1.4 - 0.5 - 0.3
8 - - 0.1 1.3 - 1.2 0.3 - 1.0 - 0.8 0.7 1.3
4
- - 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.2 0.9 - 0.1 0.7
2
- - 2.1 - 0.3 - 1.7 - 1.5 - 0.5 0.8
11 - 0.2 1.1 1.3 - 0.4 0.6
9 - - 0.2 - 0.6 - 1.0 1.2
10
- 1.8 -1.1 1.2
3
- - 0.9 0.4
7 - 0.9
5 -
Figure VI.15: The CPSD values determined in figure VI.14.
Chapter VI
98
between (sub)themes 5 (offering bearers) and 6 (personified estates). This interaction
can, without any difficulty, be considered as a association.

The result of these considerations is that it is primarily the location of the CP/SWS point in this type of
diagram that determines the character of the interaction between two (sub)themes and not the sign of
its CPSD value.
29

As already discussed there are three (sub)themes which might possibly have a unifying function. From
figure VI.15 it can be concluded that

1. (sub)theme 5 (offering bearers) has no specific preference for any (sub)theme, because all
(except one) of its interactions have positive CPSD values.
30

29
This result must be interpreted as a development of the method as proposed in chapter III, part V.1.2, this
development was necessitated by the results obtained in chapter VI. It shows that erroneous CPSD values and/or
signs can be corrected, thus giving the opportunity to determine, with a high degree of reliability, the character of
the interaction between two (sub)themes. As a consequence, the next step, the determination of the cultic
character of the various (sub)themes, can lead to the proposal of valid Egyptological conclusions based on
reliable data and arguments.
interaction interaction CP/SWS type

9 1 60/33 butchery tomb owner alone
9 8 38/50 butchery scribes
4 11 48/36 family offering list
4 9 52/33 family butchery scene
4 10 65/40 family piles of food offerings
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SWS
C
P
5 6, CP/SWS = 100/29
= CPSD 0

= CPSD < 0
Figure VI.16:
CP/SWS points
combined with the
sign of their CPSD
value.

X
Figure VI.17:
The interactions
with positive
CPSD values in
the negative area.
Chapter VI
99
2. In view of the number of negative interactions of (sub)theme 7 (priests), it is doubtful that it
has a unifying function.
3. If in table VI.1.Vol.2 for (sub)theme 10 (piles of food) the CP/SWS value of its interactions is
determined from the moment of its introduction on the western wall, the conclusion is that it
has a positive interaction with the other (sub)themes (but a strong negative interaction with
(sub)themes 2 (tomb owner with family) and 8 (scribes) when they re-appear during the 6
th

dynasty, and also with (sub)theme 7).

This unifying function will be further discussed in part IV of chapter VII.

VI. Preliminary conclusions.

1. The number of single placements does not change over time (figure VI.2), while that of the
combinations increases in the period IV-V.M; after that a (small) decrease sets in (figure
VI.3a).
2. (Sub)themes 5, 7 and 10 possibly have a unifying function, because they are (sub)themes
which are preferentially employed to form combinations (figure VI.4).
3. The unifying function of (sub)theme 5 (offering bearers) has no specific preference for any of
the (sub)themes, because all of its interactions have a positive CPSD value in figure VI.15 (the
only exception being the interaction between (sub)themes 5 and 6 (personified estates) with a
CPSD value of 0.3, but which must in reality be positive considering the place of its
CP/SWP point (100/29) in figure VI.16.
31

4. A possible unifying function has been proposed for (sub)theme 10 (piles of food), but with a
strong dissociation for (sub)themes 2 (CP/SWS = 11/33, CPSD = 1.7) and 8 (CP/SWS =
13/50, CPSD = 1.0).
32
The CP/SWS values of the interaction of (sub)theme 10 with
(sub)themes 7 (priests) (CP/SWS = 59/65, CPSD = 1.1) and 9 (the butchery scene) (CP/SWS
= 73/64, CPSD = 0.2) are situated in the transitional area between association and
dissociation (figure VI.16).
33
The conclusion is that the probable unifying function of
(sub)theme 10 is restricted to certain (sub)themes.
5. The transfer of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family) from wall section 3 to wall section 2 in
period IVV.E (figure VI.6) caused the short-term introduction of (sub)theme 1 (tomb owner
alone) on wall section 3 (figure VI.12), and a likely conclusion is that the presence of a
(sub)theme depicting the tomb owner was, at least in that period, obligatory on wall section 3.
6. The gradual shift of (sub)theme 3 (offering table scene) from the southern wall to the western
wall and its subsequent fall into complete disuse on the former (figure VI.13 and table
VI.3.Vol.2) is closely connected with the start of a decrease in the frequency of employment
of (sub)theme 2 during the period V.M (figure VI.13).
7. Although the sign of a CPSD value of an interaction between two (sub)themes might indicate
a association or an dissociation, it is the location of the CP/SWS point in the CP/SWS diagram
that determines the character of the interaction.

30
In figure VI.15 the interaction of (sub)themes 5 and 6 has a negative CPSD value (CPSD = 0.3). From figure
VI.16 the location of the point of the interaction in the diagram (CP/SWS = 100/29) leads to the conclusion that
the interaction is in fact a association. This is in accordance with the other interactions of the (sub)theme. From
figure VI.15 it is evident that (sub)theme 7 is the least employed as a (sub)theme with a unifying function.
31
This interaction has CP/SWS values of 100/29 (table VI.2.Vol.2) and in figure VI.16 this CP/SWS point is
well within the area of positive CPSD values, so its position in the diagram indicates a association.
32
The CP/SWS values of these interactions are within the area of negative CPSD values. There is no interaction
with (sub)theme 6.
33
The interaction of (sub)themes 9 (butchery scene) and 10 (piles of food) has a CPSD value of 0.4 (CP/SWS
= 69/64), which is in the area where the signs of the CPSD values are transitional. The CPSD value of this
interaction is not high which makes a conclusion difficult. The interaction between (sub)themes 7 (priests) and
10 has a CPSD value of 1.2 (CP/SWS = 59/65), the CP/SWS places the point of the interaction in the
transitional area (figure VI.16), but in this case the CPSD value is high enough to make an dissociation likely.
Chapter VII
100
Chapter VII

The relation between the (sub)themes on the western wall .

The terms funerary, cultic and ritual are discussed and working definitions are proposed for them. In order
to describe the cultic character of the (sub)themes placed on the western wall, diverse types of cultic character
are defined, including the type non-cultic. The determination of the cultic character of a (sub)theme is based
on its interaction with the main (sub)themes 2 and 3 of which the cultic character has been defined previously.
The cultic character of all of the (sub)themes placed on the western wall is thus determined, together with its
chronological development. A final discussion of the unifying function of (sub)themes 5, 7 and 10 is given.

I. Preliminary considerations.
1

The cult chapel of a tomb is the place where offerings are deposited, an action that is repetitive, as is
clearly stated in the offering formula, thus making it a ritual. Apart from the false door, which is the
focus of the cult for the ka of the deceased, the decoration of the western wall, or at least part of it,
undoubtedly had a role in the cult too. Quite possibly, some of the (sub)themes placed on the western
wall had different cultic roles.
Scenes depicting a burial and/or the rites connected to it are extremely rare in the cult chapel itself, and
are never placed on its western wall (see also chapter I). The only tombs in which funerary activities
are depicted on the walls of the chapel are the ones of Ankhmare (PM, III, 206), where they are
placed on the northern wall, and Debhen (PM, III, 235-6; infra figure I.18), where they are placed on
the southern wall.

Because scenes depicting funerary activities are not intended for the daily sustenance of the deceased,
they are not being put on the western wall; as a consequence they are not significant for this research
project.

Van Walsem concludes that artefacts which are frequently found in a funerary context are not
automatically attributes with a funerary charge.
2
The same can be concluded for artefacts frequently
found in a clearly cultic surrounding.

As a working hypothesis a possible division of the cultic character of (sub)themes is proposed in
figure VII.1. This division is based on the purpose of the (sub)theme on the western wall.

This division is only partly identical to the one proposed by Van Walsem.
3
His division of the
(sub)themes is as follows:

1. Scenes from the daily life of the tomb owner.
2. Immaterial existence (divided into a. ideological and b. symbolic, religious).

Aldred proposes the following two types of (sub)themes in the chapel:
4

1. Scenes from daily life; an ideal everyday life spent on earth (type Ia cultic character) and
desired in the hereafter.
5
This statement that knows a nearly general acceptance in the
professional world has been called in question by Weeks.
6

1
The character of the (sub)themes on the walls of the cult chapel is multiple:
As proposed in the above working hypothesis, there is a distinction between the types I (cultic) (sub)themes and
II (non-cultic) (sub)themes (figure VII.1). In figure VII.3 type I is divided into types Ia and Ib, and type II in
types IIa and IIb. The (sub)themes directly connected with the cult for the ka of the deceased are of type I, and
the (sub)themes which are not indispensable for the cult itself, but which play a role in the total functioning of
the cult chapel, are of type II.
2
Van Walsem, Sense, 299.
3
Van Walsem, Interpretation, 1208-9.
4
Aldred, Art, 88 ff.
Chapter VII
101
2. The cult for the deceased (type Ib cultic character). The latter was necessary in order to
sustain the ka of the deceased and thus assure its continued life in the hereafter.

The proposition as given by Aldred appears to be contradicted by the results of this research project, in
which the existence of (sub)themes with a unifying function is introduced.

The proposed working hypothesis is based on the following considerations:

1. The basic argument is that if two (sub)themes avoid each other on the western wall of the
chapel, they have a different cultic character; if they have an association, their cultic character
is identical.

Figure VII.1: Preliminary definition of the character of (sub)themes.

2. Already in chapter V (section III, point 4) a distinction has been made between the cultic
character of (sub)themes 2 (the tomb owner in physical contact with family) and 3 (the tomb
owner at the offering table).
7
One of the basic arguments for this is the strong dissociation
between the two (sub)themes (table VI.2.Vol.2, CP/SWS = 26/0 (7), a value which places the
interaction deep in the dissociation area of figure VI.16. The FO values of (sub)themes 2 and 3
(in table IV.1a.Vol.2 resp. 53% and 73%) are high enough to indicate that both of them have
an important role on the western wall. Consequently, the interpretation of these two facts is
that they both are cultic in character, but that for each of them this cultic character is
different.
8
The division of cultic character type I into types Ia and Ib has been based on this
difference (see figure VII.3).

5
L, II, 856, s.v. Grabdekoration and L, II, 867, s.v. Grabrelief.
6
Weeks, Art, 59-60. His doubts are based on the problem of the emic/etic interpretation of the available
information
7
The difference between the two (sub)themes is that (sub)theme 3 is the main focal point of the care taken
here for those who live in the transcendental world of the hereafter (L, V, 1128-1133, s.v.
Speisetischszene), and thus functions as the main cultic hereafter (sub)theme. (Sub)theme 2 is the most
important depiction of the daily life of the tomb owner with his family, and thus the main here (sub)theme.
The fact that each of the (sub)themes could be placed on the western wall stresses the prime function of the
western wall, that of forming a connection between the hereafter and the here. Furthermore (sub)theme 2
(the main (sub)theme for the here) is the most important during the start of the Old Kingdom, a function that is
taken over by (sub)theme 3, the main hereafter (sub)theme. This indicates a change in the function of the
western wall. Possibly a change about the idea of the ka of the deceased actually living in the interior of the
burial chamber and the mastaba, using the false door as a connection between the here and the hereafter.
This is not the change as described by Allen (Allen, Non-royal afterlife, 9).
8
The term cultic character is introduced to describe the type of cultic role of the (sub)theme.
Connected to the
funeral
type I

cultic
type II

non-cultic
Not connected to
the funeral
cultic
Chapter VII
102
3. In chapters V and VI a possible unifying function has been deduced for (sub)themes 5, 7 and
10, a function which is non-cultic. The preliminary designation of type II has been given to
this type of character.
9

4. When (sub)theme 2 was placed on wall section 3 its function was a signalling/guiding one,
consequently its cultic character was of type II. After its shift to wall section 2 it acquired a
different cultic character, which changed from II to Ia (figure VII.4).
5. During a short period (sub)theme 1 (the tomb owner alone) was placed on the western wall
and there solely on wall section 3 (table VI.1.Vol.2). The ground-plan of the cult chapels with
this (sub)theme on the western wall, the location of the false door(s) and of (sub)theme 1 on
the western wall and the orientation of the tomb owner, are compiled in figure VII.2. It is
probable that (sub)theme 1, during its short period of employment, was placed on wall section
3 in order to be in front of the entrance, thus taking over the role of (sub)theme 2.
10
Its role
there might have been signalling/identifying and/or guiding,
11
indicating a cultic character of
type II.

9
A further division of this type is given in figure VII.3.
10
Weeks, Art, 74.
11
Decoration in the form of the standing tomb owner was placed at the entrance of the cult chapel (on the lintel,
architraves, drums and entrance thicknesses) (Harpur, DETOK, 307-14). In the necropolis of Giza in 78% of the
tombs mentioned (Harpur, DETOK, 307-8, table 4.7) the standing tomb owner was depicted on both sides of the
entrance, a depiction placed there throughout the whole Old Kingdom. Probably the function of this entrance
decoration was a signalling/identifying one; in that case the depiction on the entrance thicknesses was possibly
meant to invite the passer-by to enter into the cult chapel. The depiction of the standing tomb owner on the
western wall opposite the entrance was difficult to see for someone standing outside. As a consequence, it is
probable that this depiction neither identified (although his/her name was stated next to it) nor invited into the
chapel, but only reminded the visitor, by guiding him/her deeper into the chapel, either to recite the offering
formula in front of the false door or to place an offering there (a guiding function).

Figure VII.2: The ground-plan of the
cult chapels with (sub)theme 1 on the
western wall.
Legend:

= orientation (sub)theme 5
= location of (sub)theme 1
= orientation (sub)theme 1
= false door

Rawer [II] (G 5470,
PM, III
1
, 162-3)
Redi (G 2086, Roth,
Gmast 6, 70)

Kadua (PM, III
1
,
244-5)
Thenti (G 4920, PM,
III
1
, 141-2)
Sethu (G 4710, PM,
III
1
, 135-6)

N N N
N N
Chapter VII
103
In figure VII.3 a more precise description of the types of cultic character of (sub)themes, normally
placed on the western wall, has been given.

Figure VII.3: The description of the types of cultic character.
12

II. The cultic character of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3, and its chronological development.

(Sub)theme 1 = tomb owner sitting or standing alone.
(Sub)theme 2 = tomb owner in physical contact with members of the family.
(Sub)theme 3 = tomb owner at the offering table.

The chronological developments of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3, as already discussed in chapter VI, part III,
and the cultic character that can be allotted to them in the divers periods, is represented in figure
VII.4.
13
The increase in frequency of placement of (sub)theme 2 on wall section 2, was simultaneous
with a decrease of its employment on wall section 3 (figures VI.6 and VII.4), and a change in cultic
character from non-cultic type IIb to cultic type Ia.
14

12
In figures VII.1 and VII.3 a type II character is added to describe the behaviour of some (sub)themes. These
(sub)themes are considered not to be directly necessary for the cult itself, yet, the fact they are to be found within
the cultic surroundings of the western wall of the chapel gives them a role within the total setting of the cult.
Some of these (sub)themes are designated to have a unifying function, which does not mean that this (sub)theme
can be placed anywhere just to fill empty space. This type of (sub)theme is employed on account of its sense and
the surroundings in which it is going to be placed. In the description of the type Ia cultic character, the etic
theory that it is the representation of the after-life as the tomb owner hoped it to be (L, II, 856, s.v.
Grabdekoration) has been omitted, it has been added to the group with a cultic character because in the early
Old Kingdom it was the main (sub)theme on the western wall and thus must have played a role in the active cult.
13
In figure VII.4 the abbreviation sth stands for (sub)theme.
14
See also: L, I, 293-9, s.v. Anruf an Lebende and L, I, 815-21, s.v. Biographie, 815.
Not connected to the
funeral

Type I

cultic

Type II

non-cultic

Type Ia

Shows the way the
daily professional
and familial life of
the tomb owner has
been.
Type Ib

Shows the tomb owner
symbolically responding
to the sustenance for his
or her ka provided either
actually or magically.
Type IIa

(Sub)themes with
a unifying
function.

Type IIb

(Sub)themes with
a signalling,
guiding or inviting
function.

Chapter VII
104
This in turn brought about the introduction (or the transfer from another part of the cult chapel) of a
new (sub)theme, (sub)theme 1 (the tomb owner standing alone), on the section of the western wall
which was in front of the entrance of the chapel.
15

IV V.E V.M V.L VI

Figure VII.4: The cultic character of (sub)themes 1, 2 and 3 over time.
16

The explanation for the falling into disuse of (sub)theme 1 on wall section 3 must be sought in a
change in the cultic meaning of the chapel, which caused several alterations on the western wall, one
of them being a shift of (sub)theme 1 from wall section 3 possibly to the thicknesses of the entrance,
but a further study of this possible shift is beyond the scope of this research project.

During the period V.E/L V.M/E (sub)themes 2 and 3 could be chosen for wall section 2, but never
both at the same time (CP/SWS = 26/0 in table VI.2.Vol.2). If (sub)theme 2 is placed on wall section
2, (sub)theme 3 can only be found on the southern wall of the cult chapel (table VI.3.Vol.2).
Throughout the whole Old Kingdom (sub)themes 2 and 3 were occasionally placed together on the
western wall, but never on the same wall section (table VI.1.Vol.2).
A highly probable conclusion is that until V.M (sub)theme 2 was more adapted than (sub)theme 3 to
the then prevailing convictions concerning the cult.
17

15
Although the shift of (sub)theme 2 from wall section 3 to wall section 2 appears to bring about the nearly
simultaneous falling into disuse of (sub)theme 6 (personified estates), at this stage of the research project it
cannot (yet) be decided whether a direct connection exists between these two chronological developments.
16
The bars in this diagram only represent the period(s) with a higher frequency of employment of the
(sub)themes. The renewed introduction of (sub)themes 2 and 8 in the repertoire of the decoration of the western
wall during the 6
th
dynasty (see table VI.1.Vol.2) is discussed later in this chapter.
17
The preference for placing (sub)theme 3 either on the southern or on the western wall can be inferred from
Harpur, DETOK, 65-73 where the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 3 on the four walls of the L-shaped
cult chapels with one or two false doors has been given. The results are gathered in figure VII.5:

wall total tombs % sth 3 page wall total tombs % sth 3 page

EW 45 0% 65 WW 68 44% 70
SW 46 41% 68 NW 40 18% 73

Figure VII.5: Distribution of (sub)theme 3 over the walls.

cultic type Ia (fig. XI.7)
non-cultic type IIb
non-cultic type IIb
Sth 2 on wall section 2
cultic type Ib Sth 3 on wall section 2
no type definition Sth 3 on southern wall
Chapter VII
105
Figure VI.13 shows that a close connection exists between the decrease and increase in frequency of
employment of respectively (sub)themes 2 and 3.
If (sub)themes 2 and 3 were both chosen from the repertoire, and if, furthermore, it was decided to
place (sub)theme 2 on wall section 2, (sub)theme 3 was placed on the southern wall of the cult chapel.
However, from early V.M on, (sub)theme 3 was increasingly placed on section 2 of the western wall,
and at the same time it was less frequently placed on the southern wall.
18

This might have been the reason for the marked decrease in the choice of (sub)theme 2 on wall section
2 and its disappearance from the western wall altogether. At this stage of the research project it is not
possible to decide whether the change in location of (sub)theme 3 caused the strong decrease in the
employment of (sub)theme 2 or vice versa; nor is it possible to decide why these changes took place.
The possible close connection of (sub)theme 2 with (sub)themes 6 and 8 is corroborated by their
simultaneous decrease of placement on the western wall (figure IV.4).

III. Determination of the cultic character of the (sub)themes.
19

1. (Sub)theme 3 (tomb owner at the offering table).

This (sub)theme can be considered to be the main cultic (sub)theme of the cult chapel.
20
In the division
as proposed in figure VII.3, it has been assigned the cultic character of type Ib. The cultic character of
the other (sub)themes is determined by the nature of their interaction with this (sub)theme.

2. (Sub)theme 1 (tomb owner alone).
21

In (sub)theme 5 bearers are depicted while bringing offerings. The CP/SWS value of its interaction
with (sub)theme 1 is 160/25 (8) (table VI.2.Vol.2) and this indicates that, although the (sub)themes are
very often together on the western wall (due to the high FO value of 90% of (sub)theme 5) (table
IV.1.Vol.2)), they are hardly ever together on the same wall section. Clearly the tomb owner, if
depicted on wall section 3, has not been placed there with the primary cultic function of receiving food
offerings (exceptions being the western wall of the tomb of Kadua (PM, III, 244-5), but there the
tomb owner and the offering bearers are all directed to the northern false door (figure VII.2), and the
western wall of the tomb of Rawer [II] (PM, III, 162-3), and here the offering bearers are oriented
toward the tomb owner)). In spite of this one real exception, (sub)theme 1 is considered to of type IIb
cultic character.

The CP/SWS value of its interaction with (sub)theme 4 (members of the family) is 20/0 (1), and this
indicates that (sub)themes 1 and 4 together do not form a scene from the daily life of the tomb
owner.
22
The conclusion is that (sub)theme 1 has a character which is not directly connected to the cult
itself, and that it is probably meant to show the tomb owner as a living person in a signalling/marking
function or guiding visitors into the chapel; consequently its cultic character is of type IIb.

(the abbreviations EW, SW, WW, NW and sth stand for respectively: eastern wall, southern wall, western
wall, northern wall and (sub)theme). This figure shows that (sub)theme 3 is preferentially placed either on the
southern or on the western wall of the cult chapels.
18
Table VI.3.Vol.2.
19
All CP/SWS values mentioned are taken from table VI.2.Vol.2, and the CPSD values from figure VI.15.
20
L, VI, 711, s.v. Toter am Opfertisch points out that this (sub)theme is the most important in the cult chapel
On the western wall its importance increased gradually to reach its maximum in V.L and VI (figure VI.13).
21
Because the (sub)theme is included in the repertoire only for a short period, the number of co-occurrences with
other (sub)themes is small. This makes the interactions of (sub)theme 1 as given in table VI.2.Vol.2 unreliable.
22
Conclusions derived from the CP/SWS value of 20/0 are not reliable, because these values are based on only
one co-occurrence.
Chapter VII
106
3. (Sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family).

The interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 3 has a CP/SWS value of 26/0 (7), from which it is
feasible to conclude that the (sub)themes avoid each other strongly on the western wall, and if they are
together on that wall it is never on the same wall section.
Because it has already been concluded that (sub)theme 2 is the focal point of a group that forms a
scene out of the daily life of the tomb owner, its cultic character is of type Ia. The conclusion from the
above mentioned arguments is that (sub)theme 2

1. has a type IIb cultic character, when placed on wall section 3.
2. has a type Ia cultic character, when placed on wall section 2.

During the transition from V.E/L to V.M/E the frequency of employment of (sub)themes 2 and 8
decreased. (Sub)theme 6 had already fallen into disuse at the end of V.E/L (This might indicate an
association between (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8) (figure IV.4).

In figure VII.6 the CP/SWS and CPSD values of the interactions between the group of (sub)themes 2,
6 and 8 with (sub)theme 4 (members of the family) have been gathered.

The CP/SWS values of the interactions between (sub)themes 2 and 6 (100/57), (sub)themes 2 and 8
(88/71) and (sub)themes 6 and 8 (57/75) are, according to figure VI.16, all an association. The close
connection between these three (sub)themes corroborates the argument that (sub)theme 2 is the focal
(sub)theme of a scene, and judging from the subjects depicted, taken from the daily life of the tomb
owner.

(sub)theme 2
(tomb owner
with family)
(sub)theme 6
(personified
estates)

(sub)theme 8
(scribes)
CPSD =
1.8
CP/SWS =
100/57 (7)
CPSD =
1.3
CP/SWS =
88/71 (14)
CPSD = 1.1, CP/SWS = 57/75
(4)
Figure VII.6: Interaction of
(sub)themes 2, 3, 4 6 and 8.

CPSD =
1.0
CP/SWS =
14/100 (1)
CPSD = 0.1
CP/SWS =
56/44 (9)
(sub)theme 4
(members of the
family)
CPSD = 0.2, CP/SWS = 35/63 (8)
(sub)theme 3
(tomb owner at the
offering table)
CPSD = 0.9
CP/SWS =
83/37 (19)
Chapter VII
107

Proof for the group formation of (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 comes from the considerations as discussed in
chapter III, section VI.2. That these three (sub)themes form a group is shown in figures VII.6a, VII.6b
and VII.6c (values determined in table VI.1.Vol.2, the combinations being counted as the number of
placements they contain) where the FO/period values of (sub)theme 2, 6 and 8 are compared with the
CP/period values of the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 6 and between 2 and 8.
In figures VII.6b and VII.6c the adequate CP/period and FO/period diagrams are compared and the
diagrams resemble each other enough to conclude that the three (sub)themes form a group.

The CP/SWS values of the interactions between (sub)theme 4 and (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 (resp. 35/63
(8), 14/100 (1) and 56/44 (9)) indicate that (sub)theme 4 does not belong to the group of (sub)themes
Figure VII.6a-b-c: Interactions between (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 in connection with their CP curves.
88
83
22
0
60
57
36
0 0 0
60
64
22
0
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 2 FO/period (sub)theme 6 FO/period (sub)theme 8
sth 2
sth 6
sth 8
Figure VII.6a
88
83
22
0
60
57
36
0 0 0
100 100
0 0 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 2 FO/Period (sub)theme 6 CP/Period
sth 2
sth 6
CP/period 2 6 Figure VII.6b
CP 2 8
88
83
22
0
60
100
89
50
0
100
60
64
22
0
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 2 CP/Period FO/period (sub)theme 8
sth 2
sth 8
Figure VII.6c
Chapter VII
108
2, 6 and 8. The aberrant CP/SWS value of the interaction between (sub)themes 4 and 6 (14/100) is due
to a small overlap in time which results in only one co-occurrence.

(Sub)theme 5 has the highest FO value (90% in table IV.1a.Vol.2) and can be combined with any of
the (sub)themes (all interactions of (sub)theme 5 have a positive CPSD value).
23

If in table VI.1.Vol.2 the CP value of the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 5 on wall section 3 is
determined for period IV, the CP value is 0%. Consequently, if placed on wall section 3, no offering
bearers are present around (sub)theme 2, and apparently its role on that wall section is such that the
reception of food offerings is unnecessary or even unwanted. This supports the already proposed
hypothesis that on wall section 3 the cultic character of (sub)theme 2 is of type II (in figure VII.4
given as IIb).
However, from period V.E on (sub)theme 2 is placed on wall section 2 with an appreciable frequency
(figure VI.12), and the CP/SWS value of its interaction with (sub)theme 5 during period V.E becomes
144/38.
24
This indicates that the cultic character of (sub)theme 2 on wall section 3 differs from the its
cultic character on wall section 2.

If this is compared with the interaction of (sub)themes 3 and 5 for the period V.E with a CP/SWS
value of 175/57,
25
it could be concluded that during that period the cultic characters of (sub)themes 2
and 3 on wall section 2 were identical (type Ib), but this conclusion would be invalid because table
VI.2.Vol.2 shows that the unifying function of (sub)theme 5 has no specific preference for a certain
cultic character.
As already discussed, the original meaning of the western wall of the chapel was to form a connection
between the hereafter and the here. At first it was the depiction of the tomb owner with his family
that was placed there with this function and the pertaining type Ib cultic character. The moment this
function was gradually taken over by (sub)theme 3, it also adopted this cultic character.

(Sub)theme 2 falls into disuse at the transition from V.M to V.L, but is reinstated during the 6
th

dynasty. Possible reasons for this reinstatement are discussed in part V of this chapter.

The positive CPSD values and the CP/SWS values of the interactions between (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8
(in figure VII.6 marked in grey) show that the three (sub)themes can be placed on the same wall
section at the same time and that there is a strong probability that they form a group (a scene).

4. (Sub)theme 4 (members of the family).

The CP/SWS values of the interactions between (sub)themes 2 and 4 and also between (sub)themes 3
and 4 are determined for the different periods (figure VII.7).

In the period V.E -V.M, based on the SWS value of the interaction, an association exists between
(sub)themes 2 and 4 (SWS = 71%), while in the same period (sub)themes 3 and 4 have an dissociation
(SWS = 36%). The conclusion is that in the period V.E V.M (sub)theme 4 is of type Ia.
26

23
In figure VI.15 the only interaction with a negative CPSD value is the one between (sub)themes 5 and 6
(CPSD = 0.3). As already discussed, in figure VI.16 the location of the CP/SWS point of the interaction
(100/29) (7) indicates that their interaction is in reality an association.
24
This value is determined in table VI.1.Vol.2. in the normal way. There are in total 5 co-occurrences on the
same wall section and all of them are on wall section 2.
25
The SWS value is determined by 7 co-occurrences of which 4 are on the same wall section (2 on wall section 2
and 2 on wall section 3).
26
The number of co-occurrences of (sub)themes 3 and 4 is determined from table VI.1.Vol.2.
Chapter VII
109

IV V.E V.M V.L VI

In the period V.L-VI the CP/SWS value of 89/38 of the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 4
indicates a placement in the transitional area of the diagram in figure VI.16; therefore it is not possible
to decide on the type of cultic character during that period..

The SWS value of 20/0 of the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 4 in the period VI is based on
one co-occurrence, and thus unreliable, but might indicate a type Ia cultic character.
The tentative conclusion is that the cultic character of (sub)theme 4 is of type Ia..

5. (Sub)theme 5 (offering bearers).

The FO of this (sub)theme is high (90% in table IV.1a.Vol.2) and the interactions with all the other
(sub)themes have positive CPSD values and can be considered to be associations.
27

Other methods have provided additional evidence that the (sub)theme has a unifying function. This
means that the cultic character of (sub)theme 5 is of type IIa.

6. (Sub)theme 6 (personified estates).

This (sub)theme most likely forms a group with (sub)themes 2 and 8.
The interaction of (sub)theme 3 and 6 (type Ib) with CPSD = 1.4 and CP/SWS = 0/0 is a strong
dissociation.
The interaction with (sub)theme 2 is more complicated because the latter has more than one character.
During period IV (sub)theme 2 is of type IIb, the CP/SWS = 100/25 indicating an association, and a
cultic character of type IIb seems appropriate for (sub)theme 6; however, whenever (sub)theme 2 is on
wall section 3, (sub)theme 6 has no co-occurrence on the same wall section with it. The CP/SWS =
100/100 during period V.E also indicates an association. During this period the only SWS co-
occurrences that occur between the two (sub)themes take place on wall section 2.
The conclusion is that the cultic character of (sub)theme 6 is of type Ia, the same as the type of
(sub)theme 2 on wall section 2. This is logical because on wall section 2 (sub)theme 2 is the focal
(sub)theme of a group, but on wall section 3 it just has a signalling/guiding function, and cannot be
part of a group.

27
As already mentioned the only exception is the interaction between (sub)themes 5 and 6 (CPSD = 0.3,
figure VI.15). However the CP/SWS value of 100/29 (7) is marked in figure VI.16 and clearly indicates an
association between the two (sub)themes.
Ia / IIb Ia
Ia
(sub)theme 2

CP/SWS = 63/71

Ia Ia Ia Ia (sub)theme 4
Ib Ib Ib Ib (sub)theme 3
CP/SWS = 85/36

CP/SWS = 89/38

Figure VII.7: Determination of the cultic character of (sub)theme 4.
Ib
CP/SWS = 20/0

Chapter VII
110

7. (Sub)theme 7 (priests).

The possibility of (sub)theme 7 having a unifying function has already been mentioned. If the
CP/SWS value is determined for every period for the interactions of (sub)theme 7 with (sub)themes 2
and 3 figure VII.8 is obtained. The interactions of the (sub)theme indicate a cultic function of type Ib.
The problem is that in the period VI the CP/SWS is such (57/50 (4)) that an dissociation is indicated
(which would lead to a type Ia cultic character). However, this is refuted by the much higher CP/SWS
of 114/63 (8) of the interaction of (sub)themes 3 and 7 indicating a type Ib cultic character during
period VI.

IV V.E V.M V.L VI

8. (Sub)theme 8 (scribes).

Its interaction with (sub)theme 3 (CPSD = 0.8, CP/SWS = 25/0 (4)) indicates an dissociation. This
dissociation is in agreement with the association of (sub)theme 8 with (sub)theme 2 (CPSD = 1.3,
CP/SWS = 88/71 (14)).

IV V.E V.M V.L VI

IIb

The (sub)theme is part of the group formed by (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8. The (sub)theme falls into disuse
at the transition from V.M/E to V.M/L, but is restored to the repertoire at the start of the 6
th
dynasty.
The determination of the CP/SWS values per period shows that the cultic character of (sub)theme 8
remains identical with that of (sub)theme 2 during the whole Old Kingdom (figure VII.9).

Ia / IIb Ia
Ia
(sub)theme 2

CP/SWS = 109/25

Ib Ib Ib Ib Ib

(sub)theme 7
Ib Ib Ib Ib

(sub)theme 3
CP/SWS = 92/58

CP/SWS = 107/67

Ib
CP/SWS = 57/50

(sub)theme 2
(sub)theme 8
Ia/IIb Ia Ib
Ia/IIb Ia Ib
CP/SWS =
100/0
CP/SWS = 82/78 CP/SWS =
100/100
CP/SWS = 100/33

Chapter VII
111

9. (sub)theme 9 (the butchery scene).

The CPSD value of the interactions of this (sub)theme with (sub)themes 2 (CPSD = 0.3, CP/SWS =
37/40 (10)) and 3 (CPSD = 0.6, CP/SWS = 67/65 (20)) are determined.
Although the CPSD values indicate an dissociation, in figure VI.16 the location of the CP/SWS values
of the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 9 indicates an association, while that of the interaction
between (sub)themes 2 and 9 indicates an dissociation.

The conclusion is that (sub)theme 9 has a type Ib cultic character.

10. (Sub)theme 10 (piles of food offerings).

The values of the interaction with (sub)theme 2 (CPSD = 1.7, CP/SWS = 11/33 (3)), might indicate a
strong dissociation, but they are based on a small overlap in time.

The interaction with (sub)theme 3 (type Ib, CPSD = 1.8, CP/SWS = 88/67 (30)), indicates an
association, and if the interaction is determined from the introduction of (sub)theme 10 (V.M/E), then
the CP/SWS is 103/67, even stronger indicating an association. Consequently, a preliminary
conclusion is that the cultic character of (sub)theme 10 is of type Ib.

In section IV.2 of this chapter a probable unifying function of the (sub)theme is discussed, but from
the CPSD values of its interactions with the other (sub)themes it cannot be firmly concluded (figure
VI.15).
Based on the SWS values of its interactions such a function could be proposed, but there are strong
indications that it exerts this function only in the vicinity of a limited number of (sub)themes.
28

The (sub)theme is introduced later in the period V.M/E (table VI.1.Vol.2), and the tendency for it to be
placed only in the vicinity of certain (sub)themes suggests the following:

1. Its purpose was not primarily just unifying, because in that case it would already have had a
high frequency of employment from the start of the 4
th
dynasty; as was the case for (sub)theme
5. Possibly it has been introduced to act as an unifying (sub)theme in a context that was
different from that in which (sub)theme 5 was originally placed from the start of the 4
th

dynasty on.
2. The period during which it was introduced on the western wall is also the period for which
later on in this research project, a change in the way of functioning of the cult chapel (or at
least its western wall) is proposed. There is a change from the direct supply of food for the ka
of the deceased by means of cultic activities in front of the false door, to a more magical food

28
In table VI.1.Vol.2 are determined the CP/SWS values of the interactions of (sub)theme 10 with the
(sub)themes with which it has an overlap in time (3, 4, 5, 7, 9 and 11) and also for (sub)themes 2 and 8, but only
during the period(s) of the use life of these (sub)themes. The result is that the CP/SWS values of the interactions
of (sub)theme 10 with (sub)themes 2 and 8 are so much lower that there is a strong indication that there is a
restriction to place (sub)theme 10 in the vicinity of the (sub)themes 2 and 8 (figure below). This corroborates not
only the different character of these two (sub)themes, but also the statement that (sub)theme 10 could only be
placed in the vicinity of a selected number of (sub)themes.

interaction CP/SWS interaction CP/SWS interaction CP/SWS

3 10 103/67 9 10 110/64 2 10 38/33
4 10 115/40 11 10 96/59 8 10 67/50
7 10 95/65 6 10 ---

Chapter VII
112
supply by means of an increased frequency of the depicting thereof on the western wall.
29

(Sub)theme 10 has been introduced to increase the quantity of magical food depicted on the
western wall, and thus acts as a unifying (sub)theme.

The conclusion is that the character of (sub)theme 10 has to be considered to be of type IIa.

11. (Sub)theme 11 (the non-ideographic offering list).

The interaction with (sub)theme 2 has CPSD = 2.1, CP/SWS = 4/100 (1), indicating a strong
dissociation, is probably caused by their brief chronological overlap.
This is confirmed by the interaction with the other members of the group, (sub)themes 6 and 8
(respectively CPSD = 1.1, CP/SWS = 0/0 (0)) and CPSD = 1.2, CP/SWS = 6/100 (1)), in both
cases indicating an dissociation.

The interaction with (sub)theme 3 (CPSD = 1.3, CP/SWS = 96/68 (25)), indicates an association.
The conclusion is that the cultic character of (sub)theme 11 is of type Ib.

In figure VII.10 a summary of the cultic character of the (sub)themes on the western wall is given.
30

IV. The unifying function of (sub)themes.

In chapter VI the unifying function of (sub)theme 5 became certain, and although at first (sub)themes
7 and 10 were assigned the same function, but this has been proved impossible for (sub)theme 7 (for
this reason it has been assigned the type Ib cultic character based on CP/SWS values and not a type IIa
cultic character).
In order to have a more profound insight into this function, in the diagram of figure VI.16 the CP/SWS
points of the interactions of (sub)themes 5 and 10 with (sub)themes with a type Ia of Ib cultic
character are indicated by means of an area. In figure VII.10 it is evident that only 6 (sub)themes have
either a type Ia or type Ib cultic character (3, 4, 6, 7, 9 and 11), and these are the only interactions that
are introduced into the diagrams.

29
L, II, 532, s.v. Gertefries stated that the depiction in the chapel of the goods that were considered to be
necessary for life after death started late in the Old Kingdom. This was based on the idea that magic caused the
depiction of the thing to become the thing itself. An example is the Gertefries (Taylor, Coffins, figures 6-8).
L, III, 1137-1151, s.v. Magie claims that magic belief in the efficacy of funerary implements is an ultimate
resort.. There are rare glimpses of the conviction that such material care is substituted by the magic force itself
(CT, IV, 232).
30
The conclusion about the type Ib cultic character of (sub)themes 2 and 8 during the period VI has already been
incorporated in figure VII.9.
31
The cultic character of (sub)theme 2 depends on wall section and chronological period (see figure VII.18), the
cultic character of (sub)theme 8 only on the latter..
(sub)theme type type (sub)theme type type

1 IIb 6 Ia
2 IIb Ia/Ib 7 Ib
3 Ib 8 IIb Ia/Ib
31

4 Ia 9 Ib
5 IIa 10 IIa
11 Ib
Figure VII.10: A compilation of
the cultic character of the
(sub)themes on the western wall.
Chapter VII
113

IV.1. The unifying function of (sub)theme 5 (offering bearers).

In the diagram of figure VII.11 the CP/SWS values of the admitted interactions of (sub)theme 5 are
marked as an area in grey. This area is located high in the part of the diagram that represents overall
association.

IV.2. The possible unifying function of (sub)theme 10 (piles of food offerings).

From table VI.2.Vol.2 all the CP/SWS values of the interactions of (sub)theme 10 with the other
(sub)themes (table VI.2.Vol.2) are marked in the grey area in figure VII.12.

Because (sub)theme 10 has been introduced on the western wall starting period V.M, it is also possible
to calculate the CP/SWS from that period on (figure VII.13).
32

32
The values determined are given in the table below. Because the CPSD values have not been determined, the
symbol used for the points is without the meaning it has in figures VII.11, VII.12 and VII.14.

interaction CP/SWS interaction CP/SWS

3 10 103/67 9 10 110/64
4 10 115/40 11 10 96/59
7 10 95/65 6 10 ---

Figure VII.11: The unifying
function of (sub)theme 5.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SWS
C
P
Legend : = CPSD 0, = CPSD < 0

x
Chapter VII
114

IV.3. The possible unifying function of (sub)theme 7 (priests).

In the same way, from table VI.2.Vol.2 the CP/SWS values of the interactions of (sub)theme 7 with
the other (sub)themes are marked as an area with a grey filling in figure VII.14.

Figure VII.12: The
unifying function of
(sub)theme 10 (values
from table VI.2.Vol.2).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SWS
C
P
Legend : = CPSD 0, = CPSD < 0 X
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 20 40 60 80
SWS
C
P

= CPSD 0, = CPSD < 0 X
function of (sub)theme 10
(recalculated from V.M on).
Chapter VII
115

IV.4. Conclusions about the unifying function

IV.4. Conclusions about the unifying function.

In figure VII.15 it is evident that the area of (sub)theme 5 and the corrected area of (sub)theme 10 are
nearly identical, and form small clusters of points. The area of (sub)theme 7 differs completely from
Figure VII.14: The possible
unifying function of (sub)theme 7.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SWS
C
P
Legend : = CPSD 0, = CPSD < 0

x
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 20 40 60 80
SWS
C
P

(sub)theme 7
(sub)theme 5
(sub)theme 10
function of (sub)themes 5, 7 and
10.
Chapter VII
116
the former two by being on a much lower CP level and furthermore, the cluster formed by the points is
much larger and spread out over a much large area of SWS values.
The interpretation of the resulting diagram is that, like (sub)theme 5, (sub)theme 10 has a unifying
function, but that this is not the case for (sub)theme 7.

V. The chronological development of the cultic character of the western wall.

The period(s) of frequent appearance (the use life) of the (sub)themes and the chronological
development of the changes of character is (are) determined on the basis of table VI.1.Vol.2 and
gathered in figure VII.17.
33

In order to make the chronological developments more evident, each main period is divided into two
subperiods, respectively early (= first half) and late (= second half).
34

For (sub)themes 2 and 8 the period V.M/L VI is problematic and three explanations are possible for
their reinstatement of (sub)themes 2 and 8 during period VI:

1. The placing of (sub)themes 2 and 8 as (sub)themes of type Ia continued in the period V.M/L
V.L/L (the period without placements (seriation IV.1.Vol.2)), but in this period an unusually
high percentage of tombs is incomplete due to emic or etic interference.
2. The employment of the two (sub)themes does not continue after the transition from V.M/E to
V.M/L but it is, due to an archaising trend at the end of the Old Kingdom, reinstated with the
same cultic character (Ia) in period VI.
3. The appearance of the two (sub)themes as (sub)themes of type Ia ended at the transition from
V.M/E to V.M/L, and at the start of the period VI they were reinstated, but, due to a change
that had taken place in the cultic meaning of the western wall of the chapel, now with a type Ib
cultic character.

The first option is improbable because if in table IV.1a.Vol.2 the percentage of tombs with an
incomplete western wall is determined per period, a curve is obtained with a perfect polynomial fit

33
The definition of the term use life (of a (sub)theme) involves a problem, because it can be defined in two
ways:

1. The whole period in which the (sub)theme under study is apparent is included in the use life, even when
in part of that period the number of its occurrences is markedly inferior to that in the rest of the period.
2. For the whole period of appearance only that part in which the (sub)theme has a frequency of
employment exceeding a certain value is included in the study (with the inherent problem of defining
that certain value).

The disadvantage of the first definition is that the importance of a small number of occurrences is strongly
exaggerated compared to the others. Because, in this research project, a chronological order of occurrences of a
(sub)theme is followed, in consequence the accuracy of their datings would be strongly overrated. Also the
impact of the free will of human beings would be too marked, because a tomb with a, for that period, divergent
repertoire, would also exert its influence.
The disadvantage of the second definition is the obvious necessity to define the degree of frequency with which
an occurrence becomes accessible to the research project.
However, it must be realised that, up to this stage, the research project has been based on (archaeological) data
whose reliability is less than 100%. Consequently, defining a scale of accessibility of occurrences based on
degrees of frequency would lead to (probably erroneous) conclusions obtained from the application of a tool
with an inherent high degree of accuracy to data whose reliability is strongly inferior. The consequence is that
those periods in which a (sub)theme occurs only once or twice are not included as part of its use life.
The FO/period diagrams of some (sub)themes show a low frequency of employment over a certain period,
followed by a sharp increase (see diagram IV.10.Vol.2). In modern parlance this period of low frequency could
be called trend setting, followed by a period of high popularity. This principle is visible in the onset of the shift
of (sub)theme 3 from the southern to the western wall in figure VI.13.
34
This division is not based on a predetermined point in the period.
Chapter VII
117
(figure VII.16). In this curve the high percentage of incomplete tombs in the period IV followed by the
decrease in periods V.E and V.M can easily be explained by the increasing number of years of
exposure. The increase during the periods VL and VI can be explained by an increasing
impoverishment of the building materials used for the tombs built during these periods. In this curve

the values for the period V.M/L V.L/L are in perfect match with the rest of the curve. This indicates
that in this period the percentage of incomplete tombs is not exceptionally high.

The second option mentioned is also improbable, because the first archaising period mentioned in
literature is the 12
th
dynasty.
35
The possibility of an archaising trend in the period under study is also
rejected by Cherpion.
36

The fact that in figure VII.6c the CP curve of the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 8 matches
both the curves of the FO/period of these (sub)themes, can be regarded as proof of the type Ib cultic
character of (sub)theme 8 during period VI, and this makes the third option more probable than the
first two mentioned.
37

The complicated cultic character of (sub)theme 2 during the period IV V.E is shown in figure
VII.18. During period VI the cultic character of (sub)themes 2 and 8 is taken to be of type Ib, while

35
L, I, 388, s.v. Archaismus mentions the 19th dynasty as the first period of archaism. However, Aldred, Art,
111, 115 and 118 mentions the 11th dynasty as the start of the first such period of archaism and so does
Stevenson Smith, Art and Architecture, 158.
36
Cherpion, Mastabas, 103.
37
This statement is not completely reliable, because in table VI.1.Vol.2 the CP/SWS values of the interactions
of (sub)theme 8 with (sub)themes 9 and 11 during period VI do not strongly support this type Ib character of
(sub)theme 8 during period VI (8 9 CP/SWS = 67/50, 8 11 CP/SWS = 33/100). Yet, the interactions of
(sub)theme 4 (type Ia) with (sub)themes 2 and 8 do so strongly (interaction sth 2 4 CP/SWS = 20/0; sth 8 4
CP/SWS = 33/0).
(sub)theme IV V.E V.M V.L VI
early late early late early late early late early late
1
2

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Figure VII.17: A compilation
of the chronological
development of the
(sub)themes.

= presence of the
(sub)theme
73
40
25
33
64
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
perc. incompl/period Poly. (perc. incompl/period)
Figure VII.16: The percentage of
incomplete western walls per period.
V.M/L V.L/L
Chapter VII
118
during the period V.E both of them are of type Ia. (Sub)themes 2 and 8 fell into disuse in their type Ia
cultic character during the transition from V.M/E to V.M/L, but for possible reasons that are discussed
at a later stage of the research project, they are reinstated in the 6
th
dynasty, but this time with a type Ib
cultic character.
In figure VII.18 the periods of the highest frequency of employment of the (sub)themes (see figure
VII.17) are gathered showing their cultic character, and the changes thereof.
The frequency of each cultic character is determined per period, and in figure VII.19 these values are
gathered in a diagram.

The chronological developments of the two types of cultic character are closely related, because from
V.E/E on the frequency of employment of (sub)themes of type Ib increases, and, after an initial
increase, the frequency of employment of (sub)themes of type Ia starts to decrease in the same period.
It is the somewhat doubtful cultic character of (sub)theme 4 that causes the type Ia cultic character to
remain present on the wall.

38
For this cultic character of (sub)theme 2 see : Chapter XI.
1
2 (wp 3)
2 (wp 2)
2 (wp 2)
38

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
total
Ia 1 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ib 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 6 6
Ia + Ib 3 3 7 6 5 5 5 5 7 7
IIa/b 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2
Ia
Ib
IIa/b
1 1
4
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4 4 4
6 6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
IV/E IV/L V.E/E V.E/L V.M/E V.M/L V.L/E V.L/L VI/E VI/L
type Ia cultic character western wall type Ib cultic character western wall
type Ib cultic character
type Ia cultic character
Figure VII.19: The chronological development of types Ia and Ib cultic character.
Figure VII.18: A
compilation of the type
of cultic character of
the (sub)themes.

Chapter VII
119

The chronological development for type IIa/b as given in figure VII.20 shows that there are no
dramatic changes in the number of (sub)themes with a type II a/b cultic character and it can be
considered to be stable throughout the whole Old Kingdom.

VI. Preliminary conclusions.

1. The main alteration on the western wall is the shift of (sub)theme 2 from wall section 3 to wall
section 2 with a simultaneous change in the cultic character of the (sub)theme. This shift is,
somewhat later, followed by the (sub)theme falling into total disuse.
2. (Sub)theme 2 forms a group with (sub)themes 6 (personified estates) and 8 (scribes). When
(sub)themes 6 falls into disuse (end of period V.E/E), the other two (sub)themes continue to be
placed on the western wall until early in the period V.M.
3. At the start of the 6
th
dynasty (sub)themes 2 and 8 are reinstated on the western wall, but their
cultic character changes from type Ia to type Ib.
4. (Sub)themes 2 and 3 are incompatible, in the sense that, although it is possible for them to
occur together on the same wall, they are not found together on the same wall section.
5. In figure VII.11 the cluster of points of the interactions of (sub)theme 5 (offering bearers) has
high CP and SWS values, combined with a low spread, thus forming a compact cluster. The
same is true for the cluster of (sub)theme 10 in figure VII.13 which is, however, placed around
somewhat lower CP/SWS values than the cluster of (sub)theme 5. The cluster of (sub)theme 7
(figure VII.14) is placed at even lower CP/SWS values and has a bigger spread. The
conclusion is that (sub)theme 7 has no unifying function.
6. Although (sub)themes 5 (offering bearers) and 10 (piles of food offerings) seem to be closely
related, in reality they are not, because they serve two completely different purposes in the
western wall. (Sub)theme 5 has a unifying function and has been employed as such from the
start of the 4
th
dynasty on. (Sub)theme 10 is introduced from V.M on with a function of
magical food supply for the ka of the deceased and it is preferably placed around (sub)themes
that are connected to this type of supply of food that in that period changed from practical with
a magical background to mainly magical. As such it has a unifying function.
7. Taking into account the placement of (sub)theme 1 in front of the entrance of the chapel in
figure VII.2, a signalling/guiding role for this (sub)theme is probable.
39

8. (Sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 form a scene from the daily life of the tomb owner. (Sub)theme 6 is
the first to disappear and (sub)theme 4 (members of the family) appears to take over the role
of (sub)theme 6 (personified estates), transforming the group from (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 into
(sub)themes 2, 4 and 8. If indeed (sub)theme 4 is part of that group it would have a close

39
An objection to this proposition could be that a passer-by, standing in direct sunlight in front of the entrance,
could not see the figure of the tomb owner on the wall opposite the entrance. However, the glare of the light on
the sand in front of the chapel entrance must have reflected some light into its interior. Furthermore lamps or
torches could be lit if it was necessary to go deeper into the interior.
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2
0
5
10
type II cultic character Linear (type II cultic character)
Figure VII.20 :
Chronological development
type II cultic character.
Chapter VII
120
connection with (sub)themes 2 and 8. However, no proof has been found for this,
40
and also
the fact that after the disappearance of (sub)themes 2 and 8, (sub)theme 4 continues to be
placed on the western wall corroborates that (sub)theme 4 does not take over the role of
(sub)theme 6.
9. In figure VII.19 it is evident that for both type Ia as type Ib cultic character an increase set in
during V.E/E. It was in V.E/L that for type Ia a decrease set in.
10. The period of the start of the increase of type Ia character (IV.L-V.E/E) was not only the
period in which (sub)theme 2 was transferred from wall section 3 to wall section 2 and
adopted a type Ia cultic character, but also the period in which (sub)themes 4 and 8 were
introduced in significant numbers on the western wall, both of them of type Ia cultic character.
This means that it is highly probable that the shift and introductions were intentional and it is
probable that further research would reveal that they were part of other, simultaneous,
changes.
11. The type II (a/b) cultic character does not change throughout the Old Kingdom (figure
VII.20).

40
In table VI.1.Vol.2 the CP/SWS value of the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 4 and of (sub)themes 4
and 8 is calculated during the period determined by the use life of (sub)themes 2 and 8. The CP/SWS value of
the former interaction is 2/4 20/0 and of the latter 4/8 33/0. Indicating a total lack of interaction between the
(sub)themes.
121

Chapter VIII

Chapter VIII

The decoration of the false door.

In this chapter the false door and its division into parts are discussed. The (sub)themes placed on them are
catalogued and defined. The location of the various (sub)themes and their FO values are determined. For every
part FO/period curves are made of the (sub)themes so that it can be established whether or not a chronological
development takes place. It is the panel and the door jambs that show such a development and therefore they are
included in the research project. It appears that several chronological developments take place, the most
important being the importation of (sub)theme 33 (the offering formula) on the door jambs, and the shift of
(sub)theme 42 (the non-ideographic offering list) from the panel to the western wall itself. The various mutations
of the (sub)themes are incorporated in the already developed working hypothesis that in the period V.E/L
V.M/E the emphasis of the cult and thus of the decoration on the western wall as a whole changed from real
offering activities in front of the false door to a more magical food supply for the sustenance of the ka of the
deceased. The most important (sub)themes on the false door are the tomb owner at the offering table, the
offering formula, and his/her name and title(s), the latter being placed on several parts of the false door.


I.1. The partition of the false door.

The false door must be considered to be the most important cultic element in the chapel and is a
facsimile of the door that was originally intended to serve as the entrance of the house in which the
deceased lived.
1

1
L, V, 563-574, s.v. Scheintr; Oster, Bedeutungswandel, 29, 34 ff..
Figure VIII.1a: The true false door
(from L, V, 563-74, s.v. Scheintr,564).

Figure VIII.1b: The serekh-type false door
(from L, V, 563-74, s.v. Scheintr,
564).

122

Chapter VIII

Except for a short period during the reign of Khufu (IV.2), the false door has always been an element
of the cult chapel.
2
The importance of this element of the western wall leads to the conclusion that any
change on the false door must be due to a change in the interpretation of its cultic meaning.

During the Old Kingdom two main types of false door could be placed on the western wall, the
normal false door (figure VIII.1a), and the palace faade false door (ceremonial or serekh-type false
door) (figure VIII.1b).

Although it is an element of the western wall, the serekh-type false door has not been included with
the catalogues due to lack of decoration, consequently it is only the normal (true) false door that is
the subject of this research project.
3
Figure VIII.1a gives the basic model of this type of false door.
4

1 = Door recess . 5 = Side slots.
2 = Inner door jamb. 6 = False door panel.
3 = Door drum. 7 = Outer door jamb.
4 = Lower architrave (lintel). 8 = Upper architrave.
5

In order to study the decoration of the false door it is divided into five main parts:

1. The side slots (no. 5).
2. The door jambs (nos. 2, 7).
6

3. The door recess (no. 1).
4. The false door panel (no. 6).
5. The architraves (nos. 4, 8).

The drum over the door recess (no. 3) is omitted from this list because it almost always contains only
the name of the tomb owner. On rare occasions a title, undoubtedly the one the tomb owner considered
to be the most important, was added to the name.
7

The side slots (no. 5) are either empty,
8
contain a serekh design,
9
members of the family,
10
offering
bearers,
11
an oil cupboard,
12
or an offering list.
13
In the first instance this part is included in order to
see whether a chronological development can be discerned.

2
Oster, Bedeutungswandel, 65 ff..
3
The material from which the door is made is not taken into account.
4
After L, V, 564. For a more complete collection of possible forms of this normal false door see Wiebach,
Scheintr, Tafel I and II.
5
In the period V.M/L a cornice was placed on top of this architrave and a torus moulding was introduced around
the false door (Wiebach, Scheintr, table I).
6
In this research project no distinction is made between the inner and outer door jambs, or the upper and lower
architraves.
7
L, VI, 599, s.v. Titel und Titelaturen gives the impression that rules existed about the title(s) to be added.
Examples of door drums with name and title(s) are the false doors of Nefermaaet (PM, IV, 93), Harpur, Maidum,
figure 78 and Thethi (PM, III
1
, 302-3, Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 32). A depiction of the tomb owner on the
drum of the false door is rare, no doubt because normally it was too small for more than the name and perhaps a
title. In most cases, even if the drum of the false door would have been large enough to accommodate such a
figure, it was not added (false door of Shery (Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 24)). An example might be visible in el-
Fikey, Rea-wer, plate 5 and 9 (though hard to distinguish). For possible decorations of the drum see Harpur,
DETOK, figures 14-20 and 25.
8
Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 46, mastaba of Nebt, Saqqara (PM, III, 624).
9
Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 32, false door of Thethi, Giza (PM, III
1
, 302-3); Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 21, false
door of Shery, Saqqara (PM, III, 490).
10
Sethu (PM, III
1
, 135-6), LD II, 87.
11
Khufuankh (PM, III
1
,

129-30); Reisner, Giza I, plate 65b.
123

Chapter VIII

I.2. The catalogue.

The catalogue IV.1/2.Vol 2 is employed for this part of the research project, which is a combination of
catalogues IV.1.Vol.2 (57 tombs) and IV.2.Vol.2 (29 tombs), with a total of 86 tombs.

I.3. The (sub)themes.

The numbering of the (sub)themes on the parts of the false door has to take into account the
numbering already used for the (sub)themes on the western wall. For this reason the numbering of the
(sub)themes starts at 20.
14

1. The side slots.

20. Empty (plate VIII.1).
21. Serekh-type false door design (plate VIII.2).
15

23. Members of the family (plate VIII.4).

2 The door jambs.

30. The tomb owner alone, standing or sitting (plate VIII.1).
31. Wife and/or family, standing or sitting (plate VIII.1).
16

32. Name, title(s) (plate VIII.1).
17

34. Offering bearers (plate VIII.5).
35. Priests (plate VIII.6).
36. Containers/standards for offerings (plate VIII.2).

3. The false door panel.

40. The tomb owner alone at the offering table (plate IV.11).
41. The tomb owner with another person at the offering table (plate VIII.4).
18

19

12
The false door of Methethi (PM, III, 646-8); Kaplony, Methethi, 51; Arnold, Pyramids, 135.
13
Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 4, false door of Nihetepkhnum (PM, III
1
,

50). Tomb F48 in Abu Rawash (see Baud,
Abu Rawash, 18).
14
In some of the parts of the false door the tomb owner and the name/titles have been taken as separate
(sub)themes (3032, 4044 and 6062). This might seem an artificial and unnecessary splitting up of two
attributes that are considered inseparable, but several undamaged false doors have door jambs where (sub)themes
30 (tomb owner alone) and 32 (name, titles) are not placed together (Khufukha'ef [II], Simpson, Gmast 3, figure
50; Seshemnufer [II], Kanawati, Giza II, plate 63). In figure VIII.2 the difference in FO values between the
depiction of the tomb owner and his/her name/title(s) is evident, and from this it might be concluded that,
although there is a connection between the two types of (sub)themes, they are not inseparable.
15
The non-ideographic offering list is a compilation stating in type and quantity the articles deemed necessary
for the sustenance of the ka of the deceased (plate IV.3) (L, IV, 586-9, s.v. Opferliste).
16
Although the tomb owner is sometimes nearby, there is no direct contact between them (see plate VIII.1).
17
Within this research project the epithets sA nysw.t, sA.t nysw.t etc. are considered to be titles (Jones,
Index,[2911] and [2988].
18
In the tomb of Setka (PM, III
1
, 160-1) on both panels the tomb owner is depicted on both sides of the offering
table. The same is the case in the cult chapel of Idu (PM, III
1
,

185-6). This situation is interpreted as (sub)theme
41 (tomb owner with another person).
124

Chapter VIII


4. The door recess.
20

51. The tomb owner standing with another person (plate VIII.1).
52. Text (plate VIII.6).
21

5. The architraves.

61. The tomb owner with family (plate VIII.6).

II. FO calculations.

II.1. The calculation of the FO of the (sub)themes.

Table VIII.1.Vol.2 is compiled from catalogue IV.1/2.Vol.2 (86 tombs). In the catalogue the following
tombs have to be excluded:

1. Meni [II], (PM, III
1
,

107-8), Junker concludes that the false door in the cult chapel has a strong
resemblance to the false door in the cult chapel of Sonb (PM, III
1
,

101-3).
22

2. Akhetmehu (PM, III
1
,

87). In PM, III
1
it is proposed that a false door is placed in the cult
chapel while Edel calls it a stela.
23
The decorated slab of stone only bears text which can be
interpreted as an appel aux vivants.
3. Ankhmare (PM, III
1
,

206). The false door is anepigraphic.
4. Snefrukhaef (PM, III
1
,

183-4). Here the false door is a serekh-type door.
24

5. Kaemsekhem (PM, III
1
,

201-2). The false door is badly preserved.
25

A number of tombs are poorly or not published and, consequently, are not included in the table.
26
This
concerns the tombs of:

1. Zaty (PM, III
1
,

161).
2. G 7560 (PM, III
1
,

200).

This brings the number of tombs in table VIII.1.Vol.2 to 79.

19
Barta, Opferformel, 3 states that the offering formula is hardly ever placed on the panel of the false door.
20
Standards can also be placed in the door recess, but this is rare (Roth, Gmast 6, figure 164).
21
Only in one case the text is an offering formula (Barta, Opferformel, 11).
22
Junker, Giza V, 138.
23
Edel, MHwAxtj, 327-333.
24
LD, II, 16.
25
Reisner, Tomb Development, 343.
26
A priori because it is doubtful whether the ground-plans of the tombs of Neferi and Abdou, excavated by Abu
Bakr, can be admitted to the catalogue, but also because the publication of the excavation could not be found in
the Netherlands at the time the catalogues were compiled, these two tombs have not been admitted.
125

Chapter VIII

II.2. Preliminary conclusions from table VIII.1.Vol.2.

1. The FO values of the (sub)themes of the side slots ((sub)themes 20 23) show that, if they are
present, they are mostly left empty (in table VIII.1.Vol.2 for (sub)theme 20 (side slots empty)
the FO is 62%). As a result, this part of the false door will not be included in the research
project.
27

2. The door recess ((sub)themes 50 52) is nearly always empty. If it is decorated at all, it is
either with a depiction of the tomb owner standing or sitting alone or with text (Harpur,
Maidum, figure 183). Rarely is a serekh-type false door design placed there (Akhmerutnesut,
PM, III
1
,

80-1). Consequently, this part of the false door will not be included in the research
project.
3. The representations of the tomb owner on the architrave ((sub)themes 60 (tomb owner alone)
and 61 (tomb owner with family)) are not of the highest importance (the FO values are
respectively 38% and 8%, the values also indicating that (sub)theme 60 is the more important
of the two). (Sub)themes 62 (the name and the title(s)) and 63 (offering formula)) (the FO
values are resp. 93% and 70%) are more important.
4. On the door jambs (sub)theme 32 (name, title(s)) is the most important (the FO is 73%).
5. On the panel of the false door the representation of the tomb owner at the funerary meal
((sub)theme 40) and his/her name, title(s) ((sub)theme 44) prevail (their FO values are resp.
73% and 88%).
6. (Sub)themes 30, 40, 50 and 60 are all depictions of the tomb owner standing or sitting alone.
The FO values of these (sub)themes have been gathered in figure VIII.2 together with the FO
values of the (sub)themes giving the name/title(s). It is evident that the panel and the door
jambs are more important parts for the depiction of the tomb owner, and that the name/title(s)
are important on all parts of the false door. From the table can also be concluded that
(sub)themes giving the name and title(s) are even more important than (sub)themes depicting
the tomb owner.
7. Of the five parts that have been defined for the false door, only three (the panel, the
architrave(s) and the door jambs) are eventually included in this research project, a decision
based on the FO values of the (sub)themes they contain.

Figure VIII.2: Compilation of FO values of (sub)themes depicting tomb owner and name/title.

II.3. The FO/period of the (sub)themes of the parts.

Of the tombs that are represented in table VIII.1.Vol.2 and in chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2 the
chronological order is made identical. In table VIII.1.Vol.2 for each (sub)theme the FO/period is

27
Haeny, Platten, 148 concludes that during the later part of the Old Kingdom the side slots were also decorated.
The results obtained in table VIII.1.Vol.2. do not corroborate this conclusion, but it is not clear whether the
necropolis of Giza or Saqqara is meant or whether the author means both of them together.
part no. (sub)theme
(tomb owner)
FO no. (sub)theme
(name/title(s))
FO

door jambs 30 53% 32 73%
panel 40 73% 44 88%
door recess 50 7% --- ---
architrave 60 38% 62 92%
126

Chapter VIII

calculated and a curve is made.
28
The curves, thus obtained, make it possible to determine whether a
chronological development took place on any part of the false door. If such a development does not
occur, the false door part is not included in the research project.
Due to the low FO values it had already been decided to exclude parts 1 (the side slots) and 3 (the door
recess) from the research project. It is decided from these diagrams whether other parts also have to be
excluded.

II.4. The FO/period curves of the (sub)themes on the parts of the false door.

II.4.1. Part 2 (the door jambs), diagrams.1-7.Vol.2.

These diagrams show that (sub)themes 34, 35 (resp. offering bearers, priests) fell into disuse during
the period V.M, while for (sub)theme 36 (containers/standards) this change came in V.L (figures
VIII.4a,b).
29
In the period V.L the employment of the offering formula on the door jambs ((sub)theme
33) increased sharply (figure VIII.3).
30
This development must have been in close connection with the
development of (sub)themes 34, 35 and 36 because the employment of the offering formulas on the
other parts of the false door hardly changed.

In figure VIII.3 the linear of the curve of (sub)theme 63 (the offering formula on the architrave) is
horizontal. It is evident that this feature was obligatory on the architrave, but that it was non-existent
on the other parts of the false door. It was in V.L that this feature started to appear on the panel and on
the door jambs. The reason for this development must have been a change in the basic ideas
concerning the function of the false door and the western wall. In figure VIII.16 a compilation of the
changes has been made.

28
The determined periods are shown in table VIII.1.Vol.2.
29
L, IV, 584, s.v. Opferformel. In figure VIII.3 a comparison of the curves of the offering formula on the
architrave ((sub)theme 63) and the offering formula on the door jambs ((sub)theme 33) shows that the latter was
introduced on the door jambs from period V.L on, while its employment on the architrave ((sub)theme 63)
hardly changed during the whole Old Kingdom.
30
In the necropolises of Maidum and Saqqara the introduction of the offering formula on the false door took
place during the transition from the 3
rd
to the 4
th
dynasty (for Saqqara: Methen (PM, III, 493-4), LD II
5(middle); for Maidum: Rahotep (PM, IV, 90-2), Harpur, Maidum, figure 98).
57
82
71 70
67
0 0 0
13
20
63
0
9
0
56
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 33 FO/period (sub)theme 63
offering formula (63)
Figure VIII.3: The chronological development of the offering formulas.
127

Chapter VIII

II.4.2. Part 3 (the false door panel), diagrams VIII.8-12.Vol.2.

This set of diagrams shows that a chronological development took place on the panel of the false door.
During the transition from V.E to V.M, (sub)theme 42 (the non-ideographic offering list) is falling
more and more into disuse on the panel,
31
and is from then on nearly exclusively placed on the western
wall (as (sub)theme 11) as is evident in figure VIII.5.
32

(Sub)theme 43 (the offering formula) appears on the panel at the start of V.L (figure VIII.3), but, no
doubt due to the small dimensions of the panel, is not placed there frequently.

31
The two curves in figure VIII.5 clearly show that the non-ideographic offering list is shifted from the panel of
the false door to the western wall on which its employment obtains a high frequency.
32
The FO/period values of (sub)theme 11 are taken from diagram IV.11.Vol.2, while those of (sub)theme 42 are
taken from diagram VIII.10.Vol.2.

57
67
44
7 6
29
17
13
0
6
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth 35 FO/period sth 36
Figure VIII.4a: The chronological development of (sub)themes 35 and 36.
containers/standards (36)
priests (35)
43
58
43
15
20
75
42
14
19
6
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/(sub)theme 31 FO/period sth 34
Figure VIII.4b: The chronological development of (sub)themes 31 and 34.
offering bearers (34)
wife/family (31)
128

Chapter VIII

II.4.3. Part 5 (the architraves), diagrams VIII.13-15.Vol.2.

Table VIII.1.Vol.2 shows that the main purpose of the architraves was to state the name and title(s) of
the tomb owner ((sub)theme 62, (FO value is 93%)) and to depict the offering formula ((sub)theme 63
(the FO value is 70%)).
Although (sub)theme 60 (the tomb owner alone) was already part of the repertoire at the start of the 4
th

dynasty, with a FO value of 38% it never became very popular on the architrave. Yet, the three
(sub)themes remained part of the repertoire throughout the whole Old Kingdom.
The tomb owner with family ((sub)theme 61, with a FO of 8%, was introduced during the transition
from the period VI on, but it was hardly ever placed there.
The diagrams in figure VIII.6 show that no real developments took place on the architraves, and
consequently they are not included in the research project.

III. Interactions in chronological development between (sub)themes on the false door.

III.1. Preliminary considerations.

The study of the interaction between the (sub)themes of the false door is carried out in order to
establish whether interactions in chronological development exist and if so, whether there is a
connection with the developments on the remaining part of the western wall.
25
30
64
60
100
50
86
57
13
0 0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
non-ideographic
offering list , false door
panel (42)

non-ideographic
offering list, western
wall (11)
Figure VIII.5: The chronological development of (sub)themes 11 and 42.
100 100 100
86
88
57
82
71 70
67
43
29
25
43
50
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
(sub)theme 60
(sub)theme 62
(sub)theme 63
Figure VIII.6: The chronological development of (sub)themes 60, 62 and 63.
129

Chapter VIII

These interactions are deduced from the diagrams VIII.1-15.Vol.2.
In this chapter two types of interactions are considered:

1. Interactions in chronological development between (sub)themes situated on the same part of
the false door.
2. Interactions in chronological development between (sub)themes placed on different parts of
the false door.

III.2. The interactions of (sub)themes placed on the same parts of the false door.

III.2.1. The interactions on the door jambs.

1. The introduction of (sub)theme 33 (the offering formula) on the door jambs (figure VIII.3)
and the decrease in the placing of (sub)themes 34, 35 and 36 (figures VIII.4a,b) are two
synchronous developments that take place around the period V.M. This indicates that it is
highly probable that a strong connection exists between the two developments.
2. In figure VIII.3 it is also visible that in the period in which the employment of the offering
formula on the door jambs started to increase strongly (V.L, (sub)theme 33), the same feature
started to be placed on the panel of the false door too ((sub)theme 43).
3. The curve of diagram VIII.1.Vol.2 ((sub)theme 30) is problematic although the polynomial
and the linear are both nearly horizontal lines. The conclusion that (sub)theme 30 (the tomb
owner alone) shows no real change during the Old Kingdom is therefore not completely
reliable, nor is the conclusion that the frequency of the (sub)theme is not influenced by the
increasing employment of (sub)theme 33 (offering formula) on the door jambs.
33

4. The chronological development of (sub)theme 31 (family) in figure VIII.7 shows that it has a
strong connection with the chronological developments of (sub)themes 34, 35 and 36 as given
in figures VIII.4a,b. This resemblance is the strongest with the curve of (sub)theme 35
(priests) (figure VIII.7). This is to be expected because very often members of the family
acted as priests as well, and thus were depicted together.
5. The falling into disuse of (sub)themes 31, 34, 35 and 36 starts early in the 5
th
dynasty and the
process has been completed at the start of the 6
th
dynasty.

The falling into disuse of nearly all of the (sub)themes with standing persons and the
containers/standards may have been caused by the fact that they require a good deal of space, making
it difficult to place the offering formula together with either of these (sub)themes. A more plausible
reason may be that the (sub)themes that fell into disuse were all connected with the ritual of actually

33
The name and title(s) were nearly always part of the offering formula.
43
58
43
14
20
57
67
44
6 6
0
25
50
75
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
priests (35)
wife/family (31)
130

Chapter VIII

placing offerings in front of the false door, and were replaced by a (sub)theme that was intended to
provide sustenance for the ka of the deceased in a magical way.
34
However, (sub)theme 30 (the tomb
owner), although (nearly always) the depiction of a standing person, was too important to disappear
from the door jambs.

The increase in employment of (sub)theme 33 (offering formula), which started in V.L (figure VIII.3),
is probably the result of an alteration in cultic tradition possibly caused by the following changes:

1. As already discussed, it is possible that, starting in IV.L - V.E, a change in the decoration
accompanying the cult itself took place. This was possibly accompanied by a change of the
cultic meaning of the chapel and/or the false door. The (sub)themes directly connected with
the actual cult were becoming more and more unfit for the (new) ideas about the purpose of
the cult chapel, its western wall and its false door(s).
2. A consequence of this is that the chronological development that took place on the door jambs
represents a change in the type of (sub)themes placed on them. The next step in the research
project is to determine whether this change also took place on the other parts of the false door,
and whether the change on the western wall is directly connected with the changes on the false
door. For the door jambs the result is:
a. At first (sub)themes which are directly connected with the cultic activities in front of
the false door are employed ((sub)themes 34, 35 and 36, figures VIII.4a,b). From
figure VIII.7 it appears that (sub)theme 31 (wife/family) also played a role in the
actual cult.
b. At the start of the 5
th
dynasty the employment of (sub)themes 31, 34, 35 and 36 started
to decrease, and they were gradually replaced by (sub)theme 33 (offering formula)
(figure VIII.3) which was the text of an utterance that had to be recited in order to
secure the food supply for the ka of the deceased in a magical way.

3. In figure VIII.8 the strong resemblance between the curves of (sub)themes 30 (tomb owner
alone) and 32 (name/title(s) of the tomb owner) leads to the conclusion that both (sub)themes
were closely connected and that just the depiction of the tomb owner was not sufficient
identification: the name and some titles had to be added. The higher FO/period values of
(sub)theme 32 indicate that the name and title(s) were even more important than the depiction
of the tomb owner.

34
L, IV, 584-6, s.v. Opferformel, there 585.
44
58
29
73
47
43
64
57
94
75
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
tomb owner (30)
name/title(s) (32)
131

Chapter VIII

4. The curves in figure VIII.9 indicate that until the period V.M (sub)themes 30 and 35 are
closely related and that the dichotomy between them started in the period V.M.

III.2.2. The interactions on the panel of the false door.

The curves in figure VIII.5 show that from V.M on the presence of (sub)theme 42 (non-ideographic
offering list) begins to diminish on the panel of the false door. In the same period the presence of this
list on the remaining part of the western wall begins to increase. This means that the list is slowly
moved from the panel to the wall sections around the false door. The reason for this is that the
increasing number of offerings that were mentioned in the list caused the lists to become too large for
the panel.
35

Previous studies suggest that a close connection exists between the non-ideographic offering list and
the offering table scene.
36

In order to check the above mentioned suggestion, the following steps are taken:

1. In table VI.2.Vol.2 the CP/SWS value for the interaction between (sub)themes 3 (tomb owner
at offering table) and 11 (non-ideographic offering list) is 96/68 (with 25 co-occurrences). If

35
Barta, Opferliste, 51.
36
L, IV, 586, s.v. Opferliste .
44
58
29
73
47
57
67
44
6 6
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
tomb owner alone (30) priests (35)
name, title(s) (44)
tomb owner alone (40)
Figure VIII.9a: The chronological development of (sub)themes 40 and 44.
73
80
75
73
67
83
93
100
86
82
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
132

Chapter VIII

the table is corrected for complete western walls (see table VIII.2.Vol.2), the CP/SWS value
becomes 100/63.
2. The CP value of the interaction between (sub)themes 40 (tomb owner at offering table) and 42
(non-ideographic offering list) in table VIII.1.Vol.2 is 73% (with 16 co-occurrences).
37

These results corroborate the suggestion, and show that a tight connection existed between the offering
list and the depiction of the tomb owner at the offering table both on the panel and on the remaining
part of the western wall.
It is evident that initially the offering list was an integral part of the decoration of the panel, and, due
to the small dimensions of the panel, the list was automatically close to the offering table scene, a
placement which apparently became a tradition. As a consequence, the shift of the offering list to the
western wall necessitated the placement of an offering table scene next to the list. This necessity is
evident in figure VIII.9b where the FO/period curves and the CP/period demonstrate a close
relationship.

In table VI.3.Vol.2 the locations of the offering table scene and the non-ideographic offering list have
been compiled. This table shows that during the period IV-V.E/E (sub)theme 3 is primarily placed on
the southern wall of the chapel. From the period V.E/L on the (sub)theme is increasingly placed on the
western wall, and beginning in the period V.E/L-V.M/E the employment of the non-ideographic
offering list increases on the western wall.
The result is that the offering table scene, which was deemed necessary on the western wall due to the
increasing presence of the offering list there, was moved from the southern wall to the western wall,
thus keeping its now traditional connection with the offering table scene intact.

III.2.3. A comparison of the chronological developments on panel and door jambs.

III.2.3.1. The interactions between the offering formula and the name/title(s).

The curves in figure VIII.8 not only show that the depiction of the tomb owner alone and his
name/title(s) on the door jambs are present throughout the whole Old Kingdom, but also that the
name/title(s) were more important than the depiction of only the deceased. In figure VIII.9a it is
evident that the same is true on the panel of the false door.

In figure VIII.10 the chronological developments of the offering formula on the panel and the door
jambs of the false door have been gathered.
38
It is evident that the increase of (sub)themes 33 (offering

37
The CP value is determined in table VIII.1.Vol.2.
25
50
73
91
100
25
30
64
60
100
50
78
71
100
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 3 FO/period (sub)theme 11 CP/period 3-->11
Figure VIII.9b: The chronological development of (sub)themes 3 and 11.

(sub)theme 11
(sub)theme 3
133

Chapter VIII

formula on the door jambs) and 43 (offering formula on the panel) started in the same period, but the
former reached much higher values than the latter. No doubt, available space on the panel played a
major role in this development.
In the period IV- V.M the offering formula was barely present on the door jambs, and the name/title(s)
were placed in the vicinity of the standing figures. The parallelism of the curves of (sub)themes 32
(name/title(s)) and 33 (offering formula) after V.M is caused by the fact that the offering formula as a
rule states the name and title(s) of the deceased. The CP/period curve of the interaction between the
(sub)themes also shows their extremely close connection.
39

The same is true for (sub)themes 43 (offering formula panel) and 44 (name, title(s) panel) (figure
VIII.11) and the architraves (figure VIII.12).
40

38
The FO values have been determined in table VIII.1.Vol.2 by counting the total number of x and - and
calculating the percentage of x in that number
39
The CP value of the interaction between (sub)themes 32 and 33 over the whole Old Kingdom is 95%
(determined in table VIII.1.Vol.2). Also see section VI of chapter III.
40
If, on a logical, but probably etic basis, we consider two (sub)themes A and B (here (sub)themes 32 and 33,
but also the offering table scene and the non-ideographic offering list) to be so closely linked as to be
inseparable, it is still possible that, for the Egyptians, this connection was unimportant or even non-existent. It is
also possible that a chronological development caused, at a certain moment, this apparently close connection to
be broken up.

43
64
57
94
75
0
9
0
56
63
0 0 0
13
20
100 100 100
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 43 CP/period 32-->33
name/title(s) door jambs (32)
offering formula door jambs (33)
offering formula panel (43)
Figure VIII.10: The correlation between (sub)themes 32, 33 and 43.
CP/period sths 32 33
134

Chapter VIII

III.2.3.2. The interactions between the depiction of the tomb owner and his/her name/title(s).

71
93
100
86
82
0 0 0
13
20
100 100
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
name/title(s) (44) panel
offering formula panel (43)
Figure VIII.11: The correlation between (sub)themes 43 and 44.
100 100 100
86
88
57
82
71 70
67
75
100
86
90
100
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
name/title(s) architrave (62)
offering formula architrave (63)
44
58
29
73
47
43
64
57
94
75
100 100 100 100
86
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
CP/period sths 30 32 name/title(s) door jambs (32)
depiction tomb owner door
jambs (30)
135

Chapter VIII

The form of both curves in figure VIII.13 shows that there might be a close connection between the
(sub)themes, a connection which is confirmed by the CP/period curve.
On the door jambs the name and title(s) are somewhat more important than the depiction of the tomb
owner.

For (sub)themes 40 and 44 (the depiction and the name/title(s) on the panel) do not have a connection
according to the CP/period curve, but both of them are of practically the same importance, because the
values are close together (figure VIII.14).
41

The CP/period curve in figure VIII.15 shows that there is a connection between (sub)themes 60 and 62
on the architraves. This consists of the permanent presence of the name and title(s), next to which the
depiction of the tomb owner can be placed, but, seeing its lower values, its employment is not of the
utmost importance.

41
This difference is due to the fact that (sub)theme 30 is just a depiction of the tomb owner, while (sub)theme 40
portrays the tomb owner at the offering table and not just the standing tomb owner.
43
25
29
50
43
100 100 100
86
88
100 100 100 100 100
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth 60 FO/period 62 CP/period 60-->62
name/title(s) architrave (62)
depiction tomb owner architrave (60)
73
80
75
73
63
71
93
100
86
82
80
83
67 67
83
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period sth 40 FO/period sth 44 CP/period 40-->44
name/title(s) panel (44)
depiction tomb owner panel
(40)
136

Chapter VIII

From the diagrams it can be concluded that on the panel (diagrams VIII.8.Vol.2 and VIII.12.Vol.2)
neither the depiction of the tomb owner ((sub)theme 40) nor the name and/or titles ((sub)theme 44)
(figure VIII.14) are subject to a chronological development, and that both types of (sub)themes are
closely related.
However on the doorjambs (diagrams VIII.1.Vol.2 and VIII.3.Vol.2) a (brief) chronological
development of these two (sub)themes cannot be ruled out (figure VIII.13).

IV. Conclusions.

1. The curves in diagram VIII.1-15.Vol.2 give no indication of direct interactions between
(sub)themes which are placed on different parts of the false door.
2. On the three parts of the false door which have been incorporated into the research project (the
panel, the door jambs and the architraves), important (sub)themes are the offering formula and
the name and title(s) of the deceased. The close connection between these two (sub)themes
remained throughout the Old Kingdom.
a. For the door jambs and the panel the curve of the name/title(s) is much higher than the
one of the offering formula. This makes the name/title(s) the most important feature of
the two (figures VIII.10 and 11).
b. For the architraves the curves are close together, leading to the conclusion that they
are of nearly equal importance (figure VIII.12).

The above mentioned points indicate that the main purpose of the door jambs and the panel was the
identification of the tomb owner. The offering formula could be involved, in which case the
name/title(s) were part of it, but even if the offering formula was not employed, the name/title(s) were.
On the architraves the situation was different: there the offering formula had to be employed, and so,
automatically, were the name and title(s).

3. Another set of important (sub)themes is the depiction of the tomb owner in combination with
his/her name and title(s). Here the situation is different:
a. On the door jambs and panel the depiction of the tomb owner and the name/title(s) are
closely connected (figures VIII.13 and 14).
b. On the architraves the name/title(s) are always present; but the depiction is much less
important.

The arguments mentioned in points 2 and 3 lead to the conclusion that in all cases the name and the
title(s) are always the most important (sub)theme on any of the three parts of the false door.

4. On the door jambs nearly all of the (sub)themes with standing persons and also the
containers/standards fall into disuse. A possible cause could be the fact that they require a
good deal of space, making it difficult to place the offering formula together with either one of
these (sub)themes. However, (sub)theme 30, although a standing depiction, apparently was
too important to disappear from the door jambs.
42

5. Figure VIII.3 shows that the offering formula ((sub)theme 63) has been present on the
architraves of the false door from the beginning of the Old Kingdom. It was after the period
V.M that it was increasingly placed on the door jambs ((sub)theme 33) and the panel
((sub)theme 43).

6. The non-ideographic offering list ((sub)theme 42) is at first placed on the panel, but because
the number of items that have to be mentioned in the list increased, it became too large for the

42
It is possible that the overall size of the standing depiction was influenced by the presence of the offering
formula. This is beyond the scope of this research.
137

Chapter VIII

panel and it was transferred to the western wall (there to become (sub)theme 11) (see figure
VIII.5).

7. Figures VIII.3 and VIII.4 show that on the door jambs the decreasing presence of (sub)themes
31, 34, 35 and 36 is countered by the growing presence of (sub)theme 33.

8. Figure VIII.3 shows that the offering formula on the door jambs ((sub)theme 33) and on the
panel ((sub)theme 43) are placed there from the start of V.L on. In figure VIII.16 this is
interpreted as that the (sub)theme is imported from the architrave over the false door.

The above mentioned mutations have been gathered in figure VIII.16. In this figure the already
mentioned shift of the offering table scene ((sub)theme 3) from the southern to the western wall has
been added. This shift is necessary because it is closely connected with the shift of the non-
ideographic offering list from the panel to the western wall (see section III.2.2. of this chapter).

3
63
43
42
33
11
31 34 35 36
Figure VIII.16: (Sub)theme mutations compiled.
Chapter IX
138

Chapter IX

The chronological development of the cultic character of the false door and its parts.
The interaction between the false door and the western wall.

In this chapter the chronological development of the cultic character of the door jambs and the panel of the false
door is determined by the same method that has been applied to the western wall. From these two areas the
chronological development of the cultic character of the false door as a whole is determined. This can be linked
to the same development on the remaining surface of the western wall, not only to compare them, but also to
provide information about the development of the cultic character of the whole western wall.

I. The chronological development of the cultic character: preliminary considerations.

Because only the door jambs and the panel show a chronological development, this part of the
research project is limited to these two parts (see table VIII.1.Vol.2). From these parts the
chronological development of the cultic character is discerned and by combining them, the
chronological development of the cultic character of the false door as a whole can be determined.
Starting from the assumption that the false door is the cultic centre of the chapel, the working
hypothesis is that every (sub)theme on the false door is directly and exclusively involved in the cult
for the ka of the deceased, and, as a consequence, has a cultic character of type Ib.
1

I.1. The chronological development of the cultic character of the sections of the false door.

The chronological development (the use life) of each (sub)theme of a part of the false door is
determined in the curves given in diagrams VIII.1-15.Vol.2. Only the (sub)period(s) in which the
(sub)theme is frequently employed are included.
2
In the compilation thus made, the total type Ib cultic
character of the period is determined by counting per subperiod the number of (sub)themes. The total
cultic character per period is determined and compiled in a diagram.

I.1.1. The panel of the false door.

The sequence over time of the (sub)themes on the panel is determined in the curve of diagrams VIII.8-
12.Vol.2 and gathered in figure IX.1. A diagram is made of their chronological development (figure
IX.2).
3

1
The ideographic offering list has always been placed in the vicinity of the tomb owner at the offering table and
remains so throughout the Old Kingdom. Based on the quantities given in the list, it is a section of the inventory
offering list (Inventaropferliste), but its place next to the offering table stresses its close connection with the
cultic meal the tomb owner is having (Barta, Opferliste, 9). Because the ideographic offering list is placed there
because of its cultic role and not to fill empty space around the table, it cannot be considered as a (sub)theme
with a unifying function.
2
The problem of the calibration of this frequency has already been discussed (chapter VII, section V).
3
The chronological development of (sub)theme 43 has been left out due to the extremely low values per period.
Chapter IX
139

For this part of the research project (sub)themes 40 (offering table scene, tomb owner alone) and 41
(offering table scene, tomb owner with other person) are taken as one (sub)theme.
The curve shows that during the whole Old Kingdom the type Ib cultic character of the panel remained
the same.

I.1.2. The door jambs.

The presence of the (sub)themes on the door jambs is derived from the curves of diagrams VIII.1-
7.Vol.2 and compiled in figure IX.3. The total cultic character per subperiod is determined and
gathered in figure IX.4.

The total type Ib cultic character of the door jambs decreases in the period when (sub)theme 33 is
introduced on the false door.


40/41
42
44
43
total 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

(sub)theme
IV V.E V.M V.L VI

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
total 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3
Figure IX.3: The chronological development of the cultic character of the (sub)thems of the door jambs of
the false door.
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
0
1
2
3
4
5
IV.E IV.L V.E/E V.E/L V.M/E V.M/L V.L/E V.L/L VI.E VI.L
type Ib cultic character panel
Figure IX.2: The type Ib
cultic character of the
panel.

=

presence of the
(sub)theme

=

presence of the
(sub)theme
Figure IX.1 : The chronological
development of the cultic character of
the panel of the false door
Chapter IX
140

If figures IX.2 (the chronological development of the type Ib cultic character of the panel) and IX.4
(the chronological development of the type Ib cultic character of the door jambs) are combined, the
chronological development of the cultic character of the whole false door becomes evident (figure
IX.5). A decrease in the cultic character of the false door from the period V.M/E is visible.

However, the curves in figures IX.3, IX.4 and IX.5 not only represent the development of the type Ib
cultic character on the parts of the false door and on the false door as a whole, but also represent the
development of the number of (sub)themes on them.

II. The chronological development of the cultic character of the whole western wall.

Because of the exclusive type Ib cultic character of the false door, chronological developments of the
type Ia and IIa/b cultic character are confined to the western wall (figures VII.19 and VII.20).
In order to compare the development of the type Ib cultic character of the elements of the western wall
figures VII.19 and IX.5 are combined in one diagram (figure IX.6).

Figure IX.6 shows that two major and opposed tendencies are evident on the western wall. The type Ib
cultic character of the false door decreases while that of the western wall increases. However, more
significant is that the increase of the type Ib cultic character of the western wall starts at the end of the
4
th
dynasty, thus creating a tendency that was only followed by the decrease of the type Ib cultic
character of the false door at the transition from V.E to V.M.

6 6 6 6 6 6
3 3 3 3
0
5
10
type Ib cultic character door jambs
Figure IX.4: The
type Ib cultic
character of the
door jambs.

9 9 9 9 9
6 6 6 6
9
0
5
10
type Ib cultic character false door
Figure IX.5: The type Ib
cultic character of the
whole false door.

Chapter IX
141

Because (sub)themes with a type Ia cultic character are also placed on the western wall, the
development of this type is represented in figure IX.7 together with the curves of the development of
the type Ib cultic character of the western wall and the false door.

In figure IX.8 the type Ib cultic character of the total western wall is given and it is evident that the
overall type Ib character does not change over time.
4

The conclusion from the curves in figures IX.6 and IX.8 is that the type Ib cultic character, which was
at first practically totally confined to the false door, became increasingly shared between the two main
elements of the western wall during the course of the Old Kingdom.

4
The linear line presented in the diagram is practically horizontal, because the direction coefficient is very
close to zero (the equation of the curve is y = 0.1455x + 11.8) (see chapter III, appendix III, section II).
2 2
3 3
4 4 4 4
6 6
9 9 9 9 9 9
6 6 6 6
0
2
4
6
8
10
type Ib cultic character western wall type Ib cultic character false door
type Ib cultic character western wall
Figure IX.6: The chronological development of type Ib cultic character of western wall and false door.
1 1
4
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4 4 4
6 6
9 9 9 9 9 9
6 6 6 6
0
2
4
6
8
10
type Ia cultic character western wall type Ib cultic character western wall
type Ia cultic character
western wall
Figure IX.7: The chronological development of type Ia and Ib cultic character of the western wall and
type Ib cultic character of the false door.
Chapter IX
142

III. Conclusions.

The major changes in cultic character that took place on the western wall are the following:

1. From the start of the Old Kingdom the false door had a type Ib cultic character, which, due to
a decrease in the number of (sub)themes on the false door, began decreasing from the end of
V.M/L on (figure IX.4).
th
dynasty the role of the western wall in the cult started to increase in
importance (period V.E/E) (figure IX.6).
3. During the period V.E/L (figure IX.7) the type Ia cultic character of the western wall starts to
decrease, and this continues throughout the period V.E/L V.M/E, while in the same period
the type Ib cultic character of the western wall continues to increase.
4. In the period V.M/E the type Ia cultic character reached its minimum value (figure IX.7).
5. In the period V.L/E the type Ib cultic character of the false door started to decrease (figure
IX.7).
6. The type Ib cultic character of the false door reached its minimum value in the period V.L/E
(figure IX.7).
7. The increase of the type Ib cultic character of the western wall reached its end in the period
VI.E.

From the start of the Old Kingdom the western wall had a certain degree of type Ib cultic character.
Yet it cannot be discerned whether its type Ib role is connected with an actual cult or a magical
substitute.
Taking into account the strong type Ib cultic character of the false door, the working hypothesis is that
at the start of the Old Kingdom the false door was the centre of an actual cult (type Ib), and that the
western wall played only a small role in this activity. This is corroborated by the curves in figure IX.6
in which is visible that at the start of the Old Kingdom the type Ib cultic character is nearly exclusively
confined to the false door and that in the course of the Old Kingdom the western wall became more
important and developed a stronger type Ib cultic character.

At first the main purpose of the western wall was depicting the daily life of the tomb owner (type Ia
cultic character) and supporting the cultic role of the false door by means of depictions of priests and
the butchery scene.
The type Ia cultic character became more important during the first few years of the 5
th
dynasty, but it
soon started to diminish and to fall into nearly total disuse.
In the meantime the type Ib role of the western wall continued to increase, finally resulting in a partial
take-over of the type Ib role of the false door. This can be explained by a diminution of the importance
of the actual cult in front of the false door, and a subsequent increase in the importance in the supply
of food by way of magic.
Figure IX.8: The
type Ib cultic
character of the
total western
wall.

11 11
12 12
13
10 10
12 12
13
0
5
10
15
20
type Ib cultic character whole western wall
Linear (type Ib cultic character whole western wall)
Chapter IX
143

If indeed the supply of food for the ka of the deceased became more dependent upon magic, then there
was a growing need for decoration showing activities around the production and supply of food, and
the depiction of the food itself.
Chapter X
144
Chapter X

The interactions between the decoration of the western wall and the false door.
Further considerations about the magical food supply.

In the preceding chapter no interactions of (sub)themes have been found between the parts of the false door
itself. Yet it remains possible that interactions between the decoration of the western wall and the false door
exist, but a further study reveals that the only feasible interaction might be the presence of (sub)theme 40 (tomb
owner at the offering table, panel) exerting a negative influence on the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 3
(tomb owner at the offering table, western wall).
A possible chronological development in the magical food supply is further studied.


Between the (sub)themes of the false door and the western wall interactions are possible. However,
many of these can be considered to have no genuine basis. The only interaction that might be worth
considering is the one between (sub)theme 3 (the offering table scene on the western wall) and
(sub)themes 40 and 41 together (the offering table scene on the panel of the false door). This
interaction could be genuine because originally (sub)theme 40 was the only offering table scene
present on the western wall as a whole. (Sub)theme 3 was later imported from the southern wall of the
chapel to be placed on the western wall. This introduction of an extra offering table scene on the
western wall might give rise to (sub)themes 40 and/or 41 exerting a negative influence on the
employment of (sub)theme 3 on the same wall.

I.1. The interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 40.

The chronological development of the FO/period values of (sub)themes 3 and 40 are gathered in figure
X.1.
1

From these two curves can be concluded that the presence of (sub)themes 40 and 41 does not
influence the increasing presence of (sub)theme 3 on the western wall.
The final conclusion is that there is no indication of interactions between the (sub)themes of the false
door and the western wall.

1
The FO/period values of (sub)themes 3 are taken from diagram IV.3.Vol.2, and those of (sub)themes 40 and 41
together are determined in tableVIII.1.Vol.2.
25
50
73
91
100 100 100 100 100
110
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 3 FO/period (sub)themes 40 + 41
Figure X.1: FO/period curves of (sub)themes 3 and 40 + 41.
FO/period (sub)themes 40 + 41
Chapter X
145
II. Considerations relating to the food supply for the ka of the deceased.

The first depictions of the tomb owner in front of an offering table have been found in the burial
chambers of tombs of the 1
st
3
rd
dynasty, on cylinder seals placed next to the meal laid out on the
floor of the burial chamber.
2
This leads to the conclusion that the food supply has always been
twofold, viz. actually cultic and magical.
3
After the introduction of the panel in the true false door,
both aspects became centred on the false door, in which (sub)theme 40/41 (the tomb owner at the
offering table, panel) has always been the main (sub)theme for the magical food supply, while the
actual food supply depended on the (sub)themes on the other parts of the false door. Two (sub)themes
on the western wall can be considered also to be involved in the actual food supply (figure VII.18).
These (sub)themes are the following:

1. The butchery scene ((sub)theme 9) which was always placed in the lowest registers of the
western wall, either to the left side or the right side of the false door.
4

2. The priests ((sub)theme 7).

Beginning in the period V.E changes in the repertoire of (sub)themes placed on the western wall and
the frequency of employment of other (sub)themes indicate that the magical food supply on the
western wall starts to increase.
As already discussed, it is highly likely that (sub)theme 3 was removed from the southern wall and
placed on the western wall in order to serve as a (sub)theme connected with the non-ideographic
offering list which from then on was placed on the western wall (see chapter VIII, section III.2.2). But
this placing of (sub)theme 3 on the western wall also resulted in an enhancement of the tendency to
supply food to the ka of the deceased by way of magic.

In figures VIII.4a/b the disappearance of (sub)themes 31 (members of the family), 34 (offering
bearers), 35 (priests) and 36 (containers/standards) and the simultaneous appearance of (sub)theme 33
(offering formula, figure VIII.3) on the door jambs has been explained as a decrease of the importance
of the actual cult of placing offerings in front of the false door, with a simultaneous increase in the
supply of food by means of magic. The repertoire of (sub)themes was altered to reflect to this change
in the type of cultic activity employed for the food supply of the ka of the deceased.
5

Yet, as already mentioned above, (sub)theme 9 (the butchery scene) remained in its normal place close
to the false door in the lowest registers, even though its connection with the (sub)themes placed on the
door jambs and which were connected to the actual cult, was disappearing. The consequence was that
the frequency of employment of the butchery scene started to diminish too (figure X.2 in which
(sub)theme 34 is taken as a representative of the group of disappearing (sub)themes).
6

From the period V.E on the magical food supply started to become more important and somewhat later
the decrease in the frequency of employment of the butchery scene began to turn into an increase

2
L, V, 1128-9, s.v. Speisetischszene; Emery, Archaic Egypt, plate 29.
3
It is highly probable that at first the two aspects of the food supply were architectonically separated, i.e. the
magical supply was confined to the burial chamber, and the actual cult to the stela placed in front of the eastern
wall of the superstructure. In, for instance, the tomb of Merka (PM, III, 446; S 3505), the stela placed there
showed the sitting tomb owner accompanied by his name and titles, but without an offering table in front of him
(figure I.14).
4
In table VI.1.Vol.2 it is only in the chapel of Person (PM, III, 143-4) that this scene has been placed in the 3
rd

register counted from the bottom (in a total of 6 registers); in all the other tombs it is either in the first or the
second register. The fact that the butchery scene is placed low on the wall, close to the false door (that is, close to
the offering place in front of it) throughout the Old Kingdom makes it highly probable that it is a (sub)theme
connected to the actual cult.
5
In L, V, 560-1, s.v. Scheingaben , it is proposed that all (sub)themes depicting the provision of goods, are,
because of their inherent magical power, able to sustain the deceased tomb owner. Examples of such
(sub)themes are : offerings brought by offering bearers, personified estates (refuted in this research project), the
offerings on the table in front of the tomb owner, offering lists, the production of food (e.g. the butchery scene).
6
The FO/period values for (sub)theme 9 are taken from diagram IV.9.Vol.2, and those for (sub)theme 34 from
diagram VIII.5.Vol.2.
Chapter X
146
(figure X.2 as a testimony of this tendency). This can be explained by an increasing importance of the
(sub)theme for the magical food supply because of its depiction of the production of food.
This increase links up with the chronological development of (sub)themes 10 (piles of food) and 11
(non-ideographic offering list), and from V.M on the curves indicate a possible association between
the three (sub)themes (figure X.3; see also chapter IV, section IV, point 5).

In order to further study how the change of cultic activity was mirrored in the repertoire of
(sub)themes placed on the whole western wall, the chronological behaviour of a number of
(sub)themes has been interpreted in the light of this change.

The first problem encountered is defining the use life of the (sub)themes involved. The definition
employed for the chronological development of the cultic content of a (sub)theme is based on the
assumption that only at a certain FO/period value can the (sub)theme be considered to be really
embedded in the tradition.
7
When studying the employment of (sub)themes for the magical food
supply, it has to be taken into account that the subject of the study is a change in the type of food
supply. This means that certain (sub)themes, whose realization depends already on magical imagery,
can only be taken into account from the start of a change in that level. In that case the (sub)theme can
only be included from the period that its frequency of employment starts to change. The beginning of
such changes is determined in the diagrams IV.1-11.Vol.2 and VIII.1-15.Vol.2.

7
As already discussed, this value cannot be defined (chapter VII, section V).
75
50
40
70
78
75
42
13
19
6
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Figure X.2: The chronological development of (sub)themes 9 and 34.
75
50
40
70
78
0
10
60
82
90
25
30
64
60
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 9 FO/period (sub)theme 11 FO/period (sub)theme 10
Figure X.3: The chronological development of (sub)themes 9, 10 and 11.
Chapter X
147

The definition has some consequences:

1. The FO/period of e.g. (sub)theme 3 (offering table scene) indicates that the change started at
the onset of the 4
th
dynasty.
8

2. The changing cultic character of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family) (figure VII.7)
indicates that it has no role in the magical food supply (perhaps so at the end of the Old
Kingdom, but even then its connection with the magical supply of food is doubtful).
3. If the curve of the FO/period of a (sub)theme is horizontal, it cannot be admitted to figures X.4
and X.5 because no change takes place.

The following changes are obvious:

1. The change of (sub)theme 42 (non-ideographic offering list, panel) to (sub)theme 11 (non-
ideographic offering list, western wall) (figure VIII.5) is important, because, when the
presence of the non-ideographic offering list on the western wall started to increase (V.E-
V.M), it did so with the same cultic character it had on the panel (type Ib), but it was no longer
directly connected to the offering activity in front of the false door.
9

2. Right from the start of the period taken into account in this research project the offering
formula was placed on the architrave of the false door ((sub)theme 63) (the offering formula)
(figure VIII.3). The frequency of employment of the offering formula on the architrave does
not change appreciably over the whole period, and for this reason (sub)theme 63 is not
admitted to figure X.4.
3. Although the offering formula is already present on the door jambs of the false door
((sub)theme 33) during the period V.E, its frequency there is extremely low and only starts to
really increase from the period V.L on (figure VIII.3).
10

4. As already discussed, in figure X.2 it is evident that from the start of the period V.L on the
importance of (sub)theme 9 (the butchery scene) increased, because the (sub)theme changed
from a depiction closely connected to the actual (cultic) supply of food to an integral part of
the magical food supply, and from halfway in that period on it is included in figure X.4. The
use life of the latter is contradictory to the one in figure VII.18, in which it is depicted as being
employed throughout the Old Kingdom. This is due to the fact that in figure VII.18 its
presence as a type Ib (sub)theme is represented, while in figure X.3 it is only of interest when
it becomes part of the magical food supply.
5. During the period V.E/L - V.M/E (sub)theme 3 could be placed either on the southern or on
the western wall (table VI.3.Vol.2), but from the start of the period V.L it is exclusively placed
on the western wall. It is in the period that it could be placed on any of the two walls (V.E/L-

8
The consequence of this is that the use life of the (sub)themes admitted here is not always in accordance with
the ones given in figures VII.17, IX.1 and IX.3.
9
The definition of the type Ib cultic character (figure VII.3) does not make it possible to distinguish between the
magical and the actual cultic food supply. The offering list, as it was placed on the panel, was partly an inventory
list intended as a summing up of what was believed to be needed by the ka of the deceased during his stay in the
hereafter, and partly a ritual list mentioning the goods which were to be offered on a regular basis. During the 4
th

dynasty the importance of the ritual part of the list grew, and at the transition from the 4
th
to the 5
th
dynasty the
ritual offering list had become too large for the panel of the false door, and had to be placed on the western wall.
The number of goods that, according to the list, had to be offered to the deceased had become so comprehensive
that any physical connection with an actual offering ritual is highly unlikely. L, IV, 586, s.v. Opferliste,
concludes .....wohnte dem geschriebenen Wort die Kraft inne, auf magische Weise Realitten zu erschaffen. Die
in der Opferliste schriftlich fixierten Opfer konnten daher denselben Zweck wie tatschlich berreichte Gaben
erfllen. The ritual offering list is placed (as (sub)theme 11) on the western wall from the start of the 5
th
dynasty
on, and from then on the offering list placed there can be considered to be solely intended for the magical food
supply and no longer for the real cultic activity in front of the false door (for that reason it is incorporated in
figure X.3). During the period V.E the offering list remained placed on the panel as well (table VIII.1.Vol.2) and
there it served the actual offering cult (for this reason (sub)theme 42 is not admitted in figure X.4).
10
(Sub)theme 33 is admitted in figure X.4 from V.L onward.
Chapter X
148
V.M/E) (table VI.3.Vol.2) that the importance of the magical supply of food started to
increase, consequently from the start of that period on the (sub)theme is admitted to figure
X.4.
6. Diagrams IV.5.Vol.2 and IV.7.Vol.2 show that the frequency of employment of (sub)themes 5
(offering bearers) and 7 (priests) remains the same throughout the Old Kingdom.
Consequently, they are not introduced into figure X.4.
7. The frequency of employment of (sub)theme 10 (the piles of food offerings) starts to increase
from period V.E on (diagram IV.10.Vol.2). Although it is a (sub)theme with a unifying
function, its increased employment from V.E on, combined with the food that it depicts
indicates a connection with the change to a more magical supply of food.
8. It is probable that the actual cult in front of the false door did not disappear completely, as
offering stands have been found in situ in tombs that had been tentatively dated from the
middle of the 5
th
dynasty to the end of the 6
th
.
11

The chronological development of the (sub)themes which have a sufficient certain connection with the
two types of food supply, are gathered in figures X.4 and X.5 and the overall chronological
development is represented in figure X.6.
12

Combining the results of figures X.4 and X.5 gives the diagram of figure X.6:

11
In PM, III several offering stands are mentioned, of which some have been found in situ. 1. Niuzaptah, date:
V-VI (PM, III, 62-3; Harpur, DETOK, [109] 267). 2. Zaduwa (PM, III, 64), date: V.M or later.
12
Here the chronological developments as given in the diagrams IV.13-23.Vol.2 have been taken into account.
11
10
9
3
33
43
total 1 1 2 3 3 3 6 6 6 6
6
8
9
31
34
35
36
42
total 8 8 8 8 6 6 1 1 0 0
Figure X.5 : The use life of (sub)themes involved in the actual food supply.
Figure X.4: The use life of (sub)themes involved in the magical food supply.

=
presence of
(sub)theme

=
presence of
(sub)theme
Chapter X
149

It is evident that the number of (sub)themes concerned with the magical food supply increases from
the start of the 5
th
dynasty on and reaches a maximum value at the end of this dynasty. The actual food
supply starts to decrease in a somewhat later period (V.M/E), and reaches its minimum value at the
end of the 5
th
dynasty.
The curves obtained in this figure X.6 can be connected with the results in figure IX.6. From the
values two diagrams are made:

1. A diagram in which the curves type Ib cultic character western wall and magical food
supply are compared (figure X.7).
2. A diagram in which the curves type Ib cultic character false door and actual food supply
are compared (figure X.8).

In these two diagrams is shown that a strong connection exists between the development of both the
magical food supply and the cultic character of the western wall, and the same is valid for the
development of the actual food supply and the cultic character of the false door.

1 1
2
3 3 3
6 6 6 6
8 8 8 8
6 6
1 1
0 0 0
5
10
(sub)themes connected with the magical f ood supply
(sub)themes connected with the active f ood supply
Figure X.6: The chronological development of the number of (sub)themes connected with the actual
and the magical food supply.
magical food supply
actual food supply
Figure X.7: The chronological development of the magical food supply and the type Ib
cultic character of the western wall.
1 1
2
3 3 3
6 6 6 6
2 2
3 3
4 4 4 4
6 6
0
2
4
6
8
10
(sub)themes connected with the magical f ood supply
magical food supply
Chapter X
150

The conclusion is that on the western wall as a whole a change took place in the cultic activity in front
of the false door, and that this change became permanent in the second half of the 5
th
dynasty.
The curves also show that the decrease in actual food supply and the increase in magical food supply
reached their final values nearly at the same time.

III. Conclusions.

1. No interactions between the (sub)themes of the false door and the western wall can be
deduced from the CP/period and FO/period diagrams of the realistic interactions.
th
dynasty the decoration of the whole western wall started to change from
a predominantly actual supply of food by way of offerings in front of the false door to a
magical supply of food, by way of text, the depiction of food and/or its production, and the
tomb owner in front of the offering table, not only on the panel, but also on the western wall.
3. A close connection has been demonstrated between the chronological development of the
actual food supply and the cultic character of the false door.
4. A close connection has been demonstrated between the chronological development of the
magical food supply and the cultic character of the western wall.

8 8 8 8
6 6
1 1
0 0
9 9 9 9 9 9
6 6 6 6
0
2
4
6
8
10
active food supply type Ib cultic character f alse door
actual food supply
Figure X.8: The chronological development of the actual food supply and the type Ib
cultic character of the false door.
Chapter XI

151

Chapter XI

The results, analysis and correlation.


One of the conclusions of this research project is that the composition of the decoration of the western
wall of the cult chapel as a whole is not static over time. During the Old Kingdom several mutations
took place on it, mutations which can be divided as follows:

1. Changes concerning the (sub)themes.
2. Changes in interactions between the (sub)themes.
3. Changes in type of cultic activity.

I.1. Changes concerning the (sub)themes.

1. Chronological changes are the following:

a. Changes in the number of (sub)themes placed on the elements of the western wall of
the cult chapel.
b. Changes in the types of (sub)themes employed on the elements of the western wall of
the cult chapel or on the western wall as a whole (changes in the repertoire).
c. Changes in the employment of the available wall space by the (sub)themes.

2. Shifts, importations, disappearances and introductions can be:
1

a. From one part of the false door or section of the wall to another on the same element
of the western wall of the cult chapel (e.g. from wall section 3 to 2 on the western
wall, or from the architrave to the door jambs on the false door).
b. From one element of the western wall to another (e.g. from the false door to the
remaining surface of the western wall).

3. The following elements of the whole western wall can show chronological changes in type Ia,
Ib or II (a/b) cultic character:

a. (Sub)themes.
b. One or more elements of the western wall.
c. The western wall as a whole.

I.2. Changes in interactions.

Some of the (sub)themes which are placed simultaneously on the whole western wall, possibly
influence each others presence or absence.
The influence between (sub)themes can also manifest itself through the formation of a group of
(sub)themes.

I.3. Special functions.

The (sub)themes which are employed on the whole western wall are all related to the cult, but within
this they can either be closely connected to the cult itself or serve a special purpose in the functioning
of the cult chapel. These special purposes can be:

1
For the definition of these terms, see Technical terms and abbreviations .
Chapter XI

152

1. A unifying function: the (sub)theme is placed in the vicinity of larger (sub)themes to fill in
the space left open between them, thus combining the larger (sub)themes.
2. An identifying/signalling function: the (sub)theme is placed in such a way that it is visible for
passers-by, thus drawing their attention to the mastaba and its cult chapel (this type of function
is beyond the scope of the research project at hand).
3. A signalling/guiding function: the (sub)theme is placed in such a way that it incites a passer-
by to enter into the chapel and guides him/her further into its interior into the direction of the
false door.

II. Summary.

II.1. Changes concerning the (sub)themes.

II.1.1. Changes over time.

II.1.1.1 The number of (sub)themes on the whole western wall.

If over the whole period of the Old Kingdom the total number of (sub)themes showing a chronological
development and placed on the elements of the whole western wall is determined per period in figures
VII.17, IX.1 and IX.3, and gathered in a diagram (figure XI.1), the result is that it changed from a
minimum of 13 to a maximum of 17.
2
In other words the number of (sub)themes placed on the total
western wall of the cult chapel changed but little. It is possible that this restriction in number is partly
caused by the space available on the various parts of the false door(s). However, this lack of space was
not a factor in the placing of (sub)themes on the remaining surface of the western wall, because in that
case (sub)theme 5, a (sub)theme with an explicit unifying function,
3
would not have been employed
there.

The restriction in the number of (sub)themes that were placed on the whole western wall of the cult
chapel does not mean that there were no changes in the repertoire. The compilations of the decoration
of the western wall (table IV.1a.Vol.2) and the parts of the false door (table VIII.1.Vol.2) clearly show

2
In Van Walsem, Sense, 285 it is proposed that during the Old Kingdom an ever increasing repertoire of
(sub)themes accumulated. If this is true, this increase must have taken place on the other walls of the cult chapel,
because from figure XI.1 it is evident that, at least in the necropolis of Giza, this is not the case on the western
wall of the cult chapel. The stability of the number of available (sub)themes on the whole western wall is
corroborated by the increased placing of the same (sub)theme on several wall sections of the western wall
(combinations) (figure VI.3a).
3
Harpur, DETOK, 71 suggests that the employment of (sub)themes with a unifying function is a true Egyptian
fashion and gives the offering bearers and members of the family as examples of such a type of (sub)theme.
Both, however, are contradicted by the results of this current research project.
15 15
17 17 17 17
14
13
15 15
0
5
10
15
20
25
no. (sub)themes whole western wall
Linear (no. (sub)themes whole western wall)
Figure XI.1: The chronological development of the number of (sub)themes placed
on the whole western wall.
Chapter XI

153

that during the Old Kingdom some (sub)themes fell into disuse, while others were newly introduced to
the various parts and sections of the western wall.

II.1.1.2. Changes in the repertoire of (sub)themes.

Possibly the disappearance from the door jambs of (sub)themes 34 (offering bearers), 35 (priests), 36
(containers/standards) and finally 31 (wife/family), as proposed in chapter VIII, is caused by the
strong increase of the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 33 (the offering formula) on the door
jambs (figures VIII.3 and 4a,b).
4

This chronological development of (sub)theme 33 (the offering formula) on the door jambs of the false
door has been interpreted as part of a change that took place throughout the 5
th
dynasty on a more
overall scale in the cult chapel, a change in the repertoire that was connected with an alteration of the
mode of cultic food supply for the ka of the deceased.

The importance of the offering formula is evident from its importation from the architrave to the door
jambs and the panel of the false door in the period V.L/L (figure VIII.3). That the number of tombs in
which the offering formula was actually placed on the panel is small (3 times according to table
VIII.1.Vol.2), was probably due to lack of space.
Even its rare presence on the panel shows that the shift of the non-ideographic offering list from the
panel to the western wall, did not require the replacement by another (sub)theme (figure XI.2).
Although the offering formula was already present on the door jambs and/or the architrave, apparently
the owners of the tombs in which the offering formula was also placed on the panel wanted to stress
the magical function of the offering table scene on the panel by adding yet another implement of
magical food supply.

From this one may conclude that, although it is highly unlikely that the basic ideas about the whole
western wall changed dramatically (its purpose was and remained the sustenance of the ka of the
deceased by supplying food), yet, the way in which these ideas were expressed altered over the course
of the 5
th
dynasty.

4
In the same period (sub)theme 42 (non-ideographic offering list) is transferred from the panel of the false door
to the western wall, and, although there may be a connection between the two mutations, it is not possible to
prove a direct link between the shift of the non-ideographic offering list and the increasing frequency of
employment of (sub)theme 33 (the offering formula).
50
86
57
13
0 0 0 0
13
20
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
non-ideographic offering list (42)
Figure XI.2: The chronological development of (sub)themes 42 and 43.
Chapter XI

154

II.1.1.3. Possible changes in the employment of the available wall space.

During the period IVV.M the habit of placing the same (sub)themes on different parts of the western
wall at the same time (combinations) increased rapidly (figure VI.3a), while the number of
(sub)themes that were placed on the whole western wall does not change much over time (figure
IV.1).
One of the possible explanations is that at the start of the 4
th
dynasty part of the available wall space
remained empty, and that in the period IVV.M a trend toward a more fully decorated western wall
developed. In that case the restriction in the number of (sub)themes that could be placed on the
western wall would have caused the increased employment of combinations in that period as is shown
in figure VI.3a. However, this apparently correct argument is contradicted by the fact that from the
start of the 4
th
dynasty, the western wall at least was completely filled with decoration.
5

Another argument might be the employment of (sub)themes with a unifying function. In figures VI.4
and VI.5 there are indications that (sub)themes 5, 10 and possibly 7 have such a function, and it is this
function which automatically calls forth the introduction of combinations.
6
The chronological
development of (sub)themes 5 and 7 (diagrams IV.5.Vol.2 and IV.7.Vol.2) show that they were placed
on the wall from IV.E on, and at a very stable frequency of employment. Only (sub)theme 10 is
introduced in a later period (V.M) (diagram IV.10.Vol.2).

The forming of multiple placements (combinations) by (sub)theme 5, the most important of the
(sub)themes with a unifying function (chapter VII, sections IV.1 and IV.3), levels off early in the 5
th

dynasty (figures VI.3b). The repertoire of larger (sub)themes having been established,
7
the ratio
combinations/period of (sub)theme 5 reached a maximum value (figure VI.3b), and so did the same
ratio for (sub)theme 7 (figure VI.3d), only to start to decrease from that period on, thus making the
unifying function of (sub)theme 7 doubtful.
8

On the door jambs of the false door combinations are frequently employed, but this cannot be to fill
empty space between larger (sub)themes (because there is hardly any); probably it is meant to enhance
the effect of optical symmetry.
9

II.1.2. Shifts, importations, disappearances and introductions.

Table VIII.1.Vol.2 shows that the decoration of the architrave is not subject to a chronological
development.
10
On all the other wall sections and false door parts chronological changes occur,
changes that can be caused by the following mutations:

5
In order to determine whether proof can be found for this statement, in table IV.1a.Vol.2 all the tombs with a
complete western wall were gathered. The number of (sub)themes/tomb was determined for every period (= no.
(sub)themes / period). The chronological development of these values is represented in figure IV.1. and no
reliable indication can be found that the number of (sub)themes employed increases during the period IV. Yet
when the coverage with decoration of every complete western wall as given in table IV.1a.Vol.2, is studied, it is
apparent that a western wall which is only partially decorated is extremely rare.
6
It is evident from other stages of this research project that, although (sub)theme 10 has a unifying function, its
purpose is totally different, and based on a change in type of food supply which took place in the course of the
5
th
dynasty. This is also the reason for the late introduction of the (sub)theme on the western wall (transition
from V.E. to V.M).
7
The larger (sub)themes are (sub)themes 1 (tomb owner alone, standing or sitting), 2 (tomb owner standing with
family), 3 (tomb owner sitting at the offering table) and later (sub)theme 11 (the non-ideographic offering list).
8
A probable explanation for the decrease of the number of combinations/period for (sub)theme 7 (figure VI.3d)
is that after V.M the priests became less important, because they are connected with the actual food supply for
the ka of the deceased, and the importance of this type of food supply started to decrease around the same period
(figure X.6).
9
L, VI, 129-32, s.v. Symmetrie, there 130.
10
Concerning the drum of the false door it has been remarked (chapter VIII, section I.1) that only the name, and
exceptionally a title of the tomb owner is placed on that section of the false door, which leads to the conclusion
that no chronological development could take place there. This is not true for the drum over the entrance into the
cult chapel, because this drum is usually much larger than the one in the false door, it can easily contain, next to
Chapter XI

155

1. A shift or importation of a (sub)theme on the same element.
2. A change in placement of a (sub)theme to another element.
3. The disappearance of a (sub)theme.
4. The appearance of a (sub)theme.

II.1.2.1. The shift of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family).

An example of a change in placement on the same element is the shift of (sub)theme 2 from one
section of the western wall to another (see figure XI.3). During the period IVV.E/L (sub)theme 2 is
the most important (sub)theme on the western wall, and during this period it is transferred from wall
section 3 to wall section 2. It is only after V.E/L, when its frequency of employment starts to decline,
that (sub)theme 3 becomes the main type I (sub)theme (figure XI.4).
11

This shift of (sub)theme 2 also brings about a change in its cultic character. Depending on the wall
section on which it is placed, it is of type IIb or type Ia cultic character (type Ia on wall section 2 and
type IIb on wall section 3), while (sub)theme 3 has a type Ib cultic character only when placed on the
western wall.

name and titles, a depiction of the tomb owner, or even of the tomb owner sitting together with his wife (Harpur,
DETOK, figure 15, page 455).
11
Here the designation type I without further distinction has been used, because only the fact that it is type I
and not type II is important.
Figure XI.3: The mutations
of (sub)themes 1, 2, 6 and
8.

2 = type IIb
6 8
2 8
V.E/L

1
V.E/E

V.M/E V.E/E
6
2 = type Ia
Legend:

= shift

= importation or
disappearance
Chapter XI

156

During the period in which (sub)themes 2 and 3 were both employed on the western wall, they do not
occur on the same wall part (table VI.1.Vol.2), and it is from this fact that their difference in type I
cultic character has been defined.
12

The function of (sub)theme 2 on wall section 3 is not directly cultic; it is placed there with a
signalling/guiding function (type IIb cultic character). On that wall section it is placed without any
accompanying (sub)themes. When (sub)theme 2 is transferred to wall section 2 it takes on a type Ia
cultic character and it is accompanied by (sub)themes 6 and/or 8, with which it forms a group, thus
turning it into a scene from the daily life of the tomb owner.

At the end of period IV (sub)theme 2 is permanently placed on wall section 2,
13
and its
signalling/guiding function (type IIb) opposite the entrance is taken over by (sub)theme 1.
14

Conclusions concerning (sub)theme 2 and its cultic character:

1. The main (sub)theme of the group with type Ia cultic character shows the tomb owner with
family ((sub)theme 2) while the accompanying (sub)themes 6 (personified estates) and 8
(scribes) are attributes to illustrate the familial and professional (daily) life the tomb owner
lived while still on earth.
15
It shows him/her not only with members of the family, but also
with the persons who worked on the estates and who brought in produce. The scribes,
important for the administration of the estates, are shown performing the various tasks which
belong to their responsibility. This indicates that in period IV-V.E the daily life of a high
ranking person was considered to be of such importance that a depiction of the tomb owner
with familial and professional entourage was deemed necessary to guide visitors further into
the cult chapel in the direction of the false door. Starting from period V.E/E the importance of
the guiding role of the scene of the daily life of the tomb owner diminished and for a short
time (V.M V.L/E) this role was taken over by the tomb owner standing alone ((sub)theme
1).
16

2. The diminution in the frequency of employment of (sub)theme 2 on wall section 2 is linked to
the transfer of the non-ideographic offering list from the panel of the false door to the western
wall and to the transfer of the offering table scene from the southern to the western wall of the
chapel.

12
(Sub)theme 2 is the only (sub)theme that changes its cultic character if transferred from one wall section to
another.
13
At a later stage the possibility that, although placed on ws 2, (sub)theme 2 still had a type IIb character is
discussed.
14
In table VI.1.Vol.2 (sub)theme 2 is employed again during period VI, twice on wall section 3 (in both cases in
a type C cult chapel (see chapter IV, section 1)). These are the tombs of Sekhemka (PM, III
1
, 221, plan XXXI),
with a cruciform cult chapel and Hetepniptah (PM, III
1
,

94-5, plan XXVI) both of them with the entrance in the
middle of the eastern wall of the cult chapel. In both cases the (sub)theme is not opposite the entrance (although
this is less obvious in the chapel of Hetepniptah), meaning that in this period, although placed on wall section 3,
it is not placed there in order to exert a type IIb cultic character.
15
That these three (sub)themes form a group is discussed in chapter VII (section III.3). From table VI.1.Vol.2 it
can be deduced that only on wall section 2 is this group forming tendency evident.
16
During period IV in two tombs (aAnkh-haf (PM, III
1
, 196-7, plan XXXI); Akhtihotp) (PM, III
1
, 200-1, plan
XXXI)) (sub)theme 2 has been placed on wall section 2. The entrance in the eastern wall of the chapel of aAnkh-
haf is more to the south than usual, but the presence of (sub)theme 2 opposite the entrance is apparently
important enough to have it placed on wall section 2. The orientation of (sub)theme 2 remained southwards
(looking in the direction of the place where the southern false door used to be) (Harpur, DETOK, 394 [39]). In
the chapel of Akhtihotp the choice of the place of (sub)theme 2 is wall section 2 irrespective of the place of the
entrance.

Chapter XI

157

Conclusions concerning (sub)theme 3 and its cultic character:

1. The main (sub)theme with a type Ib cultic character shows the tomb owner sitting in front of
an offering table (on the whole western wall (sub)themes 3 and 40). Like (sub)theme 2, the
main (sub)theme with a type Ia cultic character, these (sub)themes are in fact a scene
composed of several attributes (the ideographic offering list, utensils to clean the hands,
loaves on the table, etc.). However, it does not show the tomb owner taking part in a family
meal but in the afterlife situation of consuming the offered food. (Sub)themes with a type Ib
cultic character are involved in the depiction of the various aspects of the actual offering cult
(the production, the transport, the stocking and offering of food).
2. From early in the period V.E/E (sub)theme 2 was placed on wall section 2 only, while
(sub)theme 3 was exclusively placed on the southern wall. In the period V.E/L (sub)theme 3
could also be placed on the western wall, but not on the same section of the wall as
(sub)theme 2 (table VI.3.Vol.2).
17
During the period V.M/E (sub)theme 3 was totally confined
to the western wall, while (sub)theme 2 was no longer placed there.
3. Although during the period V.E/L-V.M/E (sub)theme 3 appears also to be placed on wall
section 3, it does not take over the signalling/guiding role of (sub)theme 2.
18

II.1.2.2. The shift of (sub)theme 42 (the non-ideographic offering list).
19

The importance of the non-ideographic offering list placed on the panel increased,
20
resulting in an
increase in actual size. The consequence was that it became too large for the false door panel, and at
the transition from V.E to V.M it started to be transferred to the remaining surface of the western wall
(there becoming (sub)theme 11) (figure VIII.5).
21
On that wall it showed a strong preference for wall
section 2 (figure VI.5).

The FO/period curves of (sub)themes 3 and 11 (figure VIII.9b) indicate a direct connection between
the shift of the non-ideographic offering list from the panel to the western wall and the shift of the
depiction of the tomb owner at the offering table from the southern to that same wall.
22

As already discussed in chapter III (section VI.2), FO/period curves are not irrefutable proof of the
existence of a connection between two (sub)themes. Proof has to be derived from the CP/period curve
of the interaction, and in figure VIII.9b the existence of the connection is reasonably well, shown by

17
Harpur, DETOK, 71.
18
Three tombs have (sub)theme 3 on wall section 3 (Merib, PM, III
1
, 71-2; Seshemnufer [I] PM, III
1
, 142-3 and
Kapunesut PM, III
1
, 135). The tombs are L-shaped and (sub)theme 3 is placed opposite the entrance over the
northern false door. In the chapels of Merib and Kapunesut the tomb owner is sitting at the offering table with
one or more priests in front of him. This means the scene has a cultic character and not a signalling/guiding one.
In the chapel of Seshemnufer [I] the tomb owner and his wife are sitting opposite each other and the tomb owner
is looking to the right, which is the wrong orientation for guiding passers-by towards the false door(s).
19
Barta, Opferliste, 51, 59.
20
Barta, Opferliste, 2 divides the older offering lists into the list for the ritual offering and the inventory
offering list (e.g. the ideographic offering list, which is part of (sub)themes 3, 40 and 41 in this research project,
but which is a list of the goods to be given to the deceased during the funeral). Barta, Opferliste, 45.
21
In L, V, 1130, s.v. Speisetischszene it is proposed that at the end of period IV (sub)theme 42 was also
placed on the wall sections next to the false door(s). The claim that the non-ideographic offering list was already
in IV.L placed on the western wall is correct (see chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2). In this research project
only the periods with a FO/period which is high enough to prove the placement to be a real development or the
result of trend setting, are taken into account (e.g. for (sub)theme 11 in diagram IV.11.Vol.2 the FO/period of
period IV is 25%, while during period V.M it is 64%, the former might be considered as the first appearance of
what later became an established tradition).
22
El-Metwally, Grabdekoration, 7 also proposes a strong association between the offering table theme and the
offering list.
Chapter XI

158

the curve of the CP/period of the interaction between (sub)themes 3 and 11.
23
This means that
(sub)theme 3 was transferred from the southern to the western wall in direct connection with the shift
of the non-ideographic offering list from the panel to that same wall (see chapter VIII, section III.2.2).

On the panel of the false door a association existed between (sub)themes 40 (tomb owner at the
offering table) and 42 (the non-ideographic offering list) (CP = 73%).
24
After the shift of the latter to
the western wall, an interaction of even greater strength came into being between (sub)themes 3 and
11 (CP = 83% in figure V.2). As can be expected, the cultic character of the non-ideographic offering
list remained unchanged (type Ib) during this shift. This loss of a type Ib (sub)theme on the panel
cannot be considered to be compensated for by the extremely rare importation of (sub)theme 43 (the
offering formula), also of type Ib.

The conclusion to be drawn is that the non-ideographic offering list and the offering table scene had
been together on the panel for such a long time that their being together had become a tradition. The
growing size of the list and its subsequent transfer to the western wall made an offering table scene on
the western wall necessary. This scene, which until then had normally been placed on the southern
wall, was now transferred to the western wall.

The mutations and interactions as described in section II.1.2.2. of this chapter are gathered in figure
XI.4.

23
The CP/period values have been determined in table VI.1.Vol.2.
24
The CP value is determined in table VIII.1.Vol.2.
Southern
wall of the
cult chapel
3
V.M/E

3
11

V.M/E
42
40
Legend :

= shift = connection or interaction
Figure XI.4: The mutations of (sub)themes 3 and 11.
Chapter XI

159

II.1.2.3. The change in the frequency of employment of the offering formula ((sub)themes 63, 33 and
43).

Originally the offering formula was placed only on the architrave of the false door ((sub)theme 63 in
table VIII.1.Vol.2), but from the period V.L it was more frequently placed on the door jambs (figure
VIII.3).
25
Consequently, several of the (sub)themes, until then placed on the door jambs and
illustrating the cultic activity in front of the false door, disappeared. These were (sub)themes 31, 34,
35 and 36, whose disappearance strongly influenced the type Ib cultic character of the false door
(figure IX.5).
26

Apart from (sub)theme 33, only (sub)themes 30 (tomb owner alone, standing or sitting) and 32 (name,
title(s)) remained placed on the door jambs of the false door, thus emphasising their importance on the
western wall as a whole.
On the door jambs and the architrave the name/title(s) was by far the most important (sub)theme, even
more than the depiction of the tomb owner (figures VIII.13 and VIII.15). On the panel both of them
were of nearly the same importance (figure VIII.14).

25
Strudwick, False door, 40 proposes that the introduction of the offering formula on the door jambs might be
connected to a change in the concept of the false door, brought about by the introduction of the cornice and the
torus moulding during the period V.M/L (Wiebach, Scheintr, table I). In Wiebach, Scheintr, 137-8 it is stated
that during the 5th dynasty the false door was increasingly separated from the western wall by the employment
of the cornice and the torus moulding. This caused the false door to lose its function as a door to the interior of
the tomb and to become more of a shrine. This change of emphasis could be the basis for the increasing
importance of the offering formula on the false door, and this proposed change from a door to a shrine might
then be connected to the change from actual offering cult to magical food supply as proposed in this research
project. In Strudwick, False door, 40 it is proposed that the first appearance of door jambs with name/title(s)
((sub)theme 32) and offering formula ((sub)theme 33) took place in V.E, but that the type with name/title(s)
remained scarce in the second half of the 5
th
dynasty.
26
A causal connection between the two is certain, but it cannot be determined which is caused by which.
63
43
V.L/E

33
V.L/E

V.M/L-V.L/E
36
35 34
31
3
Legend :

= importation or
disappearance

Figure XI.5: The mutations of (sub)theme 33 and the (sub)themes on the door jambs.
Chapter XI

160

Figure XI.6: The false door of Nesutnefer (G
4970) (PM, III, 143-4).
(From Kanawati, Giza II, plate 18).

In the period V.L the offering formula was imported from the architrave on the panel of the false door
((sub)theme 43) and on the door jambs ((sub)theme 33) (figure VIII.3). The conclusion to be drawn is
that from the period V.L/E on the importance of the offering formula increased strongly. However,
seeing the FO value (7%, table VIII.1.Vol.2), it is not probable that the offering formula was placed on
the panel to compensate for the loss of the non-ideographic offering list.
27

Despite the apparent importance of the offering formula, it was never placed on the remaining surface
of the western wall. This supports the near certainty that the false door was and always remained the
most important element for the cult, whether actual or magical.
The mutations mentioned above are gathered in figure XI.5.

II.1.2.4. The importation of (sub)theme 1.

For a short period (V.E/LV.L/E) the effigy of the tomb owner standing alone ((sub)theme 1), was
placed on the western wall. It was not placed there to enhance its type Ib cultic character, but to serve
as a depiction of the tomb owner opposite the entrance of the cult chapel, in order to incite visitors to
enter and to guide them further into the cult chapel (type IIb cultic character) (figure VII.2). Possible
conclusions to be drawn from this are:

The basic idea of the tomb owner standing next to or
in the recess (the entrance) of the false door can be
imitated on elements or sections of the whole
western wall. The question remains whether the
standing tomb owner ((sub)theme 1) opposite the
entrance of the chapel and the tomb owner standing
next to the entrance of the false door ((sub)theme
30) have the same cultic function.
The cultic function of the tomb owner standing
opposite the entrance of the chapel is clear; it
consists of signalling to passers-by to enter and then
guiding them towards the false door(s). There are
two types of depiction of the tomb owner standing
(see figure XI.6):

1. The tomb owner in the door recess.
2. The tomb owner on the door jambs.

The tomb owner, when depicted in the recess of the
false door, can be considered to be coming out of the
netherworld behind the false door in order to receive
the offering laid out in front of it.
It is not likely that the tomb owner on the door
jambs ((sub)theme 30) has the same function. This
depiction has rather the intention of inciting visitors to place an offering on the stone in front of the
false door, thus playing an important role in the actual cult and having a type Ib cultic character).

27
Although (sub)theme 43 is introduced on the panel, it is rarely placed there (in table VIII.1.Vol.2 only 3 times
on a total of 45 tombs with certain presence or absence, resulting in a FO value of 7%). This scarcity is
confirmed by Barta, Opferformel, 3.
Chapter XI

161

Although later in the Old Kingdom the cult became more infused with magic,
28
the actual cult was
never completely abandoned and (sub)theme 30 could continue to play its important role on the door.

A (sub)theme placed opposite the entrance, guiding
visitors further into the cult chapel, appears to be
important,
29
because even after the shift of (sub)theme 2 to
wall section 2 it continued its guiding role (figure XI.7).
It was only when (sub)theme 2 could no longer fulfil this
role, due to its near disappearance early in V.M, that a new
depiction of the tomb owner, a depiction possibly derived
from the false door, was placed on wall part 3.
30
The role
of an inviting (sub)theme on the entrance thicknesses,
combined with a guiding (sub)theme opposite the entrance,
might have been of primary importance because the
Fortdauer of the tomb owner depended on offerings
and/or prayers of visitors or passers-by.
31
Another possible way of making the entrance to the cult
chapel more obvious is the en chelon planning of the mastaba field.

In a mastaba field which has an en chelon planning the mastabas are laid out in such a way that, at
least in the original planning, the entrance of the cult chapel of a mastaba could be seen between the
two mastabas in the row in front of it (figure XI.8).
This type of layout was introduced in the later phase of the eastern field of the necropolis of Giza (G
7540/50/60 and G 7650/60; date: IV.L), and also in a group of mastabas in the western field,
designated cemetery G 2000. Roth proposes that the passer-by was attracted toward the entrance of the

28
L, V, 563-74, s.v. Scheintr, there 565.
29
In table VI.1.Vol.2 the tombs with either (sub)themes 1 or 2 on the western wall are selected and gathered in
figure XI.7. In this figure the wall section on which the (sub)theme is placed is given as a number and its
placement opposite the entrance of the cult chapel is marked in grey. It is evident that during period IV
(sub)theme 2 was consistently placed opposite the entrance, and that at the end of period V.E the employment of
(sub)theme 2 for this purpose ends, and the function is ultimately taken over by (sub)theme 1. It looks likely that
(sub)theme 2 as the most important (sub)theme depicting a scene from the daily life (type Ia), can at the same
time have a guiding (type IIb) function, but in figure XI.7 (sub)themes 1 and 2 are 16 times (out of 30) placed
opposite the entrance (amounting to 53%).
30
This signalling/guiding role of (sub)theme 2, extended in the sense that it can even have this cultic type IIb
role when placed on wall section 2 is admitted to figure VII.18. This has no influence on the cultic character of
the western wall, because this is determined by the Ia and Ib cultic character.
31
L, VI, 659, s.v. Totenkult, Totenglauben .
name PM sth
2
sth
1

IV Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 3
Akhtihotep 200-1 2
aAnkh-haf 196 2
Nufer 72-4 1
Kaemsekhem 201-2 3
Minzedef 203-4 3
Nefermaaet 183 1.3
V.E G 5030 145 2
Merib 71-2 2
Iteti 193 3
Seshethotp [I] 149-50 2
Person 48-9 2
Nesutnufer 143-4 2
Kanufer 77-8 2
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 2
Sethu 135-6 3
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 2
V.M Kapunesut 135 2
Thenti 141-2 3
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 1
Redi --- 3
V.L Kadua 244-5 3
Raawer [II] 162-3 3
VI Niuty 133 1
Sekhemka 53 1
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 2
Sekhemka 221 1,3
Hetepniptah 94-5 1.3
Kahif 76 2
Figure XI.7: The inviting and guiding
role of (sub)themes 1 and 2 in
combination with their wall section.
Legend:

(Sub)themes placed opposite the
entrance of the cult chapel
Chapter XI

162

cult chapel by its decoration, but the type and the precise place of the decoration are not given.
32

According to Jnosi en chelon planning was introduced in the period IV.L.
33

In figure XI.9 the three items with a signalling/guiding function have been gathered according to their
chronological development.
From this figure it can be concluded that there is no apparent connection between the introduction of
the en chelon planning and the shift of (sub)theme 2 or the importation of (sub)theme 1.
Of the 5 tombs with (sub)theme 1 on wall section 3 (table VI.1.Vol.2), only two are in a necropolis
constructed in a en chelon planning.
34

wall section IV.E IV.L V.E/E V.E/L V.M/E V.M/L V.L/E
(sub)theme
2 3
2 2
1 3
en chelon
35

The mutations involving (sub)themes 1 and 2 are gathered in figure XI.10, and in order to show the
connection between the mutations of (sub)themes 1 and 2, the latter have been introduced from figure
XI.3.

II.1.2.5. The increase in frequency of employment of (sub)theme 3.

32
Roth, Gmast 6, 25.
33
Jnosi, Giza, 240.
34
Thenti, G 4920, PM, III
1
, 141-2; Redi, G 2086, Roth, Gmast 6, figure 6).
35
The light grey filling refers to phase I in the cemetery north-east of mastaba G 2000 where for a short period
some tombs were placed in such a way that there was a semblance of en chelon planning (Roth, Gmast 6,
plate 131 and figure 5, page 25).
Figure XI.8: Detail of the Cemetery en chelon at Giza; (Jnosi, Giza, Abb 54, page 239).
Figure XI.9: The chronology of the signalling/guiding decoration and cemetery layout
Chapter XI

163

In figure VI.13 it is shown that when the presence of (sub)theme 3 on the western wall increased, its
presence on the southern wall decreased. This development is closely related to the chronological
development of the non-ideographic offering list both on the panel and the western wall (figure
VIII.5). The increasing presence of (sub)theme 3 on the western wall is not influenced by the presence
of the offering table scene on the panel (figure X.1).

II.1.2.6 The disappearance of (sub)themes.

It is highly probable that the disappearance of (sub)themes 6 (personified estates) and 8 (scribes) (both
of them of type Ia) is caused by the disappearance of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family) with
which they formed a scene from the daily life of the tomb owner.
36
The problem is that (sub)theme 6
disappeared in the middle of V.E while (sub)themes 2 and 8 did this at the transition from V.E to V.M
(table VI.1.Vol.2).

In the 6
th
dynasty (sub)themes 2 and 8 returned on the western wall, but with a different cultic
character (type Ib instead of type Ia) (figure VII.7).
37
This re-introduction at the start of the 6
th
dynasty
cannot be connected with the change in food supply, because figure X.6 shows that that change had
already ended in that period.

36
In table VI.1.Vol.2 on the western wall of the cult chapel of aAnkh-haf (PM, III, 196-7, plan XXXI)
(sub)themes 2 and 6 have both been placed on wall section 2. The reason is that the entrance to the chapel is on
the eastern wall, but in front of the northern side of wall section 2. (Sub)theme 2, although on wall section 2, is
placed opposite the entrance (Harpur, DETOK, plan 394 [39]), and, consequently, has a signalling/guiding role
(type IIb) there. This indicates that, although (sub)themes 2 and 6 are on the same wall section, they have
different cultic characters, and consequently, they form no group.
37
This cannot be caused by an archaising trend, because the term archaising is defined as a return to old forms
which are in no way traditionally connected with those of the period with the archaising tendency (L, I, 386,
s.v. Archaismus). There has been no break in tradition between the period in which the (sub)themes fell into
disuse (V.M/E (table VI.1.Vol.2)) and the 6
th
dynasty, the period of their reinstatement on the western wall.
2, type IIb
1, type IIb V.E/L
1
V.E/E

2, type Ia/IIb
2
Figure XI.10: The mutations
of (sub)themes 1 and 2.
Legend:
= importation or disappearance
= shift

V.M/E
Chapter XI

164

II.1.2.7. The introduction of (sub)themes.

(Sub)theme 10 (piles of food offerings) is introduced on the western wall in the period V.M/E.
38

Its primary role, as already discussed in chapter VII (section IV.2), is a unifying one. Its employment
on the western wall increased in order to enhance the importance of the magical food supply. A

comparison between diagram IV.10.Vol.2 and figure X.7 shows that the start of the increase of the
magical food supply, of the type Ib cultic character of the western wall, and of the FO/period value of
(sub)theme 10 were practically simultaneous.

During the 5
th
dynasty (sub)theme 42 (the non-ideographic offering list, panel) was transferred to the
western wall ((sub)theme 11). This caused the transfer of the offering table scene from the southern to
the western wall of the cult chapel (figure XI.4).

(Sub)theme 4 was introduced in the period V.E/E (table VI.1.Vol.2); possibly it was imported from the
jambs of the false door.
The mutations of (sub)themes 4 and 10 discussed above are gathered in figure XI.11.

II.1.3. Changes in the cultic content.

The cultic content of each of the elements of the whole western wall of the cult chapel has its own
chronological development (figure IX.7). These developments are discussed in the following sections
II.1.3.1 and II.1.3.2.

38
Robins, Offerings, 957-63.
10
?
4
4
?
V.E/E
10
V.M/E
Figure XI.11: The mutations of (sub)themes 4 and 10.
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation
disappearance
Chapter XI

165

II.1.3.1. The (remaining surface of the) western wall.

The remaining surface of the western wall is the only element of the whole western wall on which
(sub)themes of both type Ia and Ib cultic character coexist. Because these characters are completely
different, it is useless to consider the chronological development of the two of them together any
further.

The fact that in figure IX.7 is shown that at the transition from the 4
th
to the 5
th
dynasty both types Ia
and Ib of the cultic character of the remaining surface of the western wall started to increase, indicates
that at that moment there was no intention to diminish the importance of the actual cult; apparently
both types of cultic character were of the same importance, and the intention was to increase the total
type Ia/Ib cultic character of the wall. The type Ib cultic character of the false door remained the same.
However, early in the 5
th
dynasty suddenly the type Ia cultic character started to lose importance,
while the type Ib cultic character continued to gain in importance on the western wall. This is the
moment that the first indications of a change in the meaning of the western wall become apparent.

II.1.3.2. The false door.

The chronological development of the type Ib cultic content of the door jambs forms a horizontal line
until a decrease sets in at the end of V.M (figure IX.4); for the panel it remains a horizontal line
throughout the Old Kingdom (figure IX.2). This decrease is due to the disappearance of (sub)themes
31, 34, 35 and 36, only to a small amount countered by the importation of (sub)theme 33 from the
architrave.

For the false door as a whole the line giving the chronological development is horizontal until V.M/L,
from V.L/E on this line continues horizontally but at a lower value (figure IX.5).

Thus the increasing trend toward a magical supply of food for the ka of the tomb owner, which had
already set in on the western wall, meant that those (sub)themes on the false door that were connected
to the actual cult in front of it were finally given up. In their place a (sub)theme of ultimate importance
for the magical food supply was placed on the elements of the false door: the offering formula
((sub)themes 33 and 43) (figure VIII.3).

II.1.3.3. The whole western wall.

The chronological development of the type Ib cultic content of the whole western wall is obtained by
taking together the values of the curves in figure IX.6, and the resulting development, which is a
horizontal line, is shown in figure IX.8. This means that, although the developments on the false door
and the remaining part of the western wall oppose each other (figure IX.6), the result is that no overall
change in type Ib cultic character takes place on the total western wall.

II.2.Interactions.

II.2.1 On the same element.

II.2.1.1. Between (sub)themes 2 and 3.

The most important conclusion about the interaction between (sub)themes 2 and 3 is that, although
they can appear together on the western wall, they never appear together on the same section of the
western wall.
In figure VII.4 the role of (sub)theme 2 is threefold:

1. When placed on wall section 3 opposite the entrance of the cult chapel, its role is
signalling/guiding (type IIb).
Chapter XI

166

2. When placed on wall section 2 it forms a group with (sub)themes 6 and 8 (table VI.1.Vol.2),
which gives it a role as a scene from the daily life of the tomb owner (type Ia). However,
during the period V.E/E (sub)theme 2 is placed on wall section 2 but in such a way that it is
opposite the entrance of the cult chapel (figure XI.7, also see figure VII.18). In that case the
(sub)theme could be considered also to be of type IIb.
3. In the period VI the (sub)theme is again placed on the western wall, but this time in a type Ib
cultic character.

(Sub)theme 2 is the main (sub)theme on the western wall until V.E/L, after which it loses its
signalling and guiding role (figure XI.7), while at the same time its role as a scene from the (idealized)
daily life of the tomb owner continues until the end of V.M/E (table VI.1.Vol.2).

From the start of period V.E/L (sub)theme 3 takes over the role of main (sub)theme. According to
figure VII.18, (sub)themes 2 and 3 coexist during the period V.E. In this period the frequency of
(sub)theme 2 on the western wall decreases and that of (sub)theme 3 increases (figure VI.10).

Possible causes are:

1. Even if only one false door has been placed on the western wall, the available space is not
sufficient to place the two (sub)themes together on the same wall section (an argument which
is unlikely, certainly in the case of only one false door on the wall).
2. The two (sub)themes are incompatible for cultic reasons; the working hypothesis of their
difference in cultic character ((sub)theme 2 = mainly type Ia on section 2, (sub)theme 3 = type
Ib) is based on this consideration.

II.2.1.2. Between (sub)themes 33 and 31, 34, 35 and 36.

The offering formula has always been placed on the architrave, but from the period V.L/E on it is also
placed on the door jambs as well as on the panel of the false door (figure VIII.3). About the same
period (sub)themes 31, 34, 35 and 36 disappear (figures VIII.4a and VIII.4b). Only (sub)themes 30
and 32 remain on the door jambs, together with the newly imported magical (sub)theme 33, the
latter because it is of absolute necessity for the cultic function of the false door which derived its
importance more and more from the magical food supply, partly losing its central role in the actual
supply of food.
In chapter VIII (section II.4.3) the stating of the name and title(s) of the tomb owner and the reciting in
a written form of the offering formula has been given as the purpose of the architrave of the false door.
After V.M the (sub)themes depicted on the door jambs and on the panel are the same as the ones
normally placed on the architraves (tomb owner, name/title(s) and offering formula), the only
difference being the panel on which the tomb owner is sitting in front of an offering table. This means
that the decoration of the whole false door is meant to state the identity of the tomb owner and play a
role in the magical food supply by way of the table scene and the offering formula.

II.2.1.3. Between (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8.

After the disappearance of (sub)theme 2 from section 2 of the western wall, (sub)themes 6 and 8 are
no longer employed either (figures VII.6a-c). Table VI.1.Vol.2 shows that from the moment
(sub)theme 2 appeared on wall part 2 of the western wall, these three (sub)themes were preferentially
placed on the same wall section and formed a group.
39

39
Table VI.1.Vol.2 shows that also during period IV (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8 were employed at the same time, but
only in one case are they placed on the same wall section (Kaemsekhem, G 7660, PM, III, 201-2). In this chapel
the three (sub)themes are placed together opposite the entrance into the chapel. The plan of the western wall
(PM, III, plan XXXI) shows that the uncertainty in the division into sections 2 and 3 of the wall section north of
the false door might lead to a slightly different division than the one used in table VI.1.Vol.2. The conclusion is
that it is highly probable that here too the three (sub)themes are not placed on the same wall section.
Chapter XI

167

II.2.2. On different elements.

No proof has been found of interactions between (sub)themes placed on different elements of the
western wall.

II.3.Special functions.

II.3.1. The unifying function.

(Sub)themes with this function were placed only on the remaining surface of the western wall,
apparently the sole place where they could be employed, because on the parts of the false door space is
scarce and consequently there are no (sub)themes to be unified. Chapter VII, section IV discusses
three (sub)themes with a possible unifying function:

1. (Sub)theme 5 (servants bringing food offerings) can be placed next to (sub)themes of a type Ia
and Ib cultic character. It is a (sub)theme with an universal unifying function which is
employed throughout the Old Kingdom (figure VII.11).
2. (Sub)theme 7 (priests) is not employed as a (sub)theme with a unifying function (figure
VII.14).
3. (Sub)theme 10 (piles of food offerings) has a unifying function with a slight preference for
(sub)themes with a type Ib cultic character (figures VII.12 and VII.13). It is introduced on the
western wall starting the period V.M, the period in which the means of food supply for the ka
of the deceased was changing (figures X.7 and X.8), consequently its main purpose is to unify
(sub)themes which are placed on the western wall to enhance the magical food supply.

II.3.2. The signalling/guiding function.

On the western wall this function is performed by (sub)themes 1 and 2 during several consecutive
stages. In the course of this research project en chelon planning has been proposed as another
possible signalling/marking criterion (figure XI.11), but in fig. XI.9 it is evident that the short term
signalling/guiding function of en chelon planning has no role in the changes that took place on the
western wall.

From figure XI.9 it can be concluded that, whatever its form (effigy on the western wall or possibly
en chelon planning), the signalling/guiding function continues throughout the Old Kingdom. The
disappearance of (sub)theme 2 as a (sub)theme with such a function has not been caused by the
construction of the mastaba field in en chelon planning.
40

On the western wall, during the early part of the 5
th
dynasty, the signalling/guiding role of the effigy of
the tomb owner with family ((sub)theme 2) was taken over by one of the tomb owner alone (standing
or sitting) ((sub)theme 1).
41
During period V.L/E (sub)theme 1 was in all probability transferred to the
entrance thicknesses.
42

40
The en chelon planning, which was probably introduced to enhance the visibility of the decoration placed
on the exterior wall of the mastaba at both sides of the entrance, did not spread homogenously over the
necropolis of Giza neither chronologically nor topographically.
41
A reason for this change could be the increasing preference for a more magical cult which increased the
importance of (sub)themes with a content directed less to the life of the tomb owner than it had been, and also
less to the idea that the tomb owner was actually living in the tomb.
The conviction that the deceased was not living in the tomb gained ground, and consequently it was only by way
of magic that the ka of the deceased could be reached and thus its sustenance could be assured.
42
It is beyond the scope of this research project to further investigate this assumption.
Chapter XI

168

After the disappearance of (sub)theme 1 from wall section 3 other (sub)themes were placed there. The
choice and the frequency of employment on wall section 3, the frequency of placement of (sub)themes
on wall section 3 after the disappearance of (sub)theme 1 is illustrated by table VI.1.Vol.2.
The result is that (sub)theme 4 (members of the family) is the one most frequently placed on that wall
section (a FO/period value of 43% after the disappearance of (sub)theme 1 versus 11% before), which
might indicate that the signalling/guiding function had not been discarded on the western wall, but had
been taken over by (sub)theme 4. However, because during the period in which on wall section 3
(sub)theme 1 was employed as the signalling/guiding (sub)theme, the FO value of (sub)theme 4 was
also 43% it is likely that (sub)theme 4 had no signalling/guiding function at all.

III. A compilation of the mutations of the (sub)themes throughout the Old Kingdom.

In this section a compilation is given of the mutations of the (sub)themes on the western wall of the
cult chapel during three periods of the Old Kingdom. These periods are IV V.E, V.M and V.L VI.

III.1. The mutations during the period IV V.E (figure XI.12).

The most important mutations in this period are concerned with the signalling/guiding function of the
decoration on wall sections 2 and 3.

1. (Sub)theme 2 shifts in period V.E/E from wall section 3 to wall section 2 (where it forms a
group with (sub)themes 6 and 8), and although now part of a scene depicting the daily life of
the tomb owner, the (sub)theme also continues to exert a guiding function until V.E/L.
2. From V.E/L on this function is taken over by (sub)theme 1 until the end of period V.L/E. It is
possible that (sub)theme 1 is taken over from (sub)theme 30 (tomb owner alone, door jambs),
in order to exert nearly the same guiding role as (sub)theme 30 has on the door jambs

1 1 V.E/L
30
?
2 2 V.E/E
6 8
6
4
V.E/E
Figure XI.12: The mutations during the period IV V.E.
V.E/E
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation or
disappearance
Chapter XI

169

III.2. The mutations during the period V.M (figure XI.13)

During this period numerous mutations involving the western wall and the false door(s) take place. It
is probable that in these diverse mutations the entrance thicknesses play an important role, but it is
beyond the scope of this research project to take these factors into consideration.

In the model of figure XI.13 two distinct groups of mutations can be discerned, one during the period
V.M/E and the other during the period V.M/L.

III.2.1. The mutations during the period V.M/E (figure XI.13a).

1. (Sub)theme 3 (the tomb owner at the offering table) is transferred from the southern to the
western wall of the chapel.
2. (Sub)theme 42 (the non-ideographic offering list on the panel of the false door) is gradually
transferred to the remaining surface of the western wall.
3. (Sub)theme 10 (piles of food offerings) is introduced on the western wall.
4. The frequency of employment of (sub)themes 2 (tomb owner with family) and 8 (scribes)
decreases sharply, and both (sub)themes disappear from the western wall. (Sub)theme 6
(personified estates) had already fallen into disuse during the period V.E/L (figures XI.12 and
XI.13).

It is evident that the scene of the tomb owner at the offering table, which could be located on more
than one place on the walls of the chapel (southern wall and panel of the false door), in this period
became concentrated on the western wall. The result, not only of this tendency of concentrating the
(sub)theme, but also of the introduction of the depiction of food offerings and the non-ideographic
offering list, is to enhance the magical supply of food for the ka of the deceased.

3
3
1
42 11
V.M/E
10
10
V.M/E
36
35 34
31
V.M/L
8 2
8 2
V.M/E
63
33
V.M/L
Figure XI.13: The mutations during the period V.M.
V.M/E
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation or
disappearance
Chapter XI

170

III.2.2. The mutations during the period V.M/L (figure XI.13b).

1. (Sub)themes 31 (family of the tomb owner), 34 (offering bearers), 35 (priests) and 36
(containers, standards) are no longer placed on the door jambs.
2. (Sub)theme 63 (the offering formula on the architraves) is, from this period on, placed also on
the door jambs of the false door ((sub)theme 33).

The scene(s) from the daily life of the tomb owner as depicted on the western wall ((sub)themes 2 and
8) fall(s) into disuse, as do nearly all (sub)themes involved with the actual supply of food for the ka of
the deceased.

42
V.M/E

11
2 8
1
3
3
V.M/E
V.M/E
2 8
10
V.M/E
10
Figure XI.13a: The mutations during the period V.M/E.
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation or
disappearance
3
V.M/L
31 34
35 36
1
Figure XI.13b: The
mutations during the
period V.M/L
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation or
disappearance
63
33
V.M/L
Chapter XI

171

III.3. The mutations during the period V.L - VI (figure XI.14).

The mutations in this period are few and relatively unimportant.

1. The disappearance of (sub)theme 1 from wall section 3 of the western wall.
2. (Sub)themes 2 and 8 return on the western wall, but without preference for a specific section.
43

3. It is possible that the signalling/guiding function of (sub)theme 1 on wall section 3 is taken
over by (sub)theme 4 (members of the family).
4. The offering formula ((sub)theme 63) appears on the panel of the false door ((sub)theme 43),
but this placement is rare.

43
Figure VII.18 indicates that both (sub)themes return on the western wall with a type Ib cultic character.
VI.E
V.L/E
33
43
63
V.L/E 1
8 2
V.L/L
4
2 8
?
V.L/E

Figure XI.14: The mutations during the period V.L VI.
Legend:

= shift
= connection
= importation or
disappearance
4
Chapter XII
172
Chapter XII

Conclusions.

I. Introduction.

Although a stable situation in which no changes take place, might be enviable for persons living in it
then and there, from an archaeological point of view such a steady state makes the study of many
aspects of a cultural system difficult. Although information can be obtained even from a cultural
system in stasis, it turns out that most of the data useful for the elucidation of its various aspects is
gathered from more dynamic systems.
All the angles of incidence that have been employed in this research project lead to the conclusion that
the system under study is dynamic. Consequently, its conclusions have been derived from results
obtained from the study of the chronological developments of the various subsystems pertaining to the
cultural system under study, i.e., the decoration of the western wall of the cult chapel of mastabas, etc..

For this research project the following choice has been made of the chronological development of
definable variables within the various subsystems:

1. The type of (sub)themes employed on the western wall and the false door and their location on
them.
2. Their frequency of employment.
3. Their interactions on one element or between elements and the quantification thereof.

II. Conclusions.

Two chronological developments can be discerned involving the western wall, and indirectly also
other parts of the cult chapel.

1. The chronological developments in the mode of food supply for the ka of the deceased.
2. The chronological developments in the signalling/guiding function exerted by certain
(sub)themes placed on specific sections of the western wall.

These two developments appear to be interconnected and interdependent.

Another development is that in order to explain the behaviour of certain (sub)themes, the unifying
function of some (sub)themes had to be introduced.

II.1. Discussion.

The purpose of the tomb was manifold, but first of all it was intended to serve as a burial place of the
remains of the deceased and to allow performing the funerary rites that were considered necessary for
the deceased to enter the realm of the afterlife.
1

1
Roth, Social change, discusses the change that took place during the transition from the 3rd to the 4th dynasty.
Up to the end of the 3rd dynasty the sustenance of the ka of the deceased depended on the enormous quantity of
goods placed in the magazines in the tomb, the homestead of the deceased (the transport and storages of
these goods was part of the funerary rites). At the start of the 4th dynasty the substructure of the tomb changed
from the simulation of a house with many rooms and magazines into a one-roomed burial chamber. This resulted
in a growing dependance
1. on the daily cult in the chapel that had to be performed by priests or members of the family (the
offerings or prayers of visitors were welcome too).
2. on the benevolence of the king which resulted in the introduction of the offering formula (early 4
th

dynasty in the chapel of Rahotep at Maidum, but still with the god Anubis (Harpur, Maidum, 112 and
fig. 98).
Chapter XII
173

It also marked the place where offerings could be brought for the sustenance of the ka of the deceased.
All of these aspects of the tomb assured his/her survival in the world he/she was about to enter.
2

Another purpose of the tomb was to serve as a monument, and as a status symbol, thus serving as a
place where the living could come to bring offerings, but also for remembrance, thus assuring the
survival of the deceased in the world of the living.
The sustenance of the ka of the deceased could be secured by the actual bringing of food and water,
which was accompanied by cultic activities, which were performed in front of the false door.
3
The
tomb owner expected these offerings to be brought preferably on a daily basis, but certainly on festival
days.
4
The chapel could also be considered as a means for providing the deceased with the necessary
sustenance in a magical way.

The chapel as a whole was an instrument designed in such a way that the cult for the sustenance of the
ka of the deceased could be performed in it in accordance with the views about death and afterlife
which prevailed at that moment. This also implies that the design of the chapel and everything
pertaining to it was completely dependent on the prevailing beliefs of the time, and had to be adapted
to them whenever they changed.

The design of the cult chapel was centred on three major parts:

1. The ground plan.
2. The decoration on all of its walls, of which in a direct cultic sense that of the western wall was
probably the most important.
3. The false door(s) and its (their) decoration.

The first of these three is not included in the research project; of the second only the western wall is
taken into account; and of the third solely its decoration and not its design.

The prevailing views about death and the afterlife can be taken together within the term cultic
character, because the cult was completely embedded in these ideas. Consequently, any change in
them caused a change in the design of the cult chapel, possibly in the ground plan, but certainly in the
decoration of the walls and the false door(s).
This implies that there is a direct link between cultic character and decoration, and that changes in
prevailing views about death and afterlife can be studied as a result of determining and interpreting the
changes in the decoration of two of the three major parts of the cult chapel.

II.2. Argumentation.

From the start of the Old Kingdom (sub)themes with a type Ib cultic character had been present on the
western wall, but their full deployment was insignificant, compared to the total type Ib cultic character
of the false door. The conclusion is that during the 4
th
dynasty the cultic importance of the western
wall was practically solely confined to the false door(s) against that wall.

At the start of the 5
th
dynasty the importance of the cultic role of the remaining part of the western wall
began to increase (period IV.L V.E/E), indicating that changes were taking place that necessitated
such a reaction. This increase involved both the type Ia and the type Ib cultic character, the former
showing the tomb owner in his/her daily (idealized) live, and the latter showing the response of the
tomb owner to the actual or passive (magical) supply of food.

2
Assmann, Tod und Jenseits, 54 ff.
3
An offering stone was placed in the cult chapel especially for this purpose. This feature was not only placed in
front of a false door (Reisner, Giza I, plate 66d), but later also in front of slab stelae (Der Manuelian, Slab stelae,
fig. 91), or against walls of buildings considered to be of cultic importance (Dobrev, Tables doffrandes, 143-
57).
4
Simpson, Gmast 2, plate XVII.
Chapter XII
174

Apparently during the period V.E/L - V.M/E the depiction of the daily life of the tomb owner (the
group of (sub)themes 2, 6 and 8) started to lose its importance on the western wall (but certainly not
on the other walls of the chapel). To the already present type Ib (sub)themes of the priests and the
butchery scene, (sub)themes like the offering table scene and the closely connected non-ideographic
offering list were added, thus increasing the type Ib cultic character of the remaining surface of the
western wall. This loss of the main depiction of the tomb owner on the western wall did not endanger
the possibilities of the ka of the deceased to find some expression of the image of the deceased,
because on the western wall a new main depiction of the tomb owner, the offering table scene, was
gradually shifted from the southern wall.
5

The disappearance of (sub)theme 2 (tomb owner with family), and with it the (sub)themes with which
it formed a group ((sub)themes 6 and 8), cannot be explained by a change in the basic religious views
and the cultic functioning of the chapel. Nevertheless a possible explanation can be found in the
realisation that everything that had to do with the tomb, the chapel and the cult in it, was meant to last
for ever, because in that way not only the everlastingness of the supply of food could be guaranteed,
but, just as important, the name of the deceased was kept alive in the social memory of the living.
But it was plainly visible, even early in the Old Kingdom, that in the necropolis of Saqqara, the oldest
in the vicinity of Memphis, older tombs and the cult pertaining to it were neglected and finally
forgotten.
6
Not only did this lead to a diminishing faith in the everlastingness of the tomb itself, but
also, from the early Old Kingdom onward, to a diminution of trust in guaranteed continuity of the
daily offerings.
7

It is probable that for that reason (sub)theme 2, a scene which showed the tomb owner as a provider
for his family and the people who worked for him and who were dependent of him,
8
was considered to
be unable to guarantee an undisturbed supply of food for the ka of the deceased.
In order to strengthen the provider role of the tomb owner, measures of the following type were taken:

1. The shift of (sub)theme 2 from wall section 3 to wall section 2, the western walls most
important section, thus changing its main function from signalling/guiding to a function
directly connected with the role of provider. This scene underlined the living person aspect of
the deceased, and in that role it could, in the absence of a signalling/guiding (sub)theme on
wall section 3, retain its signalling/guiding function, even when placed on wall section 2.
2. Combining (sub)theme 2 on wall section 2 with (sub)themes 6 and 8 to a scene out of the daily
life of the tomb owner, the ultimate depiction of the provider role.

But apparently mistrust grew that even this stressed form of the provider role was not sufficient
guarantee anymore, and again new measures had to be taken.

The next step was an increasing tendency to make the supply of food for the ka of the deceased less
dependent on the actual bringing of food and water to the cult chapel. The result was a gradual

5
L, III, 252-267, s.v. Jenseitsvorstellungen, there 257.
6
The oldest mastabas in the vicinity of Memphis are the 1
st
dynasty tombs which were built on the eastern
escarpment of the Saqqara plateau (L, V, 387-400, s.v. Saqqara, Nekropolen der 1.-3. Dyn., there 388).
When the first tombs of the 4
th
dynasty were built in the necropolis on the Plateau of Giza, the mastabas of the 1
st

dynasty at Saqqara were already between 400 and 500 years old (L, I, 970, s.v. Chronology).
7
This loss of trust might also be due to the increasing uncertainty of the economic situation (Redford, Egypt, 57-
8). Only in a few cases was the cult prolonged during several generations, e.g. the cult for Mehu and for
Kagemni (Altenmller, Mehu, 85). Another factor could have been that the plateau of Giza was no longer the
royal necropolis (L, II, 830 (G), s.v. Grab).
8
The text mentions only male tomb owners because all the tombs in table VI.1.Vol.2 which have a (sub)theme
combination of 2-6, 2-8 or 2-6-8 on the western wall are owned by men.
Chapter XII
175
increase of the employment of (sub)themes which could be considered to be helpful in guaranteeing
the food supply on a non-actual, magical basis.
9

Apart from the actual bringing of food and water to the cult chapel, there were other ways in which the
supply of food for the ka of the deceased could be maintained:

1. By means of depicting the goods that were to be offered to the deceased,
10
examples being
(sub)themes 10 (piles of food) and 11 (the non-ideographic offering list).
2. The depiction of the production of food, which on the western wall is limited to (sub)theme 9
(the butchery scene).
11

3. Through texts, the most important being the offering formula.
12
This text was, until V.M,
placed exclusively on the architrave of the false door, and from then on also on the door jambs
and later on the panel of the false door, although, undoubtedly due to lack of space, its
placement there remained rare.
13

4. By depicting the tomb owner sitting in front of a table in the act of consuming food
((sub)themes 3, 40 and 41). Until the end of V.M/E (sub)theme 3 is placed solely on the
southern wall, and after its shift from the southern wall to the western wall (table VI.3.Vol.2)
it became the most important of the group of (sub)themes that was concerned with the magical
food supply.

However, it has to be borne in mind that the food supply of the ka of the deceased had always been
dependent on magic; even when the offerings were actually brought to the offering stone in front of
the false door; it was by way of magic that the ka of the deceased obtained its sustenance.
Consequently, the only change in the sustenance of the ka is at this side of the false door, because
whatever the cultic activity, at the afterlife side of the false door the sustenance always reached the
deceased by way of magic.

9
As discussed in L, IV, 586, s.v. Opferliste, the offering list, which is based on text and depiction, is a
magical way of providing the tomb owner with the items needed for the cult. The non-actual form of food
supply, which gained importance from the start of the 5
th
dynasty onward, was based on the same principle of the
magical power of text and depiction. L, III, 1142, s.v. Magie states that magic could be used as a substitute
for material care, thus giving a possible solution for life-sustenance after death (see CT, III, 170b-c and less
obvious CT, IV, 23i). Fitzenreiter, Grabdekoration, 81 states Denn in dem Moment, in dem das regelmssige
Opferritual aufhrt, verliert der Tote seine Identitt und wird vergessen. This statement is invalid while the care
taken to warrant the continuity of the food supply indicates that it was not the daily offering cult which was
indispensable, but the food supply, either magically actual (the daily offering ritual) or magically passive (the
depictions).
10
Depictions of this kind had already been placed on the eastern wall of the cult chapel in the early 3
rd
dynasty
tomb of Hesyre at Saqqara (PM, III, 437-9).
11
Harpur, DETOK, 70.
12
The non-ideographic offering list is a (sub)theme which contains text. It was shifted from the panel of the false
door to the western wall where it appeared as (sub)theme 11. The first occurrence of this (sub)theme on the
western wall is in IV.L (chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2).
13
Originally the offering list, stating type and quantity of goods that the deceased would need in the afterlife,
was basically funerary (L, IV, 587, s.v. Opferliste). In that period the main sense of the false door was to
serve as a (for the living impenetrable) door into the house in which the deceased lived. (Sub)theme 42 (non-
ideographic offering list), which (at first) had a purely funerary content, was originally placed on the panel of the
false door, thus enabling the (magical) transfer of the grave goods to the house of the deceased. However, despite
the presence of the offering lists on the panel, which could have made the actual placing of grave goods in the
burial chamber superfluous, the habit of supplying real grave goods did not completely stop (Hetepheres,
Reisner, Giza, II). In the course of time the list changed from a compilation of grave goods to a list of goods that
were necessary for the cult for the deceased, and as such became more important and consequently, larger.
Finally it became too large for the panel, and had to be shifted to the western wall, where it continued its close
connection with the table scene but now in the form of (sub)theme 3.
Chapter XII
176
Diminishing faith in permanent attendance of the tomb had a dramatic effect on the frequency of
employment of (sub)themes accentuating the living person aspect of the deceased. The uncertainty
about the sustenance of the ka of the deceased resulted in an increase of the type Ib cultic character on
the remaining surface of the western wall, an increase directly linked to an increase in the magical
food supply aspect of the wall.
However, this increase resulted in a concomitant decrease of the type Ia cultic character of that wall,
and in the period V.M/E this type of cultic character reached a final and minimum value. This type Ia
cultic character is based on depicting the tomb owner as a living person busy with the daily routine of
the estate and thus acting as provider.
From the development described above it cannot be concluded that the basic view of the tomb owner
actually living in the interior of the mastaba was coming to an end.

Even though the definition of type Ib cultic character does not distinguish between an actual cult and a
cult concentrated more on the sustenance of the ka of the deceased in a magical way, it is possible to
observe a relatively swift change of the actual sustenance by way of offerings to the (passive)
sustenance by way of magic. This change takes place in the period between V.E/L and V.L/E, and at
the end of this period wall section 3 lost its last signalling/guiding (sub)theme.
14
The latter change
indicates that this function was no longer deemed necessary for the functioning of the cult chapel,
because the change in mode of supply which was taking place made the survival of the deceased less
dependent on priests or visitors bringing offerings or prayers.
15

One of the causes of these mutations was a growing need for decoration showing activities around the
magical production and supply of food, and also of decoration depicting the food itself. Another cause
was that, due to a strong connection between two (sub)themes, the mutation of one of them
automatically caused the mutation of the other (an example of this being the interconnected shifts of
the non-ideographic offering list from the panel to the western wall and the offering table scene from
the southern to the western wall).
The difference between (sub)themes 2 and 3 is that (sub)theme 3 acts as the main focal point of the
care taken here for those who live in the transcendental world of the hereafter,
16
and thus
functions as the main cultic hereafter (sub)theme. (Sub)theme 2 is the most important depiction of
the daily life of the tomb owner with his family, and thus the main here (sub)theme. The fact that
each of the (sub)themes could be placed on the western wall stresses the prime function of the western
wall, that of forming a connection between the hereafter and the here. Furthermore (sub)theme 2
is the most important during the start of the Old Kingdom, a function that is taken over by (sub)theme
3, the main hereafter (sub)theme. This indicates a change in the interpretation of the function of the
western wall.

From the beginning, the false door was the most important part of the cult chapel. Its task was actually
twofold, because the false door not only acted as the element of the chapel in front of which the actual
cult took place, but also served as an intermediary between the here and the there, thus making it
possible for the tomb owner to magically get the sustaining principle from the offerings. Its decoration
was totally adapted to these two tasks.

The panel of the false door had always been dedicated to the magical part of the cult (the main
(sub)themes on the panel being the offering table scene, the ideographic and the non-ideographic
offering list). These (sub)themes all had a type Ib cultic character, and as such were connected with
the cult in its overall magical form. The increase in the importance of the magical part of the cult made

14
From the moment that (sub)theme was not placed on wall section 3 anymore its place was taken in by other
(sub)themes. (Sub)themes 5 and 10 were the most placed there (determined in table VI.1.Vol.2 resp. 32% and
20% of all the placements). No proof can be found that either of the (sub)themes 5 or 10 became dominant on
wall section 3 after the disappearance of (sub)theme 1, and the conclusion is that the signaling/ guiding role of
wall section 3 ended at that moment
15
It is however possible that this function was taken over by the decoration of the entrance thicknesses.
16
L, V, 1128-1133, s.v. Speisetischszene.
Chapter XII
177

itself first apparent in an increase in the number of items mentioned in the non-ideographic offering
list on the panel. The result was that the list started to increase in size until it became so large that it
could no longer be placed on the panel; consequently it was increasingly transferred to the western
wall. However, the offering table scene and the non-ideographic offering list had been together on the
panel of the false door for a very long time, and their togetherness had developed into a tradition.
Thus, when the non-ideographic offering list was transferred to the western wall, an offering table
scene had to be placed next to it. This scene could not be taken from the panel, and so it was shifted
from the southern wall of the chapel and, starting V.E/L, got more and more placed on the western
wall, a development which ended early in V.M. This development strongly enhanced the importance
of the western wall for the magical food supply.

During the period V.M/E the (sub)theme depicting the piles of food offerings ((sub)theme 10) is
introduced on the western wall where it is employed as a (sub)theme with a unifying function in a
magical cultic surrounding. In this way it also enhances the magical cultic character of the western
wall.

On the door jambs of the false door the situation was different: the (sub)themes on them were more
concerned with the actual cult of actually laying offerings on the stone in front of the false door. They
had, like the (sub)themes on the panel, a type Ib cultic character, and were connected to the actual part
of the cult.
Consequently, the increasing importance of the magical cult had no influence on the frequency of
employment of the (sub)themes of the panel, but it had a dramatic impact on the employment of the
(sub)themes on the door jambs.
Nearly all the (sub)themes that were usually placed on them disappeared (family, offering bearers,
priests and offering paraphernalia), the only ones that continued to be placed on them were the two
most important (sub)themes: the depiction of the tomb owner and his name and title(s). The door
jambs were from then on taken in by the offering formula in which the name and the title(s) of the
tomb owner were incorporated.
From the 4
th
dynasty on the offering formula had been the main feature of the architraves of the false
door and this (sub)theme was introduced on the door jambs as a (sub)theme with a magical type Ib
cultic character, thus enhancing the magical type Ib cultic character of the false door.
With these mutations the cultic character of the false door remained of type Ib, but its connection with
the actual cult had been terminated completely at the start of V.L.

The growing importance of the magical food supply was accompanied by a strong increase in the type
Ib cultic character of the western wall and a nearly complete disappearance of its type Ia cultic
character; furthermore it was accompanied by a decrease in the cultic type Ib character of the false
door. Although the result for the whole western wall is that no net change in type Ib cultic character
took place, it can still be concluded that after the change during the period V.E/L V.L/E the false
door was no longer the centre of cultic importance on the western wall, this role had been spread
over all the elements of the wall.
The actual cult in the chapel was never abandoned completely, because if magic had become the only
means of food supply, it would have been effective even if the (sub)themes had only been placed on
the walls of the burial chamber. Late in the Old Kingdom in some tombs the offering list, depictions of
offerings and other items connected with the magical supply of food were indeed placed on the walls
of the burial chamber,
17
but it never became a method chosen by many tomb owners. This fact
indicates that the decision to place decoration on the walls of the burial chamber was not caused by a
change in religious beliefs.

17
L, II, 854, s.v. Grabdekoration. Some examples are: Kaemankh (PM, III
1
, 131-2), date V.L (Kanawati,
Giza I, plate 34-37); Kakherptah (PM, III
1
, 166-7) date VI.E (Junker, Giza VIII, figure 56); Ankhmahor (PM,
III, 512-5), date VI.E and Mehu (PM, III, 619-22), date VI.E. Also see Kanawati, Burial chamber.
Chapter XII
178

Yet the change in cult is not necessarily linked to a change of ideas about the afterlife itself. Up to the
start of the change the perception of life after death had been twofold. There was an idea that the tomb
was the world in which the deceased bodily lived, and the false door was the door of the house through
which the deceased could enter the world of the living, but there also existed the more transcendent
idea of going up to the great god and walking on the beautiful roads of the west,
18
and as already
discussed, the final step by which the food, either real or imaginary, got to the tomb owner was always
magical.

III. The signalling/guiding role.

When the place intended for the offerings (the niche and later the false door) was no longer located on
the eastern wall of the tomb, but in an exterior or interior cult chapel, it was no longer directly visible
for a passer-by. This invisibility not only necessitated the introduction of identifying and
signalling/guiding decoration on the entrance and its thicknesses but also the introduction of the same
type of decoration on the western wall opposite the entrance.

At first, this signalling/guiding function was twofold because depictions of the tomb owner with
family, and above all with name and title(s), identify the deceased (person signalling) and depictions
incorporating the offering table identify the purpose (purpose signalling) of the cult chapel.
Later, when the depictions of the tomb owner with the offering table were no longer employed on the
entrance thicknesses, and only depictions of the tomb owner either alone or with family remained
placed there, it is evident that a change in the meaning of the chapel had taken place.
19

Indication of the purpose is no longer necessary; only the signalling of the tomb owner on the outer
reaches of the tomb remains important, all the more so because this signalling/guiding function no
longer existed on the western wall.
This loss of the purpose signalling function at the entrance of the chapel is directly connected with the
change in cultic character of the western wall. It was no longer necessary to indicate the purpose of the
chapel, because the actual offering cult was no longer the only possible way to sustain the ka of the
deceased.

As already stated, the disappearance of (sub)theme 2 (together with (sub)themes 6 and 8) from wall
section 2 resulted in the loss of the last remnants of its signalling/guiding function in the chapel. In
order to reinstate this function a depiction of the tomb owner in a standing posture and without
accompanying members of the family ((sub)theme 1) was placed on wall section 3. It is possible that
this (sub)theme was imported from the door jambs of the false door, but no evidence for this can be
deduced from the data at hand. This (sub)theme was placed on wall section 3 for only a short period
(until the end of V.L/E), and from this period on no further (sub)themes with a signalling/guiding
function were placed on this wall section.

IV. Epilogue.

It is evident that the change in the mode of food supply on the western wall is a change that in fact
involves a great number of elements of the chapel. All these changes and mutations take place in
reaction to a growing conviction that it is impossible to guarantee an everlasting sustenance of the ka
of the deceased. This conviction could have been strengthened by an economic recession that to all
probability accompanied the end of the Old Kingdom and that might even have been one of the factors
that caused its downfall.

18
Oster, Bedeutungswandel, 88 ff..
19
The offering table scene disappears from the entrance thicknesses in the period V.M/E, the sitting tomb owner
in the period V.L/E, both of them to be replaced by the effigy of the tomb owner in a standing position.
Chapter XII
179
In previous studies several of these changes and mutations have been discussed, but always as
independent developments. Very often this leads to explanations of the various changes that strongly
contradict each other.

However in this research project all of these changes have been brought together in one model, and it
turns out that changes that seem very often without rime or reason, are in fact part of a much bigger
scheme, and that all of these apparently independent mutations are interdependent in a very intricate
way. This model also makes it clear that these changes can be understood to be part of one major
explanation.
180


VOLUME II:

Catalogues
Tables
Diagrams
Chronological orderings
Plates

181

182

Catalogues
183

name PM designation date

Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 G 7130 IV.E
Akhtihotp 200-1 G 7650 IV.E
aAnkh-haf 196 G 7510 IV.L
Nufer 72-4 G 2110 IV.L
Duaenhor 200 G 7550 IV.L
Harzedef 191 G 7210 IV.L
Kaemsekhem 201-2 G 7660 IV.L
Minzedef 203-4 G 7760 IV.L
Nefermaaet 183 G 7060 IV.L
G 7560 200 G 7560 IV.L
Zaty 204-5 G 7810 IV.L/V.E
Merib 71-2 G 2100-I-annex IV.L/V.E
Iteti 193 G 7391 IV.L:V.E
Seshethotp 149-50 G 5150 V.E
Person 48-9 LG 20 V.E
Kanufer 77-8 G 2150 V.E
Wehemka 114-5 D 117 V.E
Senenuka 68-9 G 2041 V.E
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 G 4940 V.E
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 G 2155 V.E
Nesutnufer 143-4 G 4970 V.E
Shepseskafaankh 175 G 6040 V.E
Sethu 135-6 G 4710 V.E
Kapunesut 135 G 4651 V.E/M
Thenti 141-2 G 4920 V.E/M
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 G 5080 V.M
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 G 7948 V.M
Khufukhaaef [II] 190-1 G 7150 V.M
Itisen 252-3 --- V-M/L
Kapi 69-70 G 2091 V.M/L
Kadua 244-5 --- V.L
Seshemnufer 249 --- V.L
Sa-ib 70 G 2092/93 V.L
Nekhetka 240 --- V.L
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 G 5170 V.L
Kakhent --- G 2088 V.L
Raawer [II] 162-3 G 5470 V.L
Nefer-khuwi --- G 2098 V.L
Nefer-mesdjer-
khufu
--- G 2240 V.L
Nimaaetrea 282-4 --- V.L
aAnkhmaarea 206 G 7837/7843 V.L
Nesemnau 209 LG 64 V.L/VI.E
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 G 2184 V.L/VI.E
Catalogue IV.1.Vol.2
(continued)

Decoration western
wall present

False door(s) present

No. of tombs: 57
184
Meruka 118-9 --- V.L/VI.E
Nufer [I] 137-8 G 4761 V.L/VI.E
Niuty 133 G 4611 V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 221-2 G VIII S V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 53 G 1029 V.L/VI.E
Setka 160-1 --- V.L/VI.E
Hetepniptah 94-5 G 2430 VI.E
Weri 121 --- VI.E
Iasen 82 G 2196 VI.E
Idu 185-6 G 7102 VI.E
Meryreanufer 184-5 G 7101 VI.E/M
Snefruhotp 96 G 3008 VI.M
Kahif 76 G 2136 VI.M
Khnemu 121 --- VI.L

total tombs 57

(end)
continued
185

name PM no. dating subtotal

Khentka 74-5 G 2130 IV.E
Wonshet 139 G 4840 IV.L
Khemtnu 155 G 5210 IV.L
Meresaankh [III] 197-9 G 7530/40 IV.L
Nihetepkhnum 50 --- IV.L
subtotal 5
Snefrukhaaef 183-4 G 7070 IV.L/V.E
Snefrusonb 125 G 4240 IV.L/V.E
Thentet 139 --- IV.L/V.E
Wehemnefert 139-40 --- IV.L/V.E
subtotal 4
Ruzka 247 --- V.E
Nensezerkai 72 G 2101 V.E
Zaty 161 G 5370 V.E/M
Iti 174-5 G 6030 V.M
Kaseuza 159 G 5340 V.M
Tjeset --- G 2097 V.L
Nikauhor 236-7 LG 91 V.L
Khenit 162 --- V.L
Ptahhotp 161 --- V.L
Mersuaankh 269-70 --- V.L
Khufuaankh 129-30 G 4520 V.L
subtotal 11
Nikaukhnum 119 --- V.L/VI.E
Irenre 144-5 --- V.L/VI.E
Khuienptah 237 --- V.L/VI.E
Niaankhrea [II] 223 LG 55 V.L/VI.E
subtotal 4
Nufer (Idu) 165 G 5550 VI.E
Nimaaetrea-tut --- G 2092a VI.E
Akhetmehu 87 G 2375 VI.M
Sedaug 52-3 G 1012 VI.M
Meni [II] 107-8 --- VI.L
subtotal 5
grand total 29


Decoration western wall
absent


No. of tombs: 29

(end)
186
name PM no. dating subtotal

Nikaurea 232-3 LG 87 IV.L
--- 145 G 5030 IV.L-V.E
Sekhemkarea 233-4 LG 89 V.E
Iymery 170-4 G 6020 V-E/M
Kanenesut [II] 79-80 G 2156 V.M
Neferbauptah 169-70 G 6010 V.M/L
Redi --- G 2086 V-M/L
subtotal 7
total tombs 7


Decoration western wall present

False door(s) absent

no. of tombs: 7
187
name PM dating subtotal

Khufukhaaef [I] 188 IV.E
Khentka 74-5 IV.E
Akhtihotp 200-1 IV.E
aAnkh-haf 196 IV.L
Nufer 72-4 IV.L
Duaenhor 200 IV.L
Harzedef 191 IV.L
Kaemsekhem 201-2 IV.L
Minzedef 203-4 IV.L
Nefermaaet 183 IV.L
G 7560 200 IV.L
Wonshet 139 IV.L
Khemtnu 155 IV.L
Meresaankh [III] 197-9 IV.L
Nihetepkhnum 50 IV.L
subtotal 15
Snefrukhaaef 183-4 IV.L/V.E
Snefrusonb 125 IV.L/V.E
Zaty 204-5 IV.L/V.E
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E
Iteti 193 IV.L:V.E
Thentet 139 IV.L/V.E
Wehemnefert 139 IV.L/V.E
subtotal 7
Seshethotp 149-50 V.E
Ruzka 247 V.E
Person 48-9 V.E
Kanufer 77-8 V.E
Wehemka 114-5 V.E
Senenuka 68-9 V.E
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 V.E
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E
Nesutnufer 143-4 V.E
Nensezerkai 72 V.E
Shepseskafaankh 175 V.E
Sethu 135-6 V.E
Kapunesut 135 V.E/M
Thenti 141-2 V.E/M
Zaty 161 V-E/M
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 V.M
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 V.M
Khufukhaaef [II] 190-1 V.M
Iti 174 V.M
Kaseuze 159 V.M
Itisen 252-3 V-M/L
Kapi 69-70 V.M/L
Catalogue IV.1/2.Vol.2
(continued)


no. of tombs : 86
188
Kadua 244-5 V.L
Seshemnufer 249 V.L
Sa-ib 70 V.L
Nekhetka 240 V.L
Khenit 162 IV.L
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 V.L
Tjeset --- V.L
Kakhent --- V.L
Nikauhor 236-7 V.L
Raawer [II] 162-3 V.L
Nefer-khuwi --- V.L
Ptahhotp 161 V.L
Nefer-mesdjer-khuwi --- V.L
Nimaaetrea 282-4 V.L
aAnkhmarea 206 V.L
Khufuaankh 129 V.L
Mersuaankh 269 V.L
subtotal 39
Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E
Meruka 118-9 V.L/VI.E
Setka 160-1 V.L/VI.E
Nufer [I] 137-8 V.L/VI.E
Nikaukhnum 119 V.L/VI.E
Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 221-2 V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E
Irenre 144-5 V.L/VI.E
Khuienptah 237 V.L/VI.E
Niaankhrea [II] 223 V.L/VI.E
subtotal 12
Nimaaetrea-tut --- VI.E
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E
Nufer (Idu) 165 VI.E
Weri 121 VI.E
Iasen 82 VI.E
Idu 185-6 VI.E
Meryreanufer 184-5 VI.E/M
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M
Akhetmehu 87 VI.M
Kahif 76 VI.M
Sedaug 52-3 VI
Khnemu 121 VI.L
Meni [II] 107-8 VI.L
subtotal 13
grand total 86

(continued)
189
name PM dating subtotal

Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 IV.E
Akhtihotp 200-1 IV.E
aAnkh-haf 196 IV.L
Nufer 72-4 IV.L
Duaenhor 200 IV.L
Harzedef 191 IV.L
Kaemsekhem 201-2 IV.L
Minzedef 203-4 IV.L
Nefermaaet 183 IV.L
Nikaurea 232-3 IV.L
G 7560 200 IV.L
subtotal 11
Zaty 204-5 IV.L/V.E
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E
G 5030 145 IV.L/V.E
Iteti 193 IV.L/V.E
subtotal 4
Seshethotp 149-50 V.E
Sekhemkarea 233-4 V.E
Person 48-9 V.E
Kanufer 77-8 V.E
Wehemka 114-5 V.E
Senenuka 68-9 V.E
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 V.E
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E
Nesutnufer 143-4 V.E
Shepseskafaankh 175 V.E
Sethu 135-6 V.E
Kapunesut 135 V.E/M
Thenti 141-2 V.E/M
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 V.M
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 V.M
Khufukhaaef [II] 190-1 V.M
Kanenesut [II] 79-80 V.M
Neferbauptah 169-70 V.M
Iymery 170-4 V-M/L
Itisen 252-3 V-M/L
Redi --- V-M/L
Kapi 69-70 V.M/L
Kadua 244-5 V.L
Seshemnufer 249 V.L
Sa-ib 70 V.L
Nekhetka 240 V.L
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 V.L
Kakhent --- V.L
Raawer [II] 162-3 V.L
Catalogue IV.1/3.Vol.2
(continued)

Decoration present on the western wall

no. of tombs: 64
190
Nefer-khuwi --- V.L
Nefer-mesdjer-khufu --- V.L
Nimaaetrea 282-4 V.L
aAnkhmaarea 206 V.L
subtotal 33
Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E
Meruka 118-9 V.L/VI.E
Nufer [I] 137-8 V.L/VI.E
Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 221-2 V.L/VI.E
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E
Setka 160-1 V.L/VI.E
subtotal 8
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E
Weri 121 VI.E
Iasen 82 VI.E
Idu 185-6 VI.E
Meryreanufer 184-5 VI.E/M
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M
Kahif 76 VI.M
Khnemu 121 VI.L
8
grand total 64

(continued)
191

Tables
192

(sub)
theme
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
Name PM
III
date

Khufukhaaef
[I]
188-
90
IV.E - x - - x x x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Akhtihotp 200-
1
IV.E o x o o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 3
aAnkh-haf 196 IV.L o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o 2
Nufer
1
72-4 IV.L - x - - x - x - x - - - - - - - - - 4
Kaemsekhem 201-
2
IV.L o x o o x x x x x o o o o o o o o o 6
Minzedef 203-
4
IV.L o x o o x x o o x o o o o o o o o o 4
Duaenhor 200 IV.L o o o o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 2
Harzedef 191 IV.L o o o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1
Nefermaaet 183 IV.L - x - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Nikaurea 232-
3
IV.L - - x o x - o o x - x - - - - - - - 4
G 7560 200 IV.L o o o o x o o x o o o o o o o o o o 2
G 5030 145 IV.L/V.E o x o o x x o o o o o o o o o o o o 3
Zaty 204-
5
IV.L/V.E - x - - x x x - x - x - - - - - - - 6
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E - x x x x - x x x - - - - - - - - - 7
Iteti 193 IV.L/V.E o x o o x o x o x o o o o o o o o o 4
Seshethotp 149-
50
V.E o x o x x x x x o o o o o o o o o o 6
Sekhemkarea 233-
4
V.E o o o o o o o o o o x o o o o o o o 1
Person 48-9 V.E - x - x x - x x x - - - - - - - - - 6
Kanufer 77-8 V.E - x - - x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 4
Wehemka 114-
5
V.E - - x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 4
Senenuka 68-9 V.E - - x x x - - - x - x - - - - - - - 5
Seshemnufer
[I]
142-
3
V.E - x x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E - x - x x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Nesutnufer 143-
4
V.E - x - - x x x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Shepseskaf
aankh
175 V.E o o x o x o o o o x o o o o o o o o 3
Sethu 135-
6
V.E x o o o x o o
2
x o o o o o o o o o o 3
Kapunesut 135 V.E/V.M - x x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 5
(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total

1
The depictions in the uppermost register south of the false door can be, according to the rest of the
western wall, completed to the depiction of titles. Consequently, the wall is considered to be complete.
2
Harpur, DETOK, plan 20, specifies that on the second register from the top of the wall 2 offering bearers
and 2 priests are depicted. LD, II, 87 gives 5 figures on that register. The priests are considered to be
bearers who place their goods on pedestals, because this action does not automatically makes them priests.
Table IV.1.Vol.2 (continued)
193
Name PM
III
date

Thenti 141-
2
V.E/V.M x - - - x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 4
Jymery 170-
4
V.E/V.M - - x - x - x - x - x - - - - - - - 5
Seshemnufer
[II]
146-
8
V.M - - x x - - - - x x x - - - - - - - 5
Raakhaaefaankh
3

207-
8
V.M - x - - - - - x - - - - - - - - - - 2
Khufukhaaef
[II]
190-
1
V.M - - x - x - - - - x x - - - o x - - 5
Kanenesut [II] 79-
80
V.M - - x x - - x - - x x - - - - - - - 5
Nuferbauptah 169-
70
V-M/V.L - - x - x - x - - x x - - - - - - - 5
Itisen 252-
3
V-M/V.L o o o o x o x o o x x o o o o o o o 4
Redi --- V-M/V.L x - - - x - - - x x - - - - - - - - 4
Kapi 69-
70
V.M/V.L o o x o o o x o o o x o o o o o o o 3
Kadua 244-
5
V.L x o x x x o x o o x x o o o o o o o 7
Seshemnufer 249 V.L o o o o o o o o x o o o o o o o o o 1
Sa-ib
4
70 V.L o o x x x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 4
Nekhetka 240 V.L - - x - x - - - - x x - - - - - - - 4
Seshemnufer
[III]
153-
4
V.L - - x x x - x - x x x - - - - - - - 7
Kakhent --- V.L - - x - x - x - x x - - - - - - - - 5
Raawer [II] 162-
3
V.L x - x - x - x - x x - - - - - - - - 6
Nefer-khuwi
5
--- V.L - - - x x - - - x x x - - x - - - - 6
Nefer-mesdjer-
khufu
--- V.L - - x x x - x - x x - x x - - - - - 8
Nimaaetrea 282-
4
V.L o o x o x o o o o x o o o o o o o - 3
aAnkhmaarea 206 V.L - - x - x - - - - - x - - - - - - - 3
(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
Name PM
III
date

Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E - - x - x - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2

3
In PM, III
1
, plan XXXI the (sub)themes on the walls of niche no. 5 have not been included because the
niche is interpreted as a false door. The decoration of the western wall is considered to be complete because
the parts that are missing must be seen as parts of the false door.
4
Roth, Gmast, 6, 107, note 62 states that PM III assigns the mastaba to Nimaetre, which is true for
mastaba G 2092a. Roth, Gmast, 6, 109-111 gives blocks (plates 172C, 173A/B and 178) that probably
belonged to the western wall. (Sub)themes 3 and 5, which are placed on these blocks, are included in the
list. The decoration on the south end of the western wall of the corridor has been included because a false
door had been placed on the western wall of this corridor.
5
The western wall of the corridor south of the recess has been included.
Table IV.1.Vol.2 (continued)
194
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E o x o o o o o x o o o o o o o o x - 3
(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
Name PM
III
date

Meruka 118-
9
V.L/VI.E o o x x x o x o x x x o o o o o o o 7
Nufer [I]
6
137-
8
V.L/VI.E - - x x x - - - x x x - - - - - - - 6
Sekhemka 221-
2
V.L/VI.E o x o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2
Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E o x x o x o x x x x o o o o o o o o 7
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E o x x o x o x o x x o o o o o o o o 6
Setka
7
160-
1
V.L/VI.E o o x o x o x o x x x o o o o o o o 6
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E o x o o x o x o o o o o o o o o o o 3
Weri 121 VI.E - - x - - - x - - - x - - - - - - - 3
Iasen 82 VI.E - - x - - - x - - x x - - - - - - - 4
Idu 185-
6
VI.E - - x - x - x - x x x - - - - - - - 6
Meryreanufer 184-
5
VI.E/VI.M o o o x x o o o o x o o o o o o o o 3
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M o o o o x o o o x x o o o o o o o o 3
Kahif
8
76 VI.M - x x x x - - x x x x - - - - - - - 8
Khnemu 121 VI.L o o x x o o o o o o x o o o o o o o 3

grand total 64
total x / - 37 47 45 40 58 40 45 40 47 45 42 35 35 35 34 35 36 37
number of x 5 25 33 20 52 8 33 15 29 25 24 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 274
percentage (FO
value)
14 53 73 50 90 20 73 38 62 56 57 3 3 3 0 3 3 3

6
The decoration in the upper registers south of the southern false door can be completed, according to the
decoration of the rest of the wall to food offerings and the western wall is considered to be complete.
7
On the western wall, between the false doors, Setka has been depicted twice sitting in front of separate
offering tables. Priests are standing in front of both of them. A wab-priest has been added to the butchery
scene.
8
In the top left corner of the western wall the tomb owner is sitting at the offering table, in front of him an
non-ideographic offering list and to the right of the offering list a member of the family. This member of
the family is included as (sub)theme 4.
Table IV.1.Vol.2 (end)
(end)
195
(sub)
theme
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
x
Name PM
III
date
IV
Khufukhaaef
[I]
188-
90
IV.E - x - - x x x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Akhtihotp 200-
1
IV.E o x o o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 3
aAnkh-haf 196 IV.L o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o 2
Nufer 72-4 IV.L - x - - x - x - x - - - - - - - - - 4
Kaemsekhem 201-
2
IV.L o x o o x x x x x o o o o o o o o o 6
Minzedef 203-
4
IV.L o x o o x x o o x o o o o o o o o o 4
Duaenhor 200 IV.L o o o o x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 2
Harzedef 191 IV.L o o o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1
Nefermaaet 183 IV.L - x - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
G 7560 200 IV.L o o o o x o o x o o o o o o o o o o 2
Nikaurea 232-
3
IV.L - - x o x - o o x - x - - - - - - - 4
V.E
G 5030 145 IV.L/V.E o x o o x x o o o o o o o o o o o o 3
Iteti 193 IV.L/V.E o x o o x o x o x o o o o o o o o o 4
Zaty 204-
5
IV.L/V.E - x - - x x x - x - x - - - - - - - 6
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E - x x x x - x x x - - - - - - - - - 7
Seshethotp 149-
50
V.E o x o x x x x x o o o o o o o o o o 6
Sekhemkarea 233-
4
V.E o o o o o o o o o o x o o o o o o o 1
Person 48-9 V.E - x - x x - x x x - - - - - - - - - 6
Nesutnufer 143-
4
V.E - x - - x x x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Kanufer 77-8 V.E - x - - x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 4
Wehemka 114-
5
V.E - - x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 4
Senenuka 68-9 V.E - - x x x - - - x - x - - - - - - - 5
Seshemnufer
[I]
142-
3
V.E - x x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E - x - x x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 5
Shepseskaf
aankh
175 V.E o o x o x o o o o x o o o o o o o o 3
Sethu 135-
6
V.E x o o o x o o x o o o o o o o o o o 3
V.M
Kapunesut 135 V.E/V.M - x x x x - x - - - - - - - - - - - 5
Thenti 141-
2
V.E/V.M x - - - x - x x - - - - - - - - - - 4
Raakhaaefaankh 207-
8
V.M - x - - - - - x - - - - - - - - - - 2
Neferbauptah 169-
70
V-M/V.L - - x - x - x - - x x - - - - - - - 5
Table IV.1a.Vol.2 (continued)
196
(sub)
theme
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
x
Name PM
III
date

Khufukhaaef
[II]
190-
1
V.M - - x - x - - - - x x - - - o x - - 5
Seshemnufer
[II]
146-
8
V.M - - x x - - - - x x x - - - - - - - 5
Kanenesut [II] 79-
80
V.M - - x x - - x - - x x - - - - - - - 5
Iymery 170-
4
V-E/V.M - - x - x - x - x - x - - - - - - - 5
Itisen 252-
3
V-M/V.L o o o o x o x o o x x o o o o o o o 4
Redi --- V-M/V.L x - - - x - - - x x - - - - - - - - 4
Kapi 69-
70
V.M/V.L o o x o o o x o o o x o o o o o o o 3
Sa-ib 70 V.L o o x x x o o o x o o o o o o o o o 4
V.L
Nefer-mesdjer-
khufu
--- V.L - - x x x - x - x x - x x - - - - - 8
aAnkhmaarea 206 V.L - - x - x - - - - - x - - - - - - - 3
Kadua 244-
5
V.L x o x x x o x o o x x o o o o o o o 7
Seshemnufer 249 V.L o o o o o o o o x o o o o o o o o o 1
Raawer [II] 162-
3
V.L x - x - x - x - x x - - - - - - - - 6
Nekhetka 240 V.L - - x - x - - - - x x - - - - - - - 4
Seshemnufer
[III]
153-
4
V.L - - x x x - x - x x x - - - - - - - 7
Kakhent --- V.L - - x - x - x - x x - - - - - - - - 5
Nefer-khuwi --- V.L - - - x x - - - x x x - - x - - - - 6
Nimaaetrea 282-
4
V.L o o x o x o o o o x o o o o o o o - 3
Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E - - x - x - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
Setka 160-
1
V.L/VI.E o o x o x o x o x x x o o o o o o o 6
VI
Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E o x x o x o x x x x o o o o o o o o 7
Sekhemka 221-
2
V.L/VI.E o x o o x o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2
Nufer [I] 137-
8
V.L/VI.E - - x x x - - - x x x - - - - - - - 6
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E o x x o x o x o x x o o o o o o o o 6
Meruka 118-
9
V.L/VI.E o o x x x o x o x x x o o o o o o o 7
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E o x o o o o o x o o o o o o o o x - 3
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E o x o o x o x o o o o o o o o o o o 3
Weri 121 VI.E - - x - - - x - - - x - - - - - - - 3
Iasen 82 VI.E - - x - - - x - - x x - - - - - - - 4
Idu 185-
6
VI.E - - x - x - x - x x x - - - - - - - 6
Table IV.1a.Vol.2 (continued)
197
(sub)theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 total
x
Name PM
III
date

Meryreanufer 184-
5
VI.E/VI.M o o o x x o o o o x o o o o o o o o 3
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M o o o o x o o o x x o o o o o o o o 3
Kahif 76 VI.M - x x x x - - x x x x - - - - - - - 8
Khnemu 121 VI.L o o x x o o o o o o x o o o o o o o 3

total 64
total x / - 37 47 45 40 58 40 45 40 47 45 42 35 35 35 34 35 36 37
number of x 5 25 33 20 52 8 33 15 29 25 24 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 274
percentage (FO
value)
14 53 73 50 90 20 73 38 62 56 57 3 3 3 0 3 3 3

Table IV.1a.Vol.2 (end)
198
name PM 6 2 8 5 7 9 3 11 4 10 1

IV Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 1 3 2 2 2
Akhtihotp 200-1 2 3 2
aAnkh-haf 196 2 2
Nufer 72-4 1 1 1 1
Kaemsekhem 201-2 2 3 2 1 1 1
Minzedef 203-4 1 3 2 2
Duaenhor 200 1 1
Harzedef 191 1
Nefermaaet 183 1.3
Nikaurea 232-3 2 2 2 2
V.E G 5030 145 2 2 2
Iteti 193 3 2 2 2
Merib 71-2 2 1.2 1.2.3 3 1 3 2
Seshethotp 149-50 2 2 2 3 1 2
Sekhemkarea 233-4 2
Person 48-9 2 2 2 2 2 2
Nesutnufer 143-4 2 2 2 2.3 1
Kanufer 77-8 2 2 1 2
Wehemka 114-5 2.3 2 2 1.2
Senenuka 68-9 2 2 2 2 2
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 2 3 1 3 2
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 2 1.2 1.2 1.2.3 2.3
Sethu 135-6 2 1.2 3
V.M Kapunesut 135 2 1 1.3 1.3 1
Thenti 141-2 2 2 1.2.3 3
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 1 1
Neferbauptah 169-70 1.2.3 2.3 2 2 2
Khufukhaaef [II) 190-1 2.3 2 3 2
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 2 2 2 1.3 2
Kanenesut [II] 79-80 2 2 2 2 2
Iymery 170-4 1 2.3 1.2 1 1.2
Itisen 252-3 1.2 3 2.3 2.3
Redi --- 1.2 1.2 1.2 3
Kapi 69-70 1 1 3
Sa-ib 70 2 2 2 3
V.L Nefer-mesdjer-khufu --- 1.3 1 1 1 3 1.3
aAnkhmaare 206 1 3 3
Kadua 244-5 3 2 2 2 1 2 3
Seshemnufer 249 3
Raawer [II] 162-3 1.3 1 3 1 1 3
Nekhetka 240 2 2 1.2 2
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 3 3 2 2 2 1 2
Kakhent --- 2 2 2 2 2
Nefer-khuwi --- 2 2 1 2 2
Nimaaetrea 282-4 3 1 1.2.3
Nesemnau 209 2 2
Setka 160-1 2.3 2.3 2 2 2 2.3
VI Niuty 133 1 1 1.2 2 2 2 2
Sekhemka 221-2 1.3 1.3
Nufer [I] 137-8 2.3 1 2.3 2 3 1.2.3
Sekhemka 53 1 1 1 2 2 2
Meruka 118-9 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 2 2
Hetepniptah 94-5 1.3 1.3 1
Weri 121 2 2 2
Iasen 82 1 1.3 3 1
Idu 185-6 1.3 1 1 1.3 3 1.3
Meryreanufer 184-5 1 3 1.3
Snefruhotp 96 1.2 2 1
Kahif 76 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 2
Khnemu 121 2 2 2

Table VI.1.Vol.2

199

Table VI.2.Vol.2: CP/SWS values (the bracketed number behind the CP value gives the number
of co-occurrences on which the value is based).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 CP =
0%
SWS:
0%

CP =
40% (2)
SWS:
0%

CP =
20% (1)
SWS:
0%

CP =
160% (8)
SWS:
25%

no overlap
in time
CP =
100% (5)
SWS:
20%

CP =
40% (2)
SWS:
0%

CP =
60% (3)
SWS:
33%

CP = 80%
(4)
SWS: 0%

CP = 20%
(1)
SWS: 0%

2

CP =
26% (7)
SWS:
0%

CP =
35% (8)
SWS:
63%

CP =
107%
(29)
SWS:
45%

CP =
100% (7)
SWS:
57%

CP =70%
(19)
SWS:
32%

CP =
88% (14)
SWS:
71%

CP =
37% (10)
SWS:
40%

CP = 11%
(3)
SWS:
33%

CP = 4%
(1)
SWS:
100%

3

CP =
83% (19)
SWS:
37%

CP =
114%
(41)
SWS:
54%

CP = 0%
(0)
SWS: 0%

CP = 75%
(27)
SWS:
63%

CP =
25% (4)
SWS: 0%

CP =
67% (20)
SWS:
65%

CP = 88%
(30)
SWS:
67%

CP = 96%
(25)
SWS:
68%

4

CP =
117%
(27)
SWS:
37%

CP = 14%
(1)
SWS:
100%

CP = 78%
(18)
SWS:
39%

CP =
56% (9)
SWS:
44%

CP =
52% (12)
SWS:
33%

CP = 65%
(15)
SWS:
40%

CP = 48%
(11)
SWS:
36%

5

CP =
100% (7)
SWS:
29%

CP =
130%
(52)
SWS:
46%

CP =
131%
(21)
SWS:
52%

CP =
127%
(38)
SWS:
61%

CP =
132% (45)
SWS:
51%

CP =
104% (27)
SWS:
41%

6

CP = 57%
(4)
SWS:
0%
CP =
57% (4)
SWS:
75%

CP =
29% (2)
SWS:
0%

no overlap
in time
CP = 0%
(0)
SWS: 0%

7 CP =
106%
(17)
SWS:
35%
CP =
63% (19)
SWS:
58%
CP = 59%
(20)
SWS: 65%
CP = 69%
(18)
SWS:
44%
8 CP =
38% (6)
SWS:
50%
CP = 13%
(2)
SWS:
50%
CP = 6%
(1)
SWS:
100%
9 CP = 73%
(22)
SWS:
64%
CP = 50%
(13)
SWS:
69%
10 CP = 85%
(22)
SWS:
59%
11
200

Table VI.3.Vol.2.

9
Harpur, DETOK, 74 mentions architectural changes as the reason for the reversal of (sub)theme 3 from
the southern to the northern wall of the chapel. Indeed in the tombs mentioned there, the entrance has been
placed in the southern part of the eastern wall of the L-shaped cult chapel, and not, as usual, in the northern
part of that wall (Harpur, DETOK, plans 83 and 93). However, this cannot be the explanation for the
reversal in the tomb of Thenti, because this tomb is L-shaped with the entrance on the northern side of the
eastern wall.

name date PM, III
1
sth 3 on
ww ws
sth 3
on wall
sth 2 on
ww ws
IV Khufukhaaef [I] IV.E 188-90 --- sw 3
Nufer IV.L 72-4 --- --- 1
Nefermaaet IV.L 183 --- sw 1.3
Meresaankh IV.L 197-9 --- sw ---
Zaty IV.L/V.E 204 --- sw 2
Iteti IV.L/V.E 193 --- sw 3
V.E
Merib V.E 71-2 3 --- 2
Seshethotp V.E 149-50 --- sw 2
Person V.E 48-9 --- --- 2
Nesutnufer V.E 143-4 --- sw 2
Kanufer V.E 77-8 --- sw 2
Wehemka V.E 114-5 --- sw 2
Senenuka V.E 68-9 2 --- ---
Seshemnufer [I] V.E 142-3 3 --- 2
Kanenesut [I] V.E 78-9 --- sw 2
Thenti V.E/M 141-2 --- nw
9
---
V.M Kapunesut V.M 135 1.3 sw 2
Raakhaaefaankh V.M 207-8 --- sw 1
Kaseuza V.M 159 --- sw ---
Nimaaetrea V.L ? 282-4 1 sw ---
Neferbauptah V.M 169-70 2 --- ---
Seshemnufer [II] V.M 146-8 2 --- ---
Kanenesut [II] V.M 79-80 2 --- ---
Khufukhaaef [II] V.M 190-1 1 --- ---
Iimery V.M/L 170-4 1 --- ---
V.L Nefer-mesjder-khufu V.L --- 1 --- ---
aAnkhmaare V.L 206 3 --- ---
Raawer [II] V.L 162-3 1 --- ---
Nekhetka V.L 240 2 --- ---
Seshemnufer [III] V.L 153-4 2 --- ---
Kakhent V.L --- 2 --- ---
Nesemnau V.L-VI.E 209 1.2 --- ---
VI Nufer [I] V.L-VI.E 137-8 2.3 --- ---
Weri VI.E 121 2 --- ---
Iasen VI.E 82 1.3 --- ---
Idu VI.E 185-6 1.3 --- ---
Kahif VI.M 76 1 --- 2
201
name PM 20 21 22 23 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 40 41 42 43 44

IV Khufukhaef [I] 188 x - - - - - - - x x x x - - - o
Khentka 74-5 o o o o x o x o x o o o o o o o
Akhtihotp 200-1 - - - - - x o o o o o x - x - o
Ankh-haf 196 o o o o o o o o o o o x o x o o
Nufer 72-4 o o o o - - - - - - - x - x - x
Minzedef 203-4 o o o o - - - - x - - o o o o o
Duaenhor 200 - - - - o o o o o o o x - x o x
Harzedef 191 - - - - o o o o x x x - - - - -
Khemtnu 155 - - - - x o o o o o o x - - - x
Nefermaet
10
183 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Meresankh [III] 197-9 o o o o o o o o o o o x o o o o
Nihetepkhnum 50 - - x - x x x - x x - - x - - x
13 Wonshet 139 x - - - x x x - x x - x - x - x
V.E Iteti 193 o o o o - x o o x x - o o o o o
Zaty 204-5 o o o o o o o o o o o x o x o o
Merib 71-2 x - - - x - x - - x x x - x - x
Wehemnefert 139 - - - - - x - - x x - x - x - x
Thentet 139 o o o o o o o o o o o x - - - x
Snefrusonb 125 - - - - o o o o o o o x - x - x
Seshethotp 149-50 x - - - x x x - x x - - x x - x
Ruzka 247 - - - x - - - - - - -
11
o x o o x
Person 48-9 x - - - o o o o o o o x - x o x
Nesutnufer 143-4 x - - - x x x - x x x - x x - x
Kanufer 77-8 x - - - x - x - - - - x - - - x
Wehemka 114-5 x - - - x x x - - - - x - x - x
Senenuka 68-9 o o o o o o o o o o o - x x - x
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 x o o o - - - - - x - o x o o o
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 x - - - - x - - x x - x - x - -
Nensezerkai 72 x - - - x - x x - x - x - x - x
Shepseskafankh 175 o o o o o o o o o o o x - o o x
18 Sethu 135-6 - - - - x x x - - - - x - x - x
V.M Kapunesut 135 x - - - - x - - - x - x - x - x
Thenti 141-2 x - - - o o o o o x x - x x - x
Rakhaf'ankh 207-8 x - - - - - - - - - - - x x - x
Khufukhaef [II] 190-1 x - - - - - x - - - - x - - - x
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 x - - - - x x - - - - x - x - x
Kaseuza 159 o o o o o o o o x x o o o o o o
Iti 174 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Itisen 252-3 x - - - x - x - - - - x - o o x
Kapi 69-70 x - - - - x - - - x - x - - - x
10 Sa-ib 70 x - - - x - x - - - - x - - - x
V.L Nefer-mesdjer- ... --- o o o o x - x - - - - o o o o o
Kadua 244-5 o o o o x - x x - - - o o o o o
Seshemnufer 249 o o o o x - x - - - - o o o o o
Rawer (II] 162-3 x - - - x - x x - - - x - o o o
Khenit 162 - - - - x o x o x o o o o o o o
Nekhetka 240 x - - - x - x - - - - x - - - x

10
The false door is of the serekh type but is included because an architrave had been placed above it.
11
There is a non-ideographic offering list on both door posts.
Table VIII.1 (continued)
202
Seshemnufer |III] 153-4 x - - - - - x - - - - x - - - -
Kakhent --- o o o o - - x o o o o o o o o o
Nefer-khuwi --- x - - - o o x x - - - o o o o o
Khuwiwer 254-5 x - - - o o x - - - - - x - - x
Nimaetre 282-4 x - - - x - x x - - - x - - - x
Nikauhor 236-7 - - - - x - x x - - - x - o o o
Mersu'ankh 269 - - - - - x x - - - - x - - - x
Khufu'ankh 129 - - - x x x x x x - - - x x - x
Ptahhotp 161 x - - - x - x x - - - o o o o o
Tjeset --- o o o o - - - - - - - x - - x x
Nesemnau 209 x - - - o o x x x x o x - - - o
18 Setka 160-1 - - - - x - x x - - - - x o o o
VI Niuty 133 - - - - o o x x - - - x
12
- o o o
Nufer [I] 137-8 x - - - - - x - - x - - x - - x
Sekhemka 53 x - - - x - - - x - - x - - - o
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 - - - x - - - - - - - - x o o x
Meruka 118-9 o o o o o o o o o o o x
13
o o o o
Niankhre [II] 223 o o o o x - x x - - - o o o o o
Irenre 144-5 o o o o x x x x - - - o o o o o
Nikaukhnum 119 x o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Khuienptah 237 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Nimaetre-tut --- - - - - x - x - - - - x - o o x
Hetepniptah 94-5 - - - - x - x x - - - - x o o o
Weri 121 - - - - o o o o o o o o o o o o
Iasen 82 x - - - - - x x - - - - - - - -
Idu 185-6 x - - - - - x - - - x - x - x x
Nufer (idu) 165 x - - - x - x x - - - x - - x x
Meryrenufer 184-5 x - - - x - x x - - - x - - - x
Snefruhotp 96 - - - - - - x x - - - x - - - x
Kahif 76 - - - - - x x x - - - x x - - x
Sedaug 52-3 x - - - - x - - - - - x - - - x
20 Khnemu 121 x - - - - - - x - - - x
14
- - - -
20 21 22 23 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 40 41 42 43 44
number of tombs 79
total x + - 58 56 56 56 58 55 59 56 58 60 58 60 58 49 45 48
total x 36 0 1 3 31 18 43 20 16 18 6 44 16 22 3 42
percentage (FO) 62 0 2 5 53 33 73 36 28 30 10 73 28 45 7 88

12
With kneeling priests (?) in front of him.
13
The panel of the southern false door is in Art Gallery Yale Univ. New Haven (no. 1937.214). This is in
contradiction with Junker, Giza IX, 78 where is stated that no false doors were ever present in the cult
chapel.
14
On the false door panel the tomb owner is depicted in a standing position.
Table VIII.1 (continued)
203

name PM 50 51 52 60 61 62 63

IV Khufukhaef [I] 188 IV.E - - - - - x x
Khentka 74-5 IV.E o o x o o o o
Akhtihotp 200-1 IV.E o o o o o o o
Ankh-haf 196 IV.L o o o o o o o
Nufer 72-4 IV.L - - - - - x -
Minzedef 203-4 IV.L - - - x - o x
Duaenhor 200 IV.L o o o o o o o
Harzedef 191 IV.L x - - o o o o
Khemtnu 155 IV.L o o o x - x x
Nefermaet
15
183 IV.L - - - x - x -
Meresankh [III] 197-9 IV.L o o o - - x x
Nihetepkhnum 50 IV.L x - x - - x -
13 Wonshet 139 IV.L - - - o o o o
V.E Iteti 193 IV.L:V.E - - - o o o o
Zaty 204-5 IV.L/V.E o o o o o o o
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E - - - - - x x
Wehemnefert 139 IV.L/V.E - - - o o x o
Thentet 139 IV.L/V.E o o o o o o o
Snefrusonb 125 IV.L/V.E o o o o o o o
Seshethotp 149-50 V.E x - - - - x o
Ruzka 247 V.E - - - - - x -
Person 48-9 V.E - - - - - x -
Nesutnufer 143-4 V.E - - - x - x x
Kanufer 77-8 V.E - - - - - x x
Wehemka 114-5 V.E - - - - - x x
Senenuka 68-9 V.E o o o o o x o
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 V.E - - - - - x x
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E - - - - - x x
Nensezerkai 72 V.E - - - x - x x
Shepseskafankh 175 V.E o o o x - x x
18 Sethu 135-6 V.E - - - - - x x
V.M Kapunesut 135 V.E/M o o o o o x o
name PM 50 51 52 60 61 62 63

Thenti 141-2 V.E/M - - - o o o o
Rakhaefankh 207-8 V.E/M - - x - - x x
Khufukha'ef [II] 190-1 V.M - - - - - x -
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 V.M - - - - - x x
Kaseuza 159 V.M o o o x - x x
Iti 174 V.M o o o x - x x
Itisen 252-3 V-M/L - - - - - x -
Kapi 69-70 V.M/L - - - - - x x
10 Sa-ib 70 V.L - - - o o x o
V.L Nefer-mesdjer- ... --- V.L - - - o o x o

15
The false door is of the palace faade type and is included because an architrave had been placed above
it.

Table
VIII.1.Vol.2
(continued)
204
Kadua 244-5 V.L - - - o o x o
Seshemnufer 249 V.L - - - x - x -
Rawer (II] 162-3 V.L - - - o o x o
Khenit 162 IV.L - - x o o o o
Nekhetka 240 V.L - - - - - x x
Seshemnufer |III] 153-4 V.L - - - x - x x
Kakhent --- V.L o o o o o o o
Nefer-khuwi --- V.L - - - o o o o
Khuwiwer 254-5 V.L - - - - - x x
Nimaetre 282-4 V.L - - - x - x x
Nikauhor 236-7 V.L - - - o o o o
Mersuankh 269 V.L - - - - - x x
Khufu'ankh 129 V.L - - - o o x o
Ptahhotp 161 V.L - - - x - x x
Tjeset --- V.L - - - - - - -
Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E - - - - - - x
18 Setka 160-1 V.L/VI.E - - - x - x -
VI Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E - - - o o x o
Nufer [I] 137-8 V.L/VI.E - - - x - x x
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E - - - - x x x
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E - - - - - x -
Meruka 118-9 V.L/VI.E o o o o x o o
Niankhre [II] 223 V.L/VI.E o o o o o o o
Irenre 144-5 V.L/VI.E - - - o o x o
Nikaukhnum 119 V.L/VI.E x - - o o o o
name PM 50 51 52 60 61 62 63

Khuienptah 237 V.L/VI.E o o o - x x x
Nimaetre-tut --- VI.E - - - o o o x
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E - - - - x x x
Weri 121 VI.E o o o x - x x
Iasen 82 VI.E - - - - - - -
Idu 185-6 VI.E - - - - - x x
Nufer (idu) 165 VI.E - - - x - x -
Meryrenufer 184-5 VI.E/M - - - - - x x
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M - - - x - x x
Kahif 76 VI.M - - - x - x x
Sedaug 52-3 VI - - - - - - -
20 Khnemu 165 VI.E - - - x - x -

number of tombs 79
number of x/- 60 60 61 50 51 59 50
number of x 4 0 4 19 4 55 35
percentage (FO) 7 0 7 38 8 93 70

(end)
Table
VIII.1
(continued)
205

Diagrams
206

Diagram IV.1-11.Vol.2 The FO values on the Y-axis are given in %.

0
8
17 17
0 0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 1
The tomb owner alone, standing or sitting
1
88
83
22
0
60
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 2
The tomb owner with and/or wife and/or children
2
25
50
73
91
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 3 Linear (FO (sub)theme 3)
The tomb owner at the offering table 3
0
70
40
44
63
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 4
Members of the family without the tomb owner 4
207

90
100
73
100
83
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
5
Servants bringing offerings
57
36
0 0 0 0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 6
6 Personified estates bringing goods
75
91
64
60
78
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Priests for the funerary meal
7
60
64
22
0
43
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 8
Scribes in a row or alone, writing,
rendering account, leading people
8
208

75
50
40
70
78
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 9
The butchery scene
9
0
10
60
82
90
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO (sub)theme 10
Piles of food offerings
10
25
30
64
60
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
The non-ideographic offering list
11
209

47
29
58
44
73
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
FO/period (sub)theme 30 Poly. (FO/period (sub)theme 30)
Diagram VIII.1 15.Vol.2
The FO values on the Y-axis
are given in %.
1
20
43
58
43
14
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Wife/family standing or sitting
2
Name/title(s)
3
75
57
64
43
94
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
63
0
9
0
56
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Offering formula
4
210

6
13
42
75
18
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Offering bearers
5
6
44
67
57
6
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Priests
6
6
13
17
29
0 0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Containers/standards
7
67
75
80
73 73
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Tomb owner at the offering table
8
211

36
25
31
11
27
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Tomb owner at the offering table with another person
9
0
57
86
50
13
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Non-ideographic offering list
10
20
0 0 0
13
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Offering formula
11
82
100
93
71
86
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Name/title(s)
12
212

43
29
25
43
50
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
13
88
100 100 100
86
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Name/title(s)
14
67
71
82
57
70
0
25
50
75
100
IV V.E V.M V.L VI
Offering formula
15
213

Chronological
ordering
214
name PM III
1
period dating 6 2 8 5 7 9 3 11 4 10 1

IV 11 Khufukhaaef [I] 188-90 IV.E IV.2
Akhtihotp 200-1 IV.E IV.2-4
aAnkh-haf 196 IV.L IV.4
Nufer 72-4 IV.L IV.4
Kaemsekhem 201-2 IV.L IV.4-5
Minzedef 203-4 IV.L IV.4-5
Duaenhor 200 IV.L IV.4-5
Harzedef 191 IV.L IV.4-5
Nefermaet 183 IV.L IV.4-5
G 7560 200 IV.L IV.4-6
Nikaurea 232-3 IV.L IV.4-6
V.E 15 G 5030 145 IV.L/V.E IV.6-V.1
Iteti 193 IV.L/V.E ---
Zaty 204-5 IV.L/V.E IV.6-V.1
Merib 71-2 IV.L/V.E IV.6-V.1
Seshethotp 149-50 V.E V.1-2
Sekhemkarea 233-4 V.E V.2
Person 48-9 V.E V.1-2
Nesutnufer 143-4 V.E V.2-3
Kanufer 77-8 V.E V.1-3
Wehemka 114-5 V.E V.1-3
Senenuka 68-9 V.E V.1-3
Seshemnufer [I] 142-3 V.E V.1-3
Kanenesut [I] 78-9 V.E V.1-3
Shepseskafaankh 175 V.E V.3
Sethu 135-6 V.E ---
V.M 12 Kapunesut 135 V.E/V.M V.1-5
Thenti 141-2 V.E/V.M V.1-5
Raakhaaefaankh 207-8 V.M V.6 (?)
Neferbauptah 169-70 V.M V.6
Khufukhaaef [II) 190-1 V.M V.6
Seshemnufer [II] 146-8 V.M V.6
Kanenesut [II] 79-80 V.M V.6
Iymery 170-4 V.M/V.L V.6-7

Itisen 252-3 V.M/V.L V.6-8
Redi --- V.M/V.L V.6-8
Kapi 69-70 V.M/V.L V.6-8
Sa-ib 70 V.M/V.L V.7-8
V.L 12 Nefer-mesdjer-khufu --- V.L V.9
Ankhmare 206 V.L V.9
Kadua 244-5 V.L V.6-9
Seshemnufer 249 V.L V.6-9
Rawer [II] 162-3 V.L V.8-9
Nekhetka 240 V.L V.8
Seshemnufer [III] 153-4 V.L V.8
Kakhent --- V.L V.8-9
Nefer-khuwi --- V.L V.8-9
Nimaetre 282-4 V.L V.9
Nesemnau 209 V.L/VI.E V.6-VI.1
Chronological ordering IV.1.Vol.2
215
Setka 160-1 V.L/VI.E V.8-VI.2
VI 14 Niuty 133 V.L/VI.E V.9-VI.1
Sekhemka 221-2 V.L/VI.E V.9-VI.1
Nufer [I] 137-8 V.L/VI.E V.9-VI.1
Sekhemka 53 V.L/VI.E V.9-VI.1
Meruka 118-9 V.L/VI.E V.8-VI.1
Akhmerutnesut 80-1 V.L/VI.E V.9-VI.1
Hetepniptah 94-5 VI.E VI.1
Weri 121 VI.E VI.1-2
Iasen 82 VI.E VI.1-2
Idu 185-6 VI.E VI.2
Meryrenufer 184-5 VI.E/M VI.2-4
Snefruhotp 96 VI.M VI.4
Kahif 76 VI.M VI.5
Khnemu 121 VI.L ---

total 64

216

217

Plates
218

Plate I.1. Plan of the funerary complex of king Zoser (III.1.) (from Stadelmann, Pyramiden,
figure 12)

Plate I.2. Perspective view of the funerary complex of king Zoser (III.1.) (from Stadelmann,
Pyramiden, figure 13)

219

Plate I.4. Detail of the decoration on the western wall of the cult chapel of Nimaaetrea (PM, III,
70).

From Roth, Gmast 6, plate 187.
The decoration of a block attributed to a wall of the recess in the chapel (Roth, Gmast 6, 131).
Plate I.3.
Pyramid complex of
Maidum.
(from Edwards, Pyramids,
plate 8)
220

Plate I.5. Detail of the decoration on the western wall of the cult chapel of Khufukhaaef [II] (PM,
III, 190-1).
From Simpson, Gmast 3, plate 50.

Plate I.6. Detail of the
decoration of the western
wall of the cult chapel of
Akhmerutnesut (PM, III,
80-1).
From Wresz., Atlas.III,
plate 69.

17
221

Plate I.7.
Chapel of Kaemaankh (PM, III,
131-3).
Decoration of the northern wall of
the false door recess.
(from Kanawati, Giza I, plate 31).
17
222

Plate IV.1. Western wall of the cult
chapel of Thenti (G 4920), (PM, III,
141-2).
LD, II, 30 (detail)
Plate IV.2. Western wall of the cult chapel
of Hetepniptah (G 2430) (PM, III, 94-5).
From LD, Erg. IX (detail).

1
2
223

Plate IV.3. Northern wall of the recess in the
cult chapel of Kaemaankh (G 4561) (PM, III
1
,
131-3). Kanawati, Giza I, plate 29 (detail).

3

11
224

Plate IV.4. The cult chapel of Kaemaankh (G 4561)
(PM, III
1
, 131-3). Kanawati, Giza I, plate 29 (detail).
5
9
225

Plate IV.5. The cult chapel of Khufukhaaef
[II] (G 7150) (PM, III, 190-1).
Simpson, Gmast 3, figure 50 (detail).
Plate IV.6. The cult chapel of Nimaaetrea (G
2097; PM, III
1
, 70).
Roth, Gmast 6, figure 187 (detail).

16

13
18
8
226

Plate IV.7. The cult chapel of Seshemnefer
[II] (G 5080, PM, III
1
, 146-8).
Kanawati, Giza II, plate 64 (detail).

Plate IV.8. The cult chapel of Nefer-Khuwi
(G 2098)
Roth, Gmast 6, figure 193 (detail).

14
10
12
227

Plate IV.9. The cult chapel of Seshethotp
(G 5150) (PM, III, 149-50)
From LD, II, 23 (detail).

6
7
228

Plate IV.10. The western wall of the cult chapel of Wehemka
(D 117; PM, III, 114-5). From Kayser, Uhemka, figure pages 24-25.

Plate IV.11. Western wall of the cult chapel of Kanenesut [I]
(G 2155; PM, III, 78-9).
From Junker, Giza, II, figure 18

4
Plate VIII.1. The false door of
Iyka (PM, III, 637).
From Saleh, Katalog, plate 58.

229

Plate VIII.2. The false door of Thethi (detail) (PM, III, 302-3).
From Cherpion, Mastabas, plate 32.

Plate VIII.3. The slot at the right
side of the panel of the false door
of Nihetepkhnum (PM, III, 50).
From Der Manuelian, Slab stelae,
figure 306.

230

Nikaure (detail) (PM, III, 697).
From Saleh, Katalog, plate 57
(left).

Shery (PM, III, 490).
From Cherpion, Mastabas,
plate 24.
Figure VIII.6. The false door of
Nikaure (PM, III, 697).
From Saleh, Katalog, plate 57 (right).

231

Figure VIII.7. Panel of the
northern false door in the cult
chapel of Seshemnefer [II],
(PM, III, 146-8).
From Kanawati, Giza II, plate
63).

Figure VIII.8. The false door
panel of Idu (G 7102), (PM,
III, 185-6).
From Simpson, Gmast 2,
figure 40.

232

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