20060317K Factor PDF

David Chapman
Copper Development Association

david.chapman@copperdev.co.uk
Rating of Transformers supplying
Harmonic-Rich Loads
www.leonardo-energy.org
www.cda.org.uk
Losses in Transformers
No-load loss (iron loss)
energy consumed in eddy current and
hysteresis loss
present 100% of the time
Load losses
Resistive loss (copper loss)
dependent on square of load current
most important during high load periods
Eddy current loss
www.cda.org.uk
Distribution transformer efficiency standards
HD 428 & 538
Source: CENELEC
Load Losses for Distribution
Transformers
No-Load Losses for Distribution
Transformers
RATED
POWER
OIL-FILLED (HD428) UP TO
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
LIST A LIST B LIST C 12kV
PRIMARY
3)
PRIMARY
3)
kVA W W W W W W W W
50 1,100 1,350 875 N/A 190 145 125 N/A
100 1,750 2,150 1,475 2,000 320 260 210 440
160 2,350 3,100 2,000 2,700 460 375 300 610
250 3,250 4,200 2,750 3,500 650 530 425 820
400 4,600 6,000 3,850 4,900 930 750 610 1,150
630 /4% 6,500 8,400 5,400 7,300 1,300 1,030 860 1,500
630 /6% 6,750 8,700 5,600 7,600 1,200 940 800 1,370
1000 10,500 13,000 9,500 10,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 2,000
1600 17,000 20,000 14,000 14,000 2,600 2,200 1,700 2,800
2500 26,500 32,000 22,000 21,000 3,800 3,200 2,500 4,300
www.cda.org.uk
HD 428 & 538
Source: CENELEC
Transformers
Transformers
RATED
POWER
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
PRIMARY
3)
PRIMARY
3)
kVA W W W W W W W W
50 1,100 1,350 875 N/A 190 145 125 N/A
100 1,750 2,150 1,475 2,000 320 260 210 440
160 2,350 3,100 2,000 2,700 460 375 300 610
250 3,250 4,200 2,750 3,500 650 530 425 820
400 4,600 6,000 3,850 4,900 930 750 610 1,150
630 /4% 6,500 8,400 5,400 7,300 1,300 1,030 860 1,500
630 /6% 6,750 8,700 5,600 7,600 1,200 940 800 1,370
1000 10,500 13,000 9,500 10,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 2,000
1600 17,000 20,000 14,000 14,000 2,600 2,200 1,700 2,800
2500 26,500 32,000 22,000 21,000 3,800 3,200 2,500 4,300
BA
www.cda.org.uk
HD 428 & 538
Source: CENELEC
Transformers
Transformers
RATED
POWER
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
24kV
2)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
PRIMARY
3)
PRIMARY
3)
kVA W W W W W W W W
50 1,100 1,350 875 N/A 190 145 125 N/A
100 1,750 2,150 1,475 2,000 320 260 210 440
160 2,350 3,100 2,000 2,700 460 375 300 610
250 3,250 4,200 2,750 3,500 650 530 425 820
400 4,600 6,000 3,850 4,900 930 750 610 1,150
630 /4% 6,500 8,400 5,400 7,300 1,300 1,030 860 1,500
630 /6% 6,750 8,700 5,600 7,600 1,200 940 800 1,370
1000 10,500 13,000 9,500 10,000 1,700 1,400 1,100 2,000
1600 17,000 20,000 14,000 14,000 2,600 2,200 1,700 2,800
2500 26,500 32,000 22,000 21,000 3,800 3,200 2,500 4,300
C-C
www.cda.org.uk
Full load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
12%
88%
Wi ndi ng
Magneti c
Total loss = 1685 W
www.cda.org.uk
79%
9%
12%
Resistance
Magnetic
Eddy current
(10%)
Total loss = 1685 W
www.cda.org.uk
84%
4%
12%
Resistance
Magnetic
Eddy Current
(5%)
Total loss = 1685 W
www.cda.org.uk
Current waveform for a typical PC
-2.0000
-1.5000
-1.0000
-0.5000
0.0000
0.5000
1.0000
1.5000
2.0000
0 90 180 270 360
Degrees
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
www.cda.org.uk
0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Harmonic profile of a typical PC
www.cda.org.uk
Typical harmonic profile - 6 pulse converter
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Harmonic number
%
www.cda.org.uk
There are two issues that affect Transformers
supplying harmonic-rich loads:
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta windings,
increasing resistive losses, operating temperature and
reducing effective load capacity
Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency, cause
increased magnetic losses in the core and increased
eddy current and skin effect losses in the windings
Effect of harmonics on transformers
www.cda.org.uk
Effect of triple-n harmonics in transformers
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta
windings - they do not propagate back onto the
supply network
www.cda.org.uk
Harmonic mitigation by transformer
Delta-star transformers
www.cda.org.uk
There are two issues that affect Transformers
supplying harmonic-rich loads:
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta windings,
increasing resistive losses, operating temperature and
reducing effective load capacity
Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency, cause
increased magnetic losses in the core and increased
eddy current and skin effect losses in the windings
Effect of harmonics on transformers
www.cda.org.uk
Increased Eddy current losses in transformers
2
1
2
max
h I P P
h h
h
h ef eh

=
=
=
where:
P
eh
is the total eddy current loss
P
ef
is the eddy current loss at fundamental frequency
h is the harmonic order
I
h
is the per unit RMS current at harmonic h
Increased eddy current loss can be calculated by:
www.cda.org.uk
K-Rating of Transformers
There are two approaches to rating
transformers supplying harmonic rich load:-
Designing for the anticipated duty - e.g.the
American system, established by UL and
manufacturers, which specifies harmonic capability
of the transformer - known as K-factor.
De-rating to survive the anticipated duty - e.g.
the European system, developed by IEC, which
defines de-rating factor for standard transformers
- known as factor K.
www.cda.org.uk
K-Rating of Transformers - US System
2
1
2
max
h I K
h h
h
h
=
=
=
where:
h is the harmonic order
I
h
is the RMS current at h in per unit of total current
First, calculate the K factor of the load according to:
www.cda.org.uk
For this typical PC load, the K factor is 11.6
(For worked examples see LPQI AN 3.5.2 or IEE 1100 1992)
p y
0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
www.cda.org.uk
Next, a transformer with a higher K rating is
selected from the standard range:
4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40, 50
www.cda.org.uk
K-Rating of Transformers - European System
In Europe, the transformer de-rating factor is
calculated according to the formulae in BS 7821
Part 4. The factor K is given by:
5 . 0
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
+
+ =

=
+
N n
n
n
q
I
I
n
I
I
e
e
K
e is ratio of eddy current loss (50 Hz) to resistive loss
n is the harmonic order
q is dependent on winding type & frequency, typically
1.5 to 1.7
www.cda.org.uk
K-Rating of Transformers - European System
For the same PC load, the de-rating factor is 78%
p y
0.0000
0.1000
0.2000
0.3000
0.4000
0.5000
0.6000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Harmonic
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
www.cda.org.uk
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 5 10 20 41
No of Units (pairs)
K

F
a
c
t
o
r
Harmonic Diversity - K Factor
www.cda.org.uk
K-Rating - Calculation software
www.cda.org.uk
www.cda.org.uk
www.cda.org.uk
www.cda.org.uk
41%
53%
6%
Resi stance
Magneti c
Eddy Current
Total loss = 3245 W
www.cda.org.uk
80% load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
39%
51%
10%
Resi stance
Magneti c
Eddy Current
Total loss = 2156 W
www.cda.org.uk
C 115 28 . 1 90
P
P
t temp Working
f
k
= = =
=
10
t
2 T time Life
( )
years 7 2 40 2 T time Life
5 . 2
10
P
P P
t
f
f k
= = =

Effect of additional losses on life-time

80 % load
www.cda.org.uk
70% load losses in a 100kVA C-C transformer
38%
50%
12%
Resi stance
Magneti c
Eddy Current
Total loss = 1699 W
www.cda.org.uk
C 75 . 90 0083 . 1 90
P
P
t temp Working
f
k
= = =
=
10
t
2 T time Life
( )
years 38 2 40 2 T time Life
075 . 0
10
P
P P
t
f
f k
= = =

Effect of additional losses on life-time

70 % load
www.cda.org.uk
The real world
Selection and management
small change in loading - large effect on lifetime.
derate then add the headroom
management practices must maintain derating
for the life of the transformer when
adding new loads
making changes to any harmonic filters within the
installation
David Chapman
david.chapman@copperdev.co.uk
www.cda.org.uk

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David Chapman

Copper Development Association

Effect of additional losses on life-time

Effect of additional losses on life-time

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