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Barriers at the receiver
The communication cycle may break down at the receiving end for some of these reasons: Lack of
Interest. If a student does not have any interest in your class or subject he will not take care of what you
are telling. Lack of Knowledge. If a student don't know the basics of a topic or subject, he/she is unable
to understand the topic or subject if you will start at a higher level. Lack of Communication Skills. Those
who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those who
have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have less trouble hearing and
interpreting good communication. Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere with the creation and
transmission of a message, they can also disrupt reception. If a student does not like his/her teacher
receive a lesson from the teacher, he/she may have trouble even reading and listening the lesson
objectively. He/she may read, not objectively, but to find fault. Student may misinterpret words and
read negative impressions between the lines. Consequently, he/she is likely to misunderstand part or all
of the report. Physical Distractions. If a classroom is full of bright lights, glare on computer screens, loud
noises, or in an area of excessively hot or cold place, or physical ailments, those students will probably
experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis.
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Characteristics Of Research
It is always directed towards the solution of a problem. It is always based on empirical or observable
evidences. It involves precise observation and accurate description. Gives emphasis to the development
of theories, principles and generalisations, which are very helpful accurate predictions regarding the
unable under study. It is systematic, objective and logical.
Teaching/Characteristics-Of-Research.html

Plan of Chapters
Think about the plan of chapters and decide what is best for your research. Then make a list, in point
form, of what will go in each chapter. Always represent the text of thesis in logical order. Make a plan
for each chapter and section, the result will probably be clearer and easier to read. The different
heading may be the following: Copyright Waiver: This gives the university library the right to publish
your work. Declaration: This page declares that the thesis is your own work and is not taken from any
other's work. Title Page: The format of this page may be Title/Author: A thesis submitted for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy in faculty of science in university on date. Abstract: This part is most important
part of the thesis it is most widely page. It is best written towards the end. It should be self contained
and contains a consise description of the problem (s) addressed. Your method of solving, result and
conclusion. Acknowledgements: It is the thanks giving page to all the people who helped in the research
or whose work you used'for your research. Table of content: Introduction starts from page 1, the earlier
pages should have different numbering system. Introduction: This gives the details about the topic its
importance. This must be very interesting. You should not bore the reader. Never overestimate the
reader's familiarity with your topic. Literature Review: Where did the problem come from? what is
already known about the problem? If you have been keeping up with the literature as you vowed to do
three years ago, and if you have made notes about important papers over the year, then you have some
good points for the review. Materials and Methods: This varies from thesis to thesis and may be absent
in theoretical thesis. It explains the methods used for research. Theory Results and Discussion: The
results and discussion are very-often combined in thesis. The division of results and Discussion material
into chapters is usually best done according to subject matter. In most cases your result need discussion.
What do they mean? How can they fit into existing body of knowledge? Are they consistent with present
theories? Do they give new insight? Do they suggest new theories or mechanism? Conclusion: Generally
abstract also contains conclusion in very brief form. A summary of conclusions may be put in point form
after the result and discussion chapter. Reference and Appendices Bibliography
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Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting units (e. g. people) from a population of
interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen. A response is a specific measurement value
that a sampling unit supplies. If you measure the entire population and calculate a
value like a mean or average, it is called parameter of the population. The distribution
of an infinite number of samples of the same size as the sample in your study is known
as the sampling distribution. In sampling contexts, the standard error is called sampling
error. Sampling error gives us some idea of the precision of our statistical estimate. A
low sampling error means that we had relatively less variability or range in the
sampling distribution. How do we calculate sampling error? on the standard deviation of
our sample. The greater the sample standard deviation, the greater the standard
error/the sampling error. The standard error is also related to the sample size. The
greater your sample size, the smaller the standard error. Because the greater the
sample size, the closer your sample is to the actual population itself. If you take a
sample that consists of the entire population you actually have no sampling error
because you don't have a sample, you have the entire population. In that case, the
mean you estimate is the parameter. Probability sampling method It is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection such as picking a name out of a
hat, or choosing the short straw. The simplest form of random sampling is called simple
random sampling. Simple random sampling is simple to accomplish and is easy to
explain to others. Because simple random sampling is a fair way to select a sample, it is
reasonable to generalize the results from the sample back to the population. Simple
random sampling is not the most statistically efficient method of sampling and you
may, just because of the luck of the draw, not get good representation of subgroups in
a population. Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota
random sampling, involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and
then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup. It assures that you will be able
to represent not only the overall population, but also key subgroups of the population,
especially small minority groups. Second, stratified random sampling will generally have
more statistical precision than simple random sampling. This will only be true if the
strata or groups are homogeneous. The problem with random sampling methods when
we have to sample a population that's disbursed across a wide geographic region is that
you will have to cover a lot of ground geographically in order to get to each of the units
you sampled. It is for precisely this problem that cluster or area random sampling was
invented. In cluster sampling, we follow these steps: divide population into clusters
(usually along geographic boundaries) randomly sample clusters measure all units
within sampled clusters Non-probability sampling The difference between nonprobability
and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random
selection and probability sampling does. We can divide nonprobability sampling
methods into two broad types: Accidental or purposive. In accidental sampling, sample
is chosen accidently and we have no evidence that they are representative of the
populations we're interested in generalizing to and in many cases we would clearly
suspect that they are not. e. g. College students in some psychological survey. In
purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or
more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into
people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping
various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting
a purposive sample. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you
need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not
the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your
target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population
that are more readily accessible. One of purposive sampling is quota sampling. In quota
sampling, you select people nonrandomly according to some fixed quota. There are two
types of quota sampling: Proportional and non proportional. In proportional quota
sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of the population by sampling
a proportional amount of each. e. g. Getting 40% females from a population of say
1000. Then there is snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying
someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to
recommend others who they may know who also meet the criteria. Research Design
Research design provides the glue that holds the research project together. A design is
used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research
project the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of
assignment work together to try to address the central research questions. Design can
be either experimental or non-experimental. Data analysis is the last part of the
research. In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in
roughly this order: Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)
Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics) Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential
Statistics) Data Preparation It involves checking or logging the data in; checking the
data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and
developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various
measures. Types of Statistics Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic
features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and
the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually
every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing
what is, what the data shows. Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and
hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond
the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from
the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make
judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a
dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use
inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we
use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.
Teaching/Research-Sampling-and-Design.html
Subject Matter
It is also known as curriculum. Curriculum is a general overall plan of the content or
specific material of instruction, that an educational institution should offer to the
student by way of qualifying him for graduation or certification It is also a body of
prescribed educational experience under an institutional supervision, designed to
provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for the
society of which he/she is a part, or to qualify him for a trade or profession. It is also
defined as a subject matter, instructional materials, situations o~ experience that
may, help to develop understanding, skills, appreciation and attitudes Curriculum
should be logical, Psychological and according to the needs of the pupil and also the
society. It should be objective in approach. Curriculum can be of two types:

1. Teacher oriented curriculum: In this type of curriculum the process of selection of
materials content is based on the needs-of the instructor/teacher. The teacher is
proficient in, his particular field and is considered superior.
2. Child/student oriented curriculum: A curriculum in which the criteria for the
selection and sequence of material, activities and experiences for any particular
pupil are the needs, maturity, interests and experiential backgrounds of the
individual child. In our country the NCERT is the main institution authorized for
making curriculum. Every state has. His own curriculum making bodies known as
SCERT. Some states follows the NCERT curriculum. All schools affiliated uses. This is
the most important step of-teaching learning process. The CBSE boards generally
follow NCERT curriculum. At higher _level every university make their own
curriculum according to the guidelines of University Grant Commission which acts
for the uniformity in curriculum at higher level in our country.

Transmitting Barriers Such as if a teacher started saying something in a class of deafs
verbally he will not be able to communicate properly to his students. Things that get in
the way of message transmission are sometimes called noise. Communication may be
difficult because of noise and some of these problems: Physical Distractions. A noisy
classroom can destroy communication. If a notes or something on board is not
formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may
not be able to concentrate on. The message-because the physical appearance of the
massage is sloppy and unprofessional. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a
conflict in perception for the receiver may result in incomplete communication. For
example if a teacher requests his pupil to answer some questions immediately without
giving the students enough time to gather the proper information. Channel Barriers. If
the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may
not reach in a proper way.
Teaching/Transmitting-Barriers.html

Paper It is an essay or dissertation read at a seminar or published in a journal It is a
formal written composition intended to published, presented, or read aloud or a
scholarly essay. Article: It is a nonfictional literacy, composition that forms an
independent part of a publication, as of a newspaper or magazine. Workshop: A
meeting at which a group engages in intensive discussion and activity on a particular
subject or project. Seminar: A conference for discussion on training on a specific
subject. Conference: A formal meeting for discussion or debate. Symposium: A meeting
or conference for discussion of a topic, especially one in which the participants form an
audience and make presentation. Dissertation or Thesis: Advancing a new point of view
resulting from research; usually a requirement for an advanced academic degree.
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Barriers Of Effective Communication
Barriers at the sender: Encoding means creating and sending of massage. The process
of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill and
knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message.
1. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. Sender must know the receiver's needs, status,
knowledge of the subject, and language skills before creating and sending a
massage as breakdown in communication may result when a message is not
adapted to its receiver.
2. Lack of Basic communication Skills. If the sender will not choose the precise words
needed and arranging those words in a grammatically correct sentence then the
receiver is less likely to understand the message.
3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information about
something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message.
4. Information Overload. If a message is with too much information, then generally
receiver may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming
so fast that he/she may have difficulty in understanding of interpreting that
information.
5. Emotional Interference. An emotional sender cannot send its message in
wellplanned manner. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that
person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended message.

Classroom Interaction The classroom interaction between a student and a teacher is
completely based on the climate created by teacher. He should be able to bring the
bendiness of friendship with a definite degree of firmness. The interaction must be
smooth and pleasant without any friction for a complete and fruitful teaching learning
process. Normally, verbalisM'goes on in the name of teaching. Students are merely
expected to listen to th~ explanation and lectures. This is known as direct teaching.
The effectiveness of direct teaching has been questioned many times and it is found
that this type of teaching is not very effective one. For effective teaching the active,
participation of students IS very important. This participation IS done through the
classroom interaction. This interaction consist of their explanations and lectures with
students, suggestions, ideas concepts, and questions, etc. These activities of students
make important for making teaching learning process effective, democratic and
friendly. Interaction is required for the rectification of the drawbacks of direct teaching.
This interactive teaching is known as indirect teaching. Through the interaction; the
teacher analyses the-capacity and requirement of students and can bring subsequent
changes in their behavior according to the requirement and can also change way of
teaching. I One of the most important thing ill classroom interaction is the
communication. Communication-will be learned in UNIT-IV in details.
Teaching/Classroom-Interaction.html

Qualities Of Teacher Context (Setting) Previously schools were not designed to
successfully teach all students. Nowadays their motto have been changed. Their new
motto is DO LEARN This setting is dynamic and flexible. This is changing in view-of
making it beneficial to society rather than for an individual. Teaching is a process
carried out in different steps. There are five main steps of teaching Preparation: This
stage is required or-intended for the preparation of both the teacher and the students.
The teacher prepare the student for a new topic or lesson in variety of ways.
Presentation: At this stage the new lesson actually begins. The students know that what
they are going to learn. The subject material should be carefully arranged by the
teacher. He has to encourage the students to observe, compare and contrast the. Facts
presented to them. This stage requires mental alertness from the students. The
presentation rests in. The principle of selection of the area to be covered. It is not
necessary for a-teacher to cover up all areas of the course of study. He. May leave
some areas for students self-study. Comparison: In this section after presentation of
subject matter. Generalization: This stage comes after the comparison and observation.
Different types of conclusions can be drawn from comparison and generalization. These
conclusions are systemized in a particular Application: At this stage the generalized
facts are applied for various
Teaching/Qualities-Of-Teacher-Context-Setting.html

Types of Research-Definitions Action research is a methodology that combines action
and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation
and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice. Applied research is
research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge sake. Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to
acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the
advancement of knowledge. Time is an important element of any research design. The
most fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: Cross-sectional versus
longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in
time. In effect, we are taking a slice or cross-section of whatever it is we're observing
or measuring. A longitudinal study is one that takes place over time--we have at least
two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design. A variable is any
entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a
variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different
values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country
can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. There
is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. In fact the
independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates--a treatment or program or
cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable--your
effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational
program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your
measures of achievement are the dependent ones. A hypothesis is a specific statement
of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect
will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is
designed to be exploratory. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights
concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a
social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth
interviews, observation research and case studies. Quantitative research is research
concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes
interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well
as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys.

Types of Research-
Definitions Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to
examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection,
and deliberate intervention to improve practice. Applied research is research
undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge
sake. Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new
knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of
knowledge. Time is an important element of any research design. The most
fundamental distinctions in research design nomenclature: Cross-sectional versus
longitudinal studies. A cross-sectional study is one that takes place at a single point in
time. In effect, we are taking a slice or cross-section of whatever it is we're observing
or measuring. A longitudinal study is one that takes place over time--we have at least
two (and often more) waves of measurement in a longitudinal design. A variable is any
entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a
variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different
values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country
can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. There
is a distinction between an independent and dependent variable. In fact the
independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates--a treatment or program or
cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable--your
effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational
program on student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your
measures of achievement are the dependent ones. A hypothesis is a specific statement
of prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect
will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is
designed to be exploratory. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights
concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a
social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth
interviews, observation research and case studies. Quantitative research is research
concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes
interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well
as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys. Three basic types of
questions that research projects: Descriptive: When a study is designed primarily to
describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe
the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature.
For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a BJP or
Congress in the next election, we are simply interested in describing something.
Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more
variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say
they would vote for a BJP or Congress candidate in the next election is essentially
studying the relationship between gender and voting preference. Causal: When a study
is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e. g. a program or treatment
variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion
poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter
preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed
the proportion of voters who would vote BJP or Congress (effect).

Teaching Aptitude Teaching is a complex process which brings socially desirable
behavioral change in a person. Teaching is a part of teaching-learning process. It is
required to bring certain changes in a person according to the need of his society and
environment in which he is living. Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic in nature so it
is termed as process. It is also not a fundamental concept as it is greatly influenced by
social and human factors. Teaching is both art and science. It is-an activity involving
teacher and student with a view to the development of student. The main aim of
teaching is to bring about socially desirable behavioural changes in the students and
can be achieved only if teaching is effective and based on certain values or principles.
Teaching is one of the main parts of the teaching-learning system. So effective teaching
is mostly depending on the teacher. It is a common fact that a good teacher is born and
not made. Training and research can make a good teacher better and a better teacher
best. Teacher should follow various methods of teaching devised from time to time. A
teacher encourages the practice of thinking among students. Teacher should give to the
students the freedom and opportunity to express their ideas. Teaching is required to
give education to the students. Education may be defined as the process of drawing out
least in an individual. We can define education as the aggregate of all processes by
means of which a person develops attributes, attitudes and other forms of behaviour of
positive value in the society in which he lives We can also define it as the social
process by which people are subjected to the influence of a selected and controlled
environment, so that they may attain social competence and optimum individual
development The complete process of education must contain four common factors
Educator (teacher) Educand (Student) the subject matter the context (setting) Now,
education is the process of developing some abilities in an individual. Though abilities
are in born quality, it is also a fact that these can be nurtured and developed in an
educand through various means by a n educator. Education must also be relevant and
useful to the society in which educand has to live. Since every individual is unique in
their own way, the educator has to adopt strategies and methods suitable to individual
needs. Education is also productive. The educational productivity (rate of efficiency of
work) can be classified as. Qualitative and quantitative. For better education both
qualitative and quantitative productivity is required. Quality means here the excellence
in the part of textbook, teachers students aids, facilities and other teaching aids where
as quantity refers the number of teachers, institutions, professionals, etc. Education
and teaching are interrelated. Education is a complex social cultural and ethical process
designed in a social or cultural content. It is related with social structures, cultural
environments, values, and ideas of people, society and government. All these factors
are dynamic in nature. So teaching is also a dynamic process and its definition changes
according to place and time. Morrison defines it as a disciplined social process in which
teacher influences the behaviours of the less experienced pupil and helps him develop
according to the needs and ideas of the society. Smith termed it as an organised
system of worker. He/she must have proper guts to lead specific activities aimed to
help the learner learn by an example at a superior level as he is the something. Leader
of his pupil. He/she has to exercise An analytical approach makes it clear that any
influence for bringing the. Desired neither of the definition fulfills the purpose
modification in behaviour.
Teaching/Teaching-Aptitude.html

Types of Communication Intrapersonal Communication This means communicating
within yourself. When you think, daydream, solve problems, and image, you a re in the
realm of intrapersonal communication. Some investigators also include all physical
feedback mechanisms, such as the sensations of hunger, pain, and pleasure in this
area. Interpersonal Communication This form of communication describes the interact
ions of two or more people. The most significant setting for interpersonal
communication IS direct face-to-face communication between two persons. An
interview, a conversation, and in climate communications come under this heading. It is
more persuasive and int1uential than any other type of communication. For it involves,
the in, terplay of words and gestures, the warmth of human closeness and in fact all
the five senses. Feedback is the key word here. Feedback is instantaneous. Group
Communication Group communication shares all these qualities, though in a much less
measure. The larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of
exchange. In fact, as the group grows in size communication tends to become more
and more of monologue, for participation becomes problematic. The degree of
directness and intimacy, therefore, depends upon the size of the group, the place where
it meets, as also the relationship of the members of the-group to one another, and to
the group message. Mass Communication When a message needs help to get from its
source to its destination, mass communication begins to function. Usually some form of
medium-one meaning of which is between -is needed to connect the sender to
receivers. These media and visibility to some people and points of views, whereas it
mutes other voices and viewpoints. Thus mass communication affects our perceptions
of issues, events, and people.
Teaching/Types-of-Communication.html

Characteristics of Good Teacher
Teacher should be mentally and physically fit. Teacher should be keen in his work and
should be enthusiastic and anxious to keep his knowledge fresh & update. He should
possess patience and tolerance and try to study the difficulties and problem of students
and try to solve them in a quiet and calm manner. He should have feelings of love and
sympathy. He must not be superstitious about his students and class. He should be well
dressed and well maintained. His voice should be sweet, polite and clear. His language
should be understandable to the students. He must not give any false promise. He/she
should have interest in his profession and the knowledge must be updated. He must not
have any bad habits. Teacher must have a good communication skill and must be a
master of his area or field of teaching. Teacher should be trained in various methods of
teaching. He should know the child psychology. Teacher should be a good researcher.
He should have a control over students-to maintain peace and order in class. Teaching
should be pupil central rather than subject centres is given opportunity to compare two
or more sets of facts. This enhance the understanding of lesson among students as
they compare and observe different facts. Teacher should arose interest among
students about the subject./order to give a generalised truth. Teacher must be fair in
grading and marking. Teacher-should organize extra curricular activities for-better
understanding of subject matter. Good interpersonal relationship should be maintained.
Rewards and punishments should be given according to their behavior but usually
punishment should be avoided. Teacher should use modern techniques, methods and
gadgets in teaching for better understanding of subject matter. Teacher should evoke
curiosity of the pupils by presenting the subject matter in an effective manner with
clear explanation leading to better understanding of the matter. Teacher should arrange
subject matter in a logical way. Teacher should make a lesson plan before presenting
the lesson in the class Teacher should work as a leader in the class. Teacher should
maintain a democratic atmosphere in the class so that every student will be able to put
his doubt, questions and ideas with suggestion. Teacher should act as a role model for
his students with his character and behaviour. He way follow the way of simple living
and great thinking Teacher should inspire his pupil.

A good definition of teaching The educand is deperident According to this analysis we
can define variable of education whereas educator is teaching as a-tripolar process
involving human independent variable. Social milieu is required or material source of
teaching students and a for the direction of education. Education should set of
organised activities designed and develop intellectual, moral, aesthetic, manipulated
for bringing changes in the democratic, material and economic life to make behaviours
of the taught our country a leading force. Hard work and Since teaching is a process
and it is mental alertness should be the rest requisite of dynamic in nature so it
changes its concept the educational training. According to time and place. It is a
professional. The teacher has to provide intellectual and activity. Teaching can be
analysed and. Social leadership. He is to follow a curriculum assessed. This analysis and
assessment but his task is beyond this. He acts as an ideal provides feedback for
further improvement in for his students. He has to follow the way of methods of
teaching. Teaching is highly simple life with great thinking, His morale dominated by
communication skill. It is should be high. He must be competent. His interactive
process carried-with purpose and efficiency and enthusiasm is also very objectives,
Teaching may have various forms as important. He must also possess some other
formal, imformal, diiectional, lnstructional. Qualities as he is the pivot of educational
formational; training, conditioning, talking: System. Such as Use of good means for
good showing etc. All these words single handly can't ends, clear thinking no prejudice,
ability of be synonym of teaching. Teaching is a much critical judgements at the right
time, tolerance broader term, All these activities are parts of are all needed for a
teacher. Teacher must be teaching at different level. Ready to impart to their students
all Teaching has been analysed in several information geographical, historical, political
ways for understanding it, for designing social practical and strategic and scientific.
Teaching methods and materials with a view. To The complete educational process has
four realism. Specific objectives making teaching important common factors more
effective Teacher works to change the behaviour of Tell whether teaching is a process
or students according to the need of the society. Act. He/she must also creates
situation to increase Clearly indicates constitutional factors. The thinking capacity of
mind of students. He Reveals objectives, and give education to the people. Education is
a Say something about its organisational tripolar process involving educator, educant
and structural aspect and social milieu. Basis of Modification This modification is based
on teacher student subject matter feedbacks.

Research: Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalisations principles or theories
resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Scientific research is a
systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions. It is an
essential and powerful tool in leading towards progress, A significant research leads to
progress in some field of life. Research is born lout of human curiosity. Curiosity
aroused to study movements, behaviour patterns etc. We can also define research as
ideally, the careful unbiased investigation of a problem, based in so far as possible
upon demonstrable facts and involving refined distinctions, interpretations and usually
some generalisations Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of
education or bearing upon educational problems. Since research is. a continuous
problem solving approach to learning it aims and assists in achieving the goals through
analysis and comprehensive-investigation. Also visit: CDSQuestions? Ask our Experts
Teaching/Research-Aptitude.html

Research: Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalisations principles or theories
resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Scientific research is a
systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions. It is an
essential and powerful tool in leading towards progress, A significant research leads to
progress in some field of life. Research is born lout of human curiosity. Curiosity
aroused to study movements, behaviour patterns etc. We can also define research as
ideally, the careful unbiased investigation of a problem, based in so far as possible
upon demonstrable facts and involving refined distinctions, interpretations and usually
some generalisations Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of
education or bearing upon educational problems. Since research is. a continuous
problem solving approach to learning it aims and assists in achieving the goals through
analysis and comprehensive-investigation. Also visit: CDSQuestions? Ask our Experts
Teaching/Research-Aptitude.html

Thesis Thesis and its format: One of the most general format for thesis is given below.
The list of contents and chapter are almost same for every subject university. In some
cases one or two heading may be irrelevant or one or two more heading may be
required. We can divide the whole thesis in four parts: Introduction Explanation of the
topic- Details of research & its result Reference and appendices.
Teaching/Thesis.html

Types of Research There are many classifications of research. Some of the important
classifications are: Exploratory and conclusive research: Exploratory or formulate
research aims at probing into phenomenon to formulate a more precise research
problem or to develop a hypothesis. While conclusive research tests these hypothesis.
Developed through exploratory research and may suggest a new idea or a new
opportunity. Fundamental or pure or basis research, applied research and action
research: A fundamental research is the formal and systematic process where the
researcher's aim is to. Develop a theory or a model by identifying all the important
variables in the situation and by discovering broad generalisations and principles about
these variables. Applied research, applies the theory or model developed theories but to
test those existing theories in actual problem situations. Action research has recently
been popular in the field of social psychology, industrial psychology and education. In
action research, researcher focuses upon the immediate consequences and applications
of a problem of a theory or a model. Historical research, descriptive research and
experimental research: Historical research describes what was. The process involves
investigation, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events of the past for the
purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past and
the present and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. Descriptive research
describes records, analyzeS'and interprets the conditions that exist, practices that
prevail, beliefs, points of views or attitudes that are held processes that are going in
effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. It involves some type of
comparison or contrast and attempts to discover relationship between existing non-
manipulated variables. It can be of various types, like survey studies, interrelationship
studies casual comparative studies and development studies. Experimental research
describes what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
The focus is on variable relationship. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of
experimental method. Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will
be, or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions in which one factor is varied
and the others are kept constant and can be repeated by another investigator, by the
same investigator or another occasion with nearly identical results. Experimental and
non-experimental research: This classification is based on the nature of research. An
experimental research is one where the independent variables can be directly
manipulated by, experimenter. It is further divided into two main types-Laboratory
experiment and field experiment. A non experimental research is one where
independent variables cannot be manipulated and therefore cannot be experimentally
studied. A non experimental research can be divided into three main types-field,
studies, expost factor research and survey research. Other important types Laboratory
Experiment: It is the study of a problem in a situation in which some variables are
manipulated and some are controlled in order to have an effect upon the dependent
variable. The variables which are manipulated are known as independent variables and
the variables which are controlled are known as extraneous or relevant variables. Thus
in laboratory experiment the effect of manipulation of an independent variables upon
the dependent variable is observed under controlled conditions. Field Experiments: It is
a study carried out is a more or less realistic situation or field where the experimenter
successfully manipulates one or more independent variables under the maximum
possible controlled conditions. Field Study: It is a study which systematically discovers
relations and interactions among variables in real life situations such as school, factory,
community college etc. It field study the investigator depends upon the existing
conditions of a field situation as well as upon the selection of subject for determining
the relationship among variables. Expost Facto Study: In this the investigators attempt
to trace an effect which has already occurred to its probable causes. The effect
becomes the dependent variable and the probable causes become the independent
variable. The investigator has no direct control over such variables. Survey Research: It
is a technique where, the investigator or researcher studies the whole population with
respect to certain sociological and psychological variables. Depending upon the ways of
collecting data, survey research can be classified into different categories, namely,
personal interview, main questionnaire, panel technique arid telephone survey.

ocational Courses Covered Under Apprentices Act 1961 Agriculture Poultry Production
Fisheries/Fish Processing Dairying Sericulture Apiculture Floriculture Plant Protection
Agricultural Ctiemicals Inland Fisheries Plantation Crops and Management Seed
Production Technology Swine Production Vegetable Seed Production Medicinal and
Aromatic Plant Industry Sheep and Goat Husbandry Repair and Maintenance of Power
Driven Farm Machinery Veterinary Pharmacist-cum-Artificial Insemination Assistant
Agro Based Food Industry (Animal based) Agro Based Food Industry (Crop based) Agro
Based Food Industry (Feed based)
Read more at: http://www.examrace.com/UGC/UGC-Study-Material/Paper-I/Higher-
Education/Vocational-Courses-Covered-Under-Apprentices-Act-1961.html

Higher education Higher education is provided by: Universities-including agricultural
universities and medical universities-divided into Central Universities, funded directly by
the Ministry of Human Resources Development, and State Universities, set up and
funded by various states. Deemed to be universities single-faculty, multi subjects
institutions which enjoy the same academic status and privileges of a university
Institutions of National Importance, university-level institutions funded by the central
government. These include the Indian Institutes of Technology. Most universities belong
to the affiliating and teaching type in which departments impart instruction at the
postgraduate level and undertake research. Agricultural universities stress research and
extension work. Finally, there are technological universities and ten open universities.
There are also research institutions, administered by the Indian Council of Social
Science Research, and research laboratories, as well as more than 10000 colleges. Most
of which are affiliated to universities. Universities are governed by statutory bodies
such as the Academic Council. The Senate/Court and the Executive Council Syndicate.
Funding for State universities largely comes from the State governments and the
University Grants Commission. Higher education falls mainly under its jurisdiction. The
Association of Indian Universities (AIU) represents universi ties and has the
responsibility for all matters within the higher ed ucation sector other than funding.
Professional institutions are coordinated by different bodies. The All-India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), established in 1987, is responsible for the coordination of
technica l and manage ment Educa ti on institutions. Bodies such as State Councils of
Higher Education were established r ecently. Non-university level: On completion of
Standard X, students may opt for Further secondary school studies leading to the
Higher Secondary School Certificate Craftsman or apprenticeship courses offered in
Industrial Training Institutes through the Craftman Training Scheme and Apprenticeship
Scheme and leading to Trade Certificates or Entering a Polytechnic where they are
offered one to three-year diploma courses in all subjects except Medicine. There are
over 1200 Polytechnics in India. Although planned to train technicians, an increasing
number now offer courses leading to degrees and even post-graduate diplomas and
certificates. Access to courses for the Higher National Diploma (HND) requires Standard
XII.

Inter University Centres Under Section 12 (ccc) of the UGC Act, the Commission has
established the following Inter-University Centres to provide common facilities, service
and programmes to Universities since heavy investment in infrastructure and inputs
have made it beyond the reach of individual. Universities to obtain these facilities:
Nuclear Science Centre. New Delhi: Accelerator oriented research for Astronomy and
Astrophysics, Pune: State-of-the-art instrumentation for research in astronomy IUC for
DAE facilities, Indore: Use of facilities of Department of Atomic Energy Information and
Library Network (INFLIBNET), Ahmedabad: Networking of libraries through electronic
media Consortium for Educational Communication (CEe), New Delhi: To disseminate
Countrywide programme through television 216 National Assessment & Accreditation
Council (NACC), Bangalore: To assess and accredit public & Private institutions of
higher learning National Facilities UGC has also set up the following Centres as National
facilities in selected Universities: Western Regional Instrumentation Centre, Bombay:
Design and development of indigenous equipment and training to staff in
instrumentation. Regional Instrumentation Centre, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore: Design and development of indigenous equipment and training to staff in
instrumentation. Chennai: Research and dissemination of knowledge and organization
of training programme in crystal growth. M. S. T. Radar Centre SriVenkateswara
Tirupati: Studies in atmospheric Dynamics to enable teachers to use MST Radar facility.
Eastern Centre for Radio Astrophysics, Calcutta University: Research in Astrophysics
Japal-Rangapur observatory, Osmania University. Hyderabad: Science Research
Observatory Centre for Science Education & Communication, New Delhi: Popularization
of Science

University level studies First stage: Bachelor: First degree generally require three
years'fulltime study leading to Bachelor of Arts, Science and Commerce degrees.
Entrance to & Honours course may require a higher pass mark in the higher secondary
or pre-university examinations. An Honours degree does not generally involve longer
study hut indicates greater specialization. In professional subjects: Courses last for four
to five and a half years. The Bachelor of Laws (LLB) can either be taken as an
integrated flrst degree course (five years) or as a two to three-year course taken as a
second degree. Second stage: Master's Degree: A Master's Degree in Arts, Science and
Commerce generally requires two years of study after a first degree. Most. Are cow-
seworkbased without a thesis. The Indian Institutes of Technology offer three semester
studies leading to ME, MSc (Engg) and MTech degrees. Master's courses in Engineering
and Technology normally require two years study after a first professional degree.
Candidates must qualify through the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering Colleges. I
n Medicine and Surgery, the Master's degree takes two years after MBBS or BDS. The
Master of Technology is awarded after a study period of three semesters. Students
must complete a research project which usually takes one semester. The Master of
Computer Applications (MCA) is awarded after three years study beyond the Bachelor's
Degree. Third stage: Master of Philosophy, PhD: One and a half-year MPhil programmes
are open to those who have completed their second stage postgraduate degree. It is a
preparatory programme for doctoral level studies. Some universities admit MBBSIBE
degree holders to PhD courses. The PhD programme involves two years'study beyond
the MPhil or a minimum of three years study beyond the Master's degree and the
submission of a thesis, as well as an oral examination. Fourth stage: DSc. DLit: The
Doctor of Science (DSc) and the Doctor of Literature (Dlitt) degrees are awarded by
some universities two to three years after the PhD for original contributions. Teacher
education: Training of preprimary and primary/basic school teachers Teachers for lower
primary classes (Standards I to V) are trained in Teacher Training Institutes (also called
Junior Basic Training Institutes or Primary Teacher Colleges) attached to State
departments of education. The course usually lasts for two years and leads to a
Diploma or-a Teacher Training Certificate. Upper primary school teachers are trained in
two years and the course leads to a Diploma. They must have passed the Higher
Secondary School-Leaving Certificate. Training of secondary school teachers Teachers
at lower secondary level (Standards IX and X) are graduates who have completed a
one-year Bachelor of education at a college affiliated to a university. Teachers at the
higher secondary level (Standards XI and XU) are postgraduates who have usually
completed a Master's degree followed by a one-year Bachelor in Education. Four
Regional Colleges of Education offer a combined four-year integrated programme
leading to a Bachelor's degree. Training of higher education teachers Teachers at
colleges of education must hold an M. Ed and a PhD. Studies for these are undertaken
at a number of universities. Non-traditional studies: Distance higher education Since its
inception in 1962 at the University of Delhi, distance education has grown considerably.
There are now some sixty Institutes: Directorates of distance education attached to
conventional universities and ten Open Universities, including Indira Gandhi National
Open University-with over 150 regional centers throughout India. Distance education
programmes cover about one hundred Degree or Diploma courses. Many conventional
universities also offer correspondence courses, which are sometimes supplemented by
contact classes. Lifelong higher education Universities and colleges offer adult and
continuing education with assistance from the uac. Programmes include Population
Education, Legal Literacy, Science Education and Technology Transfer. There are also
evening colleges which provide courses at undergraduate level and, in some areas,
postgraduate courses are also offered. Other forms of non-formal education Non-
university level post-secondary education consists of one-year Certificate courses and
two-to three-year Diploma courses in various technical and commercial fields. They are
conducted by industrial training institutes and polytechnics administered through the
state departments of technical education. National Bodies Administration & co-
ordination: Responsible authorities: Ministry of Human Resources Development,
Science and Technology Head: Arjun Singh Shastri Bhavan New Delhi 110001
Association of Indian Universities AIU House, 16 Kotla Marg, New Delhi 110002
University Grants Corrunission Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi 110002 Role of
governing body: Coordinates the work of the universities; establishes equivalences of
degrees; acts as a bureau of information; conducts research on university
development.

Academic Qualification Framework Degree Structure There are three principle levels of
qualifications within the higher education system in the country. These are:
BacheloR'Undergraduate level Master's or Post-graduate level Doctoral or Pre-doctoral
level Diploma courses are also available at the undergraduate and postgraduate level.
At the undergraduate level, it varies between one to three years in length,
postgraduate diplomas are normally awarded after one year's study. Bachelor's degree
in arts, commerce and sciences is three years of education (after 12 years of school
education). In some places there are honours and special courses available. These are
not necessarily longer in duration but indicate greater depth of study. Bachelor degree
in professional field of study in agriculture, dentistry, engineering, pharmacy,
technology and veterinary medicine generally take four years, while architecture and
medicine. It takes five and five and a half years respectively. There are other bachelor
degrees in education, journalism and librarian-ship that are second degrees. Bachelor's
degree in law can either be taken as an integrated degree lasting five years or three-
year course as a second degree. Master's degree is normally of two-year I duration. It
could be coursework based without t hesis or research a lone. Admission to
postgraduate programmes in engineering and technology is done on the basis of
Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering or Combined Medical Test respectively. A pre-
doctoral programme-Master of Philosophy (M. Phil) is taken after c; ompletion of the
Master's Degree. This can either be completely research based or can include course
work as well PhD is awarded two year after the MPhil or three years after the Master's
degree. Students are expected to write a substantial thesis based on original research,
generally takes longer.

igher Education System In India India has one of the largest Higher Education System
in the world. Main players in the higher education system in the country are: University
Grants Commission (UGC) is responsible for coordination, determination and
maintenance of standards, release of grants. Professional Councils are responsible for
recognition of courses, promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to
undergraduate programmes and various awards. The statutory professional councils
are: All Inclia Council for Technical Education (AIeTE), Distance Education Council
(DEC), Indian Council for Agriculture Research (lCAR), Bar Council of odis (BCI),
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) Rehabilitation Council of India (ReI),
Medical Council of India (MCr), Pharmacy Council of India (PCI), Indian Nursing Council
(INC), Dentist Council of India (DCl), Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH), Central
Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) Central Government is responsible for major policy
relating to higher education in the country. It provide grants to the use and establishes
central universities in the country. The Central Government is also responsible for
declaration of Educational Institutions as Deemed to be University on the
recommendation of the UGC. Presently there are sixteen (16) Central Universities in the
country. In pursuance of the Mizoram Accord, another Central University in the State.
Of Mizoram is planned. There are 37 Institutions which have been declared as Deemed
to be Universities by the Govt. Of India as per Section of the UGC Act, 1956. State
Governments are responsible for establishment of State Universities and colleges, and
provide plan grants for their deveIopment and non-plan grants for their maintenance.
The coordination and cooperation between the Union and the States is brought about in
the field of education through t. He Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) Special
Constitutional responsibility of the Central Government: Education is on the Concurrent
list subject to Entry 66 in the Union List of the Constitution. This gives exclusive
Legislative Power to the Central Govt. For co-ordination and determination of standards
in Institutions of higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions.

School education School education in India is a two-tier system, the first ten years
covering general education followed by two years of senior secondary education.
Primary education is divided into two stages: The first five years constitute the primary
stage (Standards I-V) and the next three years, the upper primary stage or middle
school (Standards VI-VIII). Secondary education usually lasts between two and four
years. After two years, pupils who have completed ten years of education (Standard X)
take the Secondary School Certificate. Pupils then enter higher secondary schools or
Junior Colleges and complete a further two years of education (Standards XI and XTI).
Courses focus on university preparation. Public examinations are held at the end of
Standard IX either by individual states or by Central Boards and lead to the award of
the Higher Secondary School Certificate (also called All India Senior School Certificate
or Indian School Certificate or Pre-University Course). Vocational education is offered in
two years at Higher and Technical Schools and lead to the Certificate of Vocational
Education (CVE)

New Initiatives, Vocationalization At The 1st Degree Level In conformity with the
National Policy on Education, 1986, a scheme to provide career orientation to education
at the first degree level was launched in 1994 95. Under the scheme. a university I
college could introduce one to three vocational courses in 35 identified subjects.
Autonomous Colleges: 138 colleges have been functioning as autonomous colleges in
eight states in the country. National Eligibility Test (NET) is being conducted by the
UGC since 1989 for eligibility for lectureship. Around 50000 students appear for the test
every year. Pass percentage is around 5%. Eight State Level Tests have been
accredited at par with NET. System of Governance of Higher Education Institutions: The
Universities are of various kinds: With a single faculty, or multi-faculties; teaching or
affiliating, or teaching cum affiliating, single campus or multiple campus. Most of the
Universities are affiliating universities. Which prescribe to the affiliated colleges the
course of study, hold examinations and award degrees, while undergraduate and to
some extent post, the colleges affiliated to them impart graduate instruction. Many of
the university along with their affiliated colleges have grown rapidly to the extent of
becoming uamanageable. Therefore, as per National Policy on Education, 1986, a
scheme of autonomous colleges was promoted. In the autonomous colleges, whereas
the degree continues to be awarded by the University, the name of the college is also
included. The colleges develop and propose new courses of study to the university for
approval. They are also fully responsible for con duct of examination. There are at
present 126 autonomous colleges in the country. Focus of Ninth Plan: Thrust areas are:
Measures for quality improvement and modernization of syllabi. Renewal of
infrastructure, extra-budgetary resource mobilization and greater attention to issues in
governance. Issues of access and relevance would receive attention. Conferment of
grater autonomy to deserving colleges and professional upgradation of teachers
through Academic Staff Colleges would be given priority. Emphasis is being placed on
consolidation and optimal utilization of the existing infrastructure through institutional
networking. Restructuring expansion. So as to only meet the demand of the unserved
areas with a focus on women and under privileged sections. The Open University
system, which has been growing in popularity and size. Is striving to diversify courses
and offerings and gain wider acceptability by upgrading its quality. It would focus more
sharply on the educational needs of women and rural society, as well as professional
training of in-service employees.

Central Universities
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) Established in 1985 for introduction
and promotion of Open University and distance education system. Major objectives
include widening of access to higher education. IGNOU programmes telecast on
Doordarshan Network six days a week. Its jurisdiction is through out the oountry. It can
set up Study Centres outside the country. This was allowed vide amendment of the
IGNOU Act in 1997. Distance Education Council (DEC) under IGNOU has the
responsibility for coordination and maintenance of standards in open and distance
education system in the country. University Of Hyderabad, Established in 1974 for post-
graduate teaching and research, 20 Km from the City of Hyderabad on the Old
Hyderabad-Bombay road. It has a City campus-The Golden Threshold-the residence
ofthe late Sarojini Naidu. The University has Eight Schools of Studies and a Centre for
Distance Education offering post-graduate diploma in five disciplines. University or
Delhi, Established in February 1922 as a unitary and residential university. It has 14
faculties, 82 teaching departments and 78 colleges spread over national Capital
Territory of Delhi. A new State University-Indraprashtha Vishwavidhlaya bas come up in
Delhi as an affiliating University. Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi
Visbwavidyalaya, Wardha Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Act
(at Wardha) was passed by the Parliament in December, 1996. It came into existence
with effect from 29th December 1997. It has international cbaracter. Four schools
proposed under this University. For the time being the University is operating from its
temporary office at Delhi. Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow
Established 8S a State University in 1994 at Lucknow, it was notified as a Central
University on 10th January 1996. It aims to provide instructional and research facilities
in new and frontier areas of learning. Has three schools and three centres (School of
Ambedkar Studies, School for Information Science and Technology and School fo:
Environmental studies and Centre for Rural Technology, Centre for Vocational Studies
and Centre for Human Rights.). Pondicherry University Established in 1985 8S a
teaching-cum affiliating university. It has jurisdiction over the Union Territory of
Pondicherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It also has a Community College.
Affiliated institutions of which 13 are located in Pondicherry, 3 in Karaikal, 2 in Mahe. 1
in Yanam and 3 in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Visva Bharati, Santiniketan It is an
unitary teaching and residential University. Founded by Guru Rabindranath Tagore.
Incorporated as a Central University by t. He Visva Bharati Act, 1951. Itsjurisdiction is
restricted to the area known as Santiniketan in the District of Birbhum, West Bengal. It
imparts education from the Primary School level to Post-Graduate and Doctorate levels.
It has 12 institutes-8 at Santiniketan, 3 at Sriniketan and 1 at Kolkata. Rural Segment
of the University (Sriniketan) created CAREER (Centre for Advanced Rural Education,
Extenuation and Research) and CSV (Centre for Science in Villages). For creating
facilities in the housing technology Nirman Bhawan (Building Centre) was established
under the sponsorship of HUDCO. Millia lslamia, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi Functioned 8S
a Deemed University since 1962. Acquired status of a Central University in December,
1988 by an Act. Of Parliament Imparts education from Nursery stage to p~st: Graduate
& Doctorate levels. It has six Faculties and Eight Centres and Five Schools. AJ, Kidwai
Mass Communication Research Centre (AJKMCRC) provided training at Post-graduate
level in Mass Communication, producing educational material on different educational
aspects/subjects for the UGC, INSAT Programme. Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
Established in 1920 8S a fully residential Central University. It maintains four Hospitals,
six Colleges (including Medical, Dental and Engineering Colleges), two Polytechnics and
eight Schools. Offers six diploma courses exClusively for women. 18562 students
(including school strength) were in rolls. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Came into
existence in 1916 as a teaching and residential University. It consists of three
Institutions-Institute of Medical Sciences, Institute of Technology and Institute of
Agricultural Sciences. It has faculties with 121 academic departments and 4 inter-
disciplinary schools. It maintains a constituent Mahila Mahavidyalaya and three School
level institutions. 10000 Bedded Modern Ayurvedic Medicine Hospital. Jawahar La!
Nehru University, New Delhi It came into existence in 1969. It is primarily concerned
with Post-graduate Education and Research. It has 7 schools consisting of 24 Centres of
Studies and a separate Centre for Bio-Technology. Maulana Azad National Urdu
University The University Act was passed by the Parliament in 1997 and it came into
existence on 9th January, 1998. Its Administrative Office has been set up at
Hyderabad. It has Regional Officers at Delhi, Patna and Bangalore. Itsaim is to promote
and develop Urdu language and to impart vocational and technical education in Urdu
medium through conventional and distance education system. ASSAM University,
Dorgakona, Assam Established as a teaching-cum-affiliating University on 21.1. 1994.
Though the act was passed in 1989. It has Jurisdiction over the districts ofCachar,
Karimganj, Karhi, anglong and Hailakandi in the State of Assam. Nagaland University,
Kohima Established as a teaching-cum-affiliating University on 6.9. 1994. Though the
act was passed in 1989. Its Headquarters is at Lumami, Nagaland. It. Has jurisdiction
over the whole of the State of Nagaland. It has 39 colleges affiliated. It has campuses
in Kohima, Lumami and Medsiphema (School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural
Development-SASRD), 25 Departments and 4 Schools of Studies. Tezpur University,
Nappam, Assam A non affiliating unitary Central University set up in 1994 under an Act
of Parliament, Tezpur University Act, 1993. Its aims is to offer employment-oriented
and inter-disciplinary courses, mostly at post-graduate level. It has 11 Departments
under 4 schools of studies and 6 centres of Studies. North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong Established in 1973 at Shillong by an Act of Parliament. North Eastern Hill
University Act, 1973. It has a Campus at Aizwal and a centre in Tura. Its jurisdiction is
over the States of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. Its Headquarters at
Shillong. Post-graduate Departments and four Centres of Studies under its six schools
of studies and an under-graduate college. It has 58 Under graduate Colleges and 8
professional course colleges and North-Eastern Regional Institute of Science and
Technology (NERJST) affiliated. It has a Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre
(RSIC).

ndian Education System Institution Types & Credentials Types of higher education
institutions University Institute of Technology College Open University School leaving
adult higher education Credentials Higher Secondary School Certificate Secondary
School Certificate Diploma Bachelor's Degree Postgraduate Diploma Master's Degree
Master of Philosophy Post-Master Degree Doctorate Doctor of Laws Doctor of Literature
Doctor of Science Structure of education system Pre-higher education: Duration of
compulsory education: Age of entry: 6 Age of exit: 14 Structure of school system:
Primary Type of school providing this education: Lower Primary School (Standards I To
V) Length of program in years: 5 Age level from: 6 to 11 Middle Type of school
providing this education Middle School (Standards VI To VII) Length of program in
years: 3 Age level from: 11 to 14 Secondary Type of school providing this education
Secondary School (Standards IX To X) Length of program in years: 2 Age level from:
14 to 16 Certificate/diploma awarded: Secondary School Certificate Senior Secondary
Type of school providing this education Higher Secondary School (Standards Xl To XlI)
Length of program in years: 2 Age level from: 16 to 18 Certificate/diploma awarded:
Higher Secondary School Certificate Vocational Secondary Type of school providing this
education Secondary schools Length of program in years: 3 Age level from: 16 to 18
Certificate/diploma awarded: Higher Secondary School Certificate

University Grants Commission (UGC) Objective: The government established University
Grants Commission (UGC) by an Act of Parliament in 1956. It discharges the
Constitutional mandate of coordination determination, and maintenance of standards of
teaching, examination and research in the field of University and Higher Education. UOC
serves 8S a vita l link between the Union and State Governments and the institutions of
higher learning. It monitors developments in the field of collegiate and university
education; disburses grants to the universities and colleges: Advises Central and State
Governments on the measures necessary for the improvement of university education;
and frames regulations such as those on the minimum standards of instruction.
Composition Commission comprises of the Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and ten other
members appointed by the Central Government. The Chairperson is selected from
among persons who are not officers of the Central Government or any State
Government. Of the ten members, two are from amongst the officers of the Central
Government to represent it. Not less than four. Selected from among persons who are,
at the time they are selected, shall be a teacher in the Universities. Others are selected
from among eminent educationists, academics and experts in various fields.
Chairperson is appointed for a term of 5 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever is
earlier. Vice Chairperson is appointed for a term of 3 years or until the age of 65 years,
whichever is earlier. The other members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The
Chairperson. Vice-Chairperson and members can be appointed for a maximum of two
terms. Funding UGC has no funds of its own. It receives both Plan and Non-Plan grants
from the Central Government to carry out the responsibilities assigned to it by law. It
allocates and disburses full maintenance and development grants to all Central
Universities, Colleges affiliated to Delhi and Banaras Hindu Universities and some of the
institutions accorded the status of Deemed to be Universities. State Universlties,
Colleges and other institutions of higher education, receive support only from the Plan
grant for development schemes. Besides, it provides financial assistance to Universities
and colleges under various schemes or programmes for promoting relevance, quality
and excellence as also promoting the role of social change by the Universities. Regional
Offices Southern Regional Office: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Pondicherry,
Tamil Nadu. Northern Regional Office: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana. Uttar Pradesh. Central Regional Office: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan. Eastern
Regional Office: West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Sikkim. North Eastern Regional Office:
Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Nagaland. Western Regional
Office: Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra.

Barriers to Communication Barriers to communication also occur if the sender and
receiver are not on the same wavelength This is as true in human communication as
it is in radio transmission. In the jargon of communication, all barriers whatever their
nature are clubbed under a common label noise it denotes not only atmospheric or
channel disturbance, but all barriers that distort communications in any manner.
Physical Barriers: Four main kinds of distractions act as physical barriers to the
communication process. These are: The Competing Stimulus in the form of another
conversation going on within hearing distance, or loud music or traffic noise in the
background. Environmental Stress: A high temperature and humidity, poor ventilation,
vibrations felt, a strong glare all can contribute to distortions in the sending and
receiving of messages. Subjective Stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, the effects of drugs
and mood variations give rise to forms of subjective 35 stress that often lead to great
difficulties in listening and interpretation. Ignorance of the Medium: The various media
for communication are: Oral, written, audio, visual and audiovisual. The use of a
medium with which the communicators is not familiar would-turn the medium itself into
a barrier. Psychological Barriers: Each of us has a certain frame of reference a kind of
window through which we look out at the world, at people, and events and situations.
A frame of reference is a system of standards and values, usually implicit, underlying
and to some extent controlling aI! action, or the expression of arty belief, attitude or
idea. No two individuals possess exactly similar frames of reference, even if they are
identical twins. To a large extent our experiences, particularly our childhood
experiences, and the cultural environment we have grown up in influence our frames of
reference. Linguistics and Cultural Barriers: A language is the expression ofthe thoughts
and experiences of people in terms of their cultural environment. When the same
language is made use of in a different culture, it takes an another colour, another
meaning. Mechanical Barriers: Mechanical barriers are those raised by the channels
employed for interpersonal, group or mass communication. Channels become barrier
when the message is interfered with by some disturbance, which increased the difficulty
in reception or prevented some elements of the message reaching its destination or
both. The absence of communication facilities too would be a mechanical barrier. This
type of barrier includes any disturbance, which interferes with the fidelity of the
physical transmission of the written, intentional-unintentional etc. One of the most
common typology relates 0 the size of the social group or the number of people
involved in the experience of communication. Such a typology ranges from the
intrapersonal and interpersonal and transpersonal, to the group and the mass.

Communication Introduction Communication is one of the most general features of life.
We cannot imagine life without it. Every living species have their own way of
communication. We use different symbols, gestures, and other different means to
communicate with each other. Communication is required not only to represent our
ideas, views, Feeling but also to understand other people. Classroom communication is
very important in teaching. It requires the attention from both sides i.e.. From the
teacher as well as from the student. As, if a teacher explains a. Topic in a language
which is not known to the students, his teaching will be unusable. He has to
communicate in a way which is most acceptable to the students. Therefore.
Communication may be defined as an exchange of ideas, facts, opinion or emotions by
two or more people An important virtue to be developed by teacher is the promotion of
competent communication skill. The teacher should be able to communicate in an
effective manner by arranging the information emphatically and logically. It should
enable children to understand and conceptualized their world. This is the essence of
communication in teaching. The word Communication is originally derived from the
Latin verb Communicare which means to make common. or to share It is also
believed to have been based on a Latin word, communis which means to
communicate and share, to impart a piece of information, a message, an idea or
concept. It is a process, which includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions,
skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, graphs, drawings, illustrations etc.
The act of communication is referred as transmission Again, Communication is the
process by which we understand and in turn try to be understood by others. It is
dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the overall situation.
Therefore, communication can be defined as the interchange of thoughts or ideas
The objective of communication is to motivate, inform, suggest, warn, order, change
behaviour and establish better relation with others. Effective communication is a
prerequisite for the attainment of objectives, more so in educational institutions. All
teaching-learning process is carried through the process of communication. Generally, it
seems that communication is a one way process. But we can see in our daily life that it
is a two way process, as, communication is a system through which the messages are
sent, and feedback are received. Communication is, therefore, the process of
transferring a particular information or message from an information source to a
desired, definite or a particular destination. One of the fundamentals of communication
messages is perception. The effectiveness of communication is limited by the recipient's
range of perception. Secondly, people perceive only what they expect and understand.
Thirdly, communication makes a demand on the recipient, in terms of his emotional
preference or rejection. Finally, communication is not to be focused with information.
While information is logical, formal and impersonal, communication is perception.
Communication of message takes place through spoken or written words, pictures and
in many other similar forms. In oral communication, the transmitter is the voice box
of the speaker. In telegraphy, it is the telegraphic key board (Morse key) which codes
the message into dashes and dots. The receiver decodes the transmitted message in a
form he can understand and comprehend. The receiver of the message may be the
human ear, which converts sound waves into a comprehensible form which can be
recognized by the human brain; a television receiver decodes the electromagnetic
waves into recognizable visual representation. Similarly, the printed message can be
deciphered by a receiver which can recognize and understand the language. Noted
communication scholar, David K. Berlo, has stated that we look to the message
(speech, manuscript, play, advertisement, etc.) in order to determine the
communicative purpose The process of communication involves a procedure consisting
of only a few steps. Berlo has suggested one model to properly comprehend the
process which includes: A communication source or an encoder, A message, A channel,
A decoder or a communication receiver or a destination. This is illustrated as under:
The information source, decides to communicate and encodes a message, transmits it
through a channel to the receiver, which is then decoded and acted upon. There are
noises or distortions in between:

DELNET was started at the India International Centre Library in January 1988 and was
registered as a society in 1992. It was initially supported by the National Information
System for Science and Technology (NISSAT), Department of Scientific and Industrial
Reseach, Government of India. It was subsequently supported by the National
Informatics Centre, Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications
and Information Technology, Government of India and The Ministry of Culture,
Government of India. DELNET has been established with the prime objective of
promoting resource sharing among the libraries through the development of a network
of libraries. It aims to collect, store, and disseminate information besides offering
computerised services to users, to coordinate efforts for suitable collection development
and also to reduce unnecessary duplication wherever possible. Main Objectives of
DELNET To promote sharing of resources among the libraries by developing a network
of libraries, by collecting, storing and disseminating information and by offering
computerised services to the users To undertake scientific research in the area of
Information Science and Technology, create new systems in the field, apply the results
of research and publish them To offer technical guidance to the member-libraries on
collecting, storing, sharing and disseminating information To coordinate efforts for
suitable collection development and reduce unnecessary duplication wherever possible
To establish/facilitate the establishment of referral and/or research centres, and
maintain a central online union catalogue of books, serials and non-book materials of all
the participating libraries To faciliate and promote delivery of documents manually or
mechanically To develop specialised bibliographic database of books, serials and non-
book materials To develop databases of projects, specialists and institutions To possess
and maintain electronic and mechanical equipment for speedy communication of
information and delivery of electronic mail To coordinate with other regional, national
and international networks and libraries for exchange of information and documents

Education and Research Network (ERNET), India is an autonomous scientific society of
Ministry of Communication & information technology (Govt. Of India). ERNET has made
a significant contribution to the emergence of networking in the country. It practically
brought the Internet to India and has built up national capabilities in the area of net-
working, especially in protocol software engineering. It has not only succeeded in
building a large network that provides various facilities to the intellectual segment of
Indian society the research and education community, it has over the years become a
trendsetter in the field of networking. ERNET is largest nationwide terrestrial and
satellite network with point of presence located at the premiere educational and
research institutions in major cities of the country. Focus of ERNET is not limited to just
providing connectivity, but to meet the entire needs of the educational and research
institutions by hosting and providing relevant information to their users. Research and
Development and Training are integral parts of ERNET activities. The activities at ERNET
India are organized around five technology focus areas: Beginning ERNET was initiated
in 1986 by the Department of Electronics (DoE), with funding support from the
Government of India and United Nations Development Program (UNDP), involving eight
premier institutions as participating agencies NCST (National Centre for Software
Technology) Bombay, IISc (Indian Institute of Science) Bangalore, five IITs (Indian
Institutes of Technology) at Delhi, Bombay, Kanpur, Kharagpur and Madras, and the
DoE, New Delhi. ERNET began as a multi protocol network with both the TCP/IP and the
OSI-IP protocol stacks running over the leased-line portion of the backbone. Since
1995, however, almost all traffic is carried over TCP/IP. National Academic and
Research Network Research and Development in the area of Data Communication and
its Application Human Resource Development in the area of High-end Networking
Educational Content Campus-wide High Speed Local Area Network History of ERNET
ERNET started with Dial-up network in 1986 87. Initially UUCP mail was only service
started by ERNET. First leased line of 9.6 kbit/s was installed in Jan' 1 between Delhi
and Mumbai. ERNET was alloted Class B IP address 144.16. 0.0 by InterNIC in 1990.
Subsequently Class C addresses were alloted to ERNET by APNIC. All IITs, IISc
Bangalore, DOE Delhi and NCST Mumbai were connected by 9.6 kbit/s leased line by
1992. In 1992, 64 kbit/s Internet gateway link was commissioned from NCST Mumbai
to UUNet in Virginia near Washington DC. In 1998 ERNET India was registered as
Autonomous Society. In 1999 2000 new terrestrial high speed backbone was setup.
In 2000 POP infrastructure was upgraded. Satellite WAN was setup in 1993. Today,
1100 institutes are ERNET users under different schemes. ERNET backbone ERNET
backbone is a sophisticated link of terrestrial and satellite-based wide area networks.
The satellite WAN, using VSAT technology. The VSAT network acts as an overlay for the
terrestrial WAN by providing backup links between the backbone sites. International
connectivity is achieved through gateways at New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and
Kolkata, with a total capacity of 6.64 Mb. Daily traffic over ERNET exceeds 20 GB.
ERNET architecture is based on industry standard TCP/IP protocol. ERNET backbone is
being enabled to support IPv 6

Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre is an Autonomous Inter-University
Centre (IUC) of University Grants Commission Government of India, involved in
creating infrastructure for sharing of library and information resources and services
among Academic and Research Institutions. INFLIBNET works collaboratively with
Indian university libraries to shape the future of the academic libraries in the evolving
information environment. Introduction Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET)
Centre is an autonomous Inter-University Centre of the University Grants Commission
(UGC) of India. It is a major National Programme initiated by the UGC in 1991 with its
Head Quarters at Gujarat University Campus, Ahmedabad. Initially started as a project
under the IUCAA, it became an independent Inter-University Centre in 1996. INFLIBNET
is involved in modernizing university libraries in India and connecting them as well as
information centres in the country through a nation-wide high speed data network using
the state-of-art technologies for the optimum utilisation of information. INFLIBNET is
set out to be a major player in promoting scholarly communication among
academicians and researchers in India Objectives The primary objectives of INFLIBNET
To promote and establish communication facilities to improve capability in information
transfer and access, that provide support to scholarship, learning, research and
academic pursuit through cooperation and involvement of agencies concerned. To
establish INFLIBNET: Information and Library Network a computer communication
network for linking libraries and information centres in universities, deemed to be
universities, colleges, UGC information centres, institutions of national importance and
R & D institutions, etc. Avoiding duplication of efforts.

Multimedia To clarify this a bit more, it is useful to list the advantages and
disadvantages of multimedia authoring tools (MM) when compared with the Web.
Advantages of MM authoring Most of them have very sophisticated editing tools and
background scripting languages. Most will allow run-time versions to be distributed
without the need for third parties to have the full version of the software they were
created in (e, g. HyperCard player, etc.). Due to their long history of development there
is 8 substantial amount of supporting material and publications to help a prospective
author. The author tends to have control over the data, restricting its distribution, as
well as the end-users'abilities to alter material. Disadvantages of MM authoring Every
authoring package has its limitations; often limited to a single platform: Poor in
handling hypertext. Unless the author creates specialised importing features most of
the data used in the final product will be locked into the package making subsequent
editing a problem. The life-expectancy of these products is questionable. Strides in
making the authoring software made easy to use, it should still be noted that the
learning curve for some products is still very high.

oftware Development Solicitware developing, also called programming, is. Li problem-
solving process. It usually consists of the following major steps: Specify the problem:
To state the problem clearly and unambiguously. Analyze the problem: To identify the
corresponding outputs. Design algorithm: To develop a list of steps, called an
algorithm, that will start with the input and stop with the output: Implement algorithm:
To write a program in a language according to the algorithm. Test the program: To
verify that the program indeed produces the desired result in selected testing cases.
Maintain the program: To update the program according to new information. Very.
Often, steps in the above procedure need to be repeated to filed the errors found in the
process. Example Kilometer-mile translation. Specify the problem: a survey of maps,
some with distances in kilometer, while others with miles. All result should be in
kilometer. Analyze the problem: Distance in miles should be converted into kilometers.
The relationship is that one mile equals 1.609 kilometer. Therefore, the input is a miles
value. The output is the corresponding kilometer value. Design the algorithm: There are
three steps: get the distance in miles times 1.609 to that number display the result.
Implement the algorithm Test the program: Run it with several distances in miles as
input, then check the output. Maintain the program: Unnecessary for this problem.
World-Wide Web Its Uses as a Teaching Tool World-Wide Web represents a new
concept in technology, the library on your desktop, the dictionary at your fingertips, the
sound at your ear. There is nothing that we hear or see that will not be available
through WWW Why Use the Web? The World-Wide Web (or the Web) is one of the
most accessible tools available for academician to use. It allows an easy means of
publishing material, it has a low learning curve, the majority of its browsers are
graphical and user friendly, and above all it is free to most people in Higher Education.
The Web works on a client-server principle. The user launches their browser (e. g.
Netscape) on their machine, which in turn interrogates a server retrieving files. Files
are located via their Uniform Resource Locator (URL) -a unique address detailing the
protocol for transferring the data, the domain name of the Web server, and the
pathname/filename of the actual document. The Web presents a head-on comparison
with traditional multimedia-authoring tools such as Tool Book, HyperCard. Director, and
80 on. Academies who wish to create simple computer aided learning courseware often
face the decision of whether they should go down the path of learning a multimedia-
authoring tool and distributing the material on a CD-ROM or floppy disk; or whether
they should move to the Internet and utilise the multimedia and hypertext capabilities
of the Web

Web Advantages of the Web Assuming one has access to a Web server (usually your
institution's mainframe), publication of material (not including copyright costs) IS free.
HTML. The mark-up language used in creating World-Wide Web documents. Ill very
easy to learn. The Web uses non-propriety standards ASCII, giving the site a longer life
expectancy: Text is in plain ASCII. HTML is a sub-setol SGML, graphics appear 8S JPEG
or GIF, etc. It is subsequently cross-platform (i.e.. The same document can be viewed
through a Macintosh, a Windows machine, a UNIX box. And even a dumb terminal using
such browsers as LYNX though this necessitate the loss of multimedia elements). Once
established, the material is made available to an international audience amounting to
millions (with no extra distribution costs). Linking from the document is not restricted
to data elsewhere on the machine's hard drive or the CD-ROM the program is
distributed on, but can be international In turn. If you are thinking of creating a virtual
environment for your students, the Web will allow to link, with ease, to other
Universities. Software needed for the Web is free in most parts. The potential audience
is limited by the distribution process (e. g. Cost and speed of producing CD-ROMs), and
the platform requirements. Cases (both browsers and servers) or very cheap, and are
easy to use. The Web can deliver multimedia (including video and audio) elements in
addition to text. Additionally, plug-ins for the various browsers allow users to interact
with VRML sites. If the product is upgraded this would have to be in conjunction with a
re-issue of a new version, entailing all the problems of advertising these changes, plus
a renewed round of distribution. Although software houses have made great Editing of
existing files is straightforward. Furthermore, as it works on a client server basis there
is no onus on the developer to reo issue upgrades. Disadvantages of the Web At
present, the screen design facilities and animation capabilities of the Web are not as
advanced as those provided with most of the authoring packages. However,
Macromedia's Shockwave goes someway to addressing this; as does Java; or the more
user friendly JavaScript. Cascading style sheets may aid the screen layout process in
the near future. Access on networks is slow (probably the most consistent criticism
leveled at publishing on the Internet). However, in answer to this, it should not be
forgotten that HT11L flies can be read from local networks or bard drives thus
dispensing with the reliance on the speed of the Internet. Academics wishing to provide
online tutorials or notes via the Web could even distribute their files on floppy disks. By
opening up access to an international audience there are serious implications for
copyright issues. A developer wishing to publish on the Web will probably have to agree
world rights on the material they use. In short, the technical problems, though still
there on the Web, are far outweighed by the advantages of using it, making it a more
attractive prospect for the development of CBL material than traditional multimedia
authoring packages (though it should be noted that manufacturers of the latter are
constantly seeking ways to deliver traditional multimedia packages through Web
browsers).

Communication Elements The Source or Encoder and The sender begins the
communication process by forming the ideas, intentions and feelings that will be
transmitted. The sender is required to filter out the details that are uilimportant and
focus hislher energy on the most relevant information. The source, or en~oder makes
the decision to communicate. The source also determines what the purpose of the
message will be to inform, persuade, or entertain. The communication process starts
from the source. First, the source must encode, or create, a message. That is, the
information that the source wishes to convey must be put into a form that can be sent
to the receiver. Message: The second element of the communication process is the
message, or that information which is being communicated. The source encodes an idea
and then determines whether or not to inform, persuade, or entertain. After deciding
what message to send, the source uses symbols to get the message across to others.
These symbols stand for other things. The most important symbols are words, which
can represent objects, ideas, and feelings. These words permit us to share our thoughts
with other members of our species. To increase the likelihood of successful
communication, the source must try to encode in a way that the receiver understands,
so that the receiver can properly decode (interpret) the message. Channel: Channels
are the means (that is, pathways or devices) by which messages are communicated.
Channels may be described and analyzed in two different ways. The first involves the
form in which messages are sent to receivers. Forms include both verbal and nonverbal
channels of communication. We use our five senses to receive messages from others.
Channels may also be described according to the manner of presentation employed in
communication. Depending on the situation, the source would concentrate on verbal
and non verbal channels of communication. If the speaker is not in front of the
audience his or her physical appearance wouldn't matter, but if he or she is giving
lectures in a classroom or before a live audience, personal appearance could easily
influence the reception of the message. Whatever channels of communication are used,
the source must learn to adapt the message to make use of the most appropriate
channels available for the situation. Receiver or Decoder: The person (or persons) who
attends to the source's message is the receiver. The act of interpreting messages is
called decoding. Receivers decode messages based on past experiences, perceptions,
thoughts, and feelings. We first have a physiological reception of stimuli (a noise causes
sound waves to hit our eardrum or a movement catches our eye). We then pay
attention to both the verbal and nonverbal stimuli and reduce all the stimuli
bombarding us to one or two we can cope with more easily. Next, we try to understand
the stimuli and interpret them into messages (we decide that the noise is a telephone
bell or that the movement is a friend waving to us across campus). Finally, we store
this information for later use so that next time we will be able to respond to the stimuli
more quickly. It is important to remember that receivers make immediate decisions
about what they will respond to in a given situation. Feedback: Another element in the
communication process is feedback. Each party in an interaction continuously sends
messages back to the other. This return process is called feedback. Feedback tells. The
source how the receiver has interpreted each message: The feedback, which conveys
lack of understanding, is known as negative feedback. Positive feedback, on the other
hand, indicates that the receiver has understood the source's message. It does not
necessarily mean that he or she agrees with the source, just that the message was
interpreted accurately. Feedback can also be ambiguous, not clearly positive or
negative. See and mm-hmm" can be examples of' ambiguous feedback. The effective
communicator is always sensitive to feedback and constantly modifies his or her
messages as a result of the feedback received. Barriers or Noise: The human
communication system can be compared with a radio or telephone circuit. Just as in
radio transmissions, where distortion can occur at any point along the circuit (channel),
there can be similar barriers in human communication. The source's information may be
insufficient or unclear. Or the message can be ineffectively or inaccurately encoded. The
wrong channel of communication may be used. The message may not be decoded the
way it was encoded. Finally, the receiver may not equipped to handle the decoded
message in such a way as to produce the response (feedback) expected by the source.
Barriers are any obstacles or difficulties that come in the way of communication. They
may be physical, mechanical, psychological, cultural or linguistic in nature. Besides,
then are the barriers, raised by interpersonal relationships between individual and
groups, the prejudices of both individuals and groups and the channels they use to
communicate.

Thus, as illustrated above, we see that there are six elements of communication: a
code, a channel, encoding, decoding, encoder and decoder. A message is
communicated or a piece of information is conveyed by means of a mechanism. This is
necessary with a view to being able to convey the message/information fully and
completely. Thus, there is a sender of the message who is also called an encoder, just
as a computer understands the language of a code. A channel or device is used to
communicate the message. It could be a radio or a television set, newspaper or
magazine and the like: The encoding process means putting the message together or
arranging the ideas in a recognizable and understandable form, for conveying it to the
receivers. Unlike in telegraphy, the encoder here is an human agent. The encoder
decides the content of the message. Similarly, decoder is the destination where the
message lands. The receiver has to wait for the words to be spoken or written and to
make out what he/she can make of them according to his/her knowledge, experience,
assumption, and attitudes. When two people communicate who are equally matched in
intelligence, social backgrounds and comprehension power; the advantages and
disadvantages pass from one to the other. Thus, the encoder (who is the initiator of the
communication activity) chooses his subject and the channel of communication and
makes the first impact on the mind of the decoder. Decoding is one of the most
important and very crucial elements of the communication process. The entire process
of comprehension process of communication hinges on the decoder of course, the
message will be received, recorded and interpreted differently by different people
according to their knowledge, experience and understanding levels.

Earth Observations System Earth Observations System (EOS) is an important space
infrastructure that has been established by the Department of Space (DOS). The
system, which was commissioned in 1988 with the launch of Indian Remote Sensing
Satellitte, IRS-1A, has the worlds largest constellation of five satellites IRS-C, IRS-1 D.
IRS-P3, IRS-P4 and TES presently in operation. It provides space-based remote sensing
data in a variety of spatial resolutions and spectral bands meeting the needs of various
applications. The EOS definition, development, operation and it application are
coordinated by the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS), for
which DOS is the nodal agency. NNRMS is an integrated resource management system
aimed at optimal utilisation of countrys natllral resources by a proper and systematic
inventory of resource availability using EOS data in conjunction with conventional
techniques. NNRMS is supported at the national leve l by the Planning Committee of
NNRMS (pC-NNRMS), which provides guidelines for implementation of the system and
also oversees the progress of remote sensing applications for natural resources
management in the country. The NNRMS activities are guided by ten Standing
Committees, namely. Agriculture & Soils Bio-Resources Geology and Mineral Resources
Water Resources Ocean Resources Cartography & Mapping Urban Management Rural
Development Technology & Training Meteorology

Features Of Communication We can define communication as a systemic process in
which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings. The
definition of communication has three important facets. Process: Communication is a
process, which means that it is ongoing and always-in motion. It's hard to tell when
communication starts and stops because what happened before we talk with someone
may influence our interaction, and what occurs in a particular encounter may affect the
future. That communication is a process means it is always in motion, moving forward
and changing continuously. We cannot freeze communication at anyone moment. So it
is dynamic in process. Systemic: Communication takes place within systems. A system
consists of interrelated parts that affect one another. In classroom communication,
teacher and each student is part of the system. In addition, the physical environment
and the time of day are elements of the system that affect interaction. The history of a
system also affects communication. If a student has a history of listening sensitively
and working out problems constructively, then he or she will be in better
communication mode. On the other hand, if the student has a record of nasty conflicts
and internal strife, he or she will not communicate in a better way in classroom.
Communication is also affected by the larger systems within which takes place.
Symbolic communication is symbolic. It relies symbols, which are abstract, arbitrary,
arid ambiguous representations of other things. Remember that human communication
involves interaction with and through symbols. Meanings: Finally, our definition focuses
on meanings, which are at the heart of communication. Meanings are the significance
we bestow on phenomenon, or what they signify to us. We do not find meanings in
experience itself. Instead, we use symbols to create meanings.

Telecommunication The INSAT system for telecommunication, television broadcasting
and meteorology has received further boost during the year with t. He successful
launch ofINSAT-3C on January 24, 2002. INSAT-3C will not only augment the present
INSAT system but also continue the services of some of the satellites that need to be
phased out at the end of their mission life. INSAT is one of the largest domestic
communication satellite systems in the world with five satellites, INSAT-2C, INSAT-2DT,
INSAT-2E, INSAT-3B and INSAT-3C. The INSAT system also includes a few
transponders leased from other agencies for meeting the current demands. Planning of
IN sat 4 series of satellites has been initiated based on detailed discussions with the
various users. Seven satellites are proposed in the INSAT-4 series. Experimental
communication satellites, OSATa, are built, which are launched during the
developmental test flights of GSLV. Besides the use of INSAT for telecommunication,
broadcasting and meteorological services, emphasis is being given for using the system
for grassroots level applications like developmental communication and satellite based
training. New initiatives'have been taken for using INSAT fOr introduction of tele-
medicine to make speciality treatment accessible to the population an remote areas.
The Indian remote sensing satellite system, IRS, which has the biggest constellation of
satellites, continues to provide space-based remote sensing data for 8 number of
applications in India and abroad. IRS system, at present, has five satellites, namely,
LRS-lC, IRS-1D, IRS-P3, fRS-P4 (OCEANSAT) and Technology Experiment Satellite
(TES). The TES has given further fillip to advance the tecbnolo~ of remote sensing in
India. It has enabled testing new satellite hardware and demonstrating newer remote
sensing techniques. It incorporates a panchromatic camera providing a spatial
resolution of up to 1 m. Remote sensing satellites like RESOURCESAT, CARTOSAT-I and
CARTOSAT-2, is progressing well. They will not only continue the services of the
present IRS satellites but 8. Lso enhance the service capabilities. CARTOSAT-l is
already in service. The remote sensing applications continue to expand to several new
areas; the data has been used to assess damage due to floods, earthquakes, etc. And
for helping in relief operations. Remote Sensing Data Policy (RSDP) was announced
which helps in streamline the availability of remote sensing data from indian and-
foreign satellites to users in India. The launch of two satellites. One of Belgium and
another of Germany-on board PSLV marks an important event during the year under
commercial marketing of India's space capabilities. Data from IRS satellites continue to
be received by several ground stations worldwide. The lease agreement of transponders
on board INSAT-2E to INTELSAT has continued. Space Transportation Space
Transportation system includes the satellite launch vehicles to place satellites like I
NSAT and IRS and scientific satellites in the requisite orbits as well as the sounding
rockets for carrying out short duration scientific experiments. India made a modest
beginning in this area with the launch of a 75 mm diameter sounding rocket in 1963 for
investigation of ionosphere over the gee-magnetic equator over Thumba, near
Thiruvananthapuram. Since then, India has established a s ubstantial capability in the
design, development and operationalisation of a series of sounding rockets for scientific
investigations, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV, for launching Indian remote
sensing satellites and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV, for launching
geostationary communication satellites.

Overview Of Computers Computers Computers were originally invented to carry out
numerical calculations in the 19308 408. Later they were gradually developed to
process all kinds of data such as numbers, texts, and other types of media. A computer
system consists of two types of components: Hardware and software. Hardware is the
equipment used to perform the necessary oomputations and includes the central
processing unit (CPU), monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and 80 on. Software consists
of programs written in programming languages that control the hardware to carry out
various tasks. Whatever a computer needs to process are eventually translated into
binary numbers, consisting of Os and le. The programs are translated into lists of
instructions working on the binary numbers. Hardware Major hardware components of a
computer include memory, processing unit, and input! output devices. Memory is the
place w here the programs and data are stored. It can be imagined as an ordered
sequence of storage locations called memory cells. Each cell has a unique address,
which is like a serial number of the cell in the memory. The data stored in a memory
cell are called the contents of the cell. Program treated as a special type of data. The
concept of stored program let a program be stored in the memory before they can be
executed. A memory cell contains a sequence of binary digits, or bits. Each bit is either
a0 or a1. A sequence of eight bits is usually called a byte, which represent a character,
such the ones on a keyboard. To store a value into a certain address means to give it
new contents (so the previous one is gone). To retrieve a value from a memory cell
means to copy the contents to another place without destroying it. In a computer, there
are several types of memory. There is the distinction between main memory and
secondary memory-the former is faster and smaller, but the latter is cheaper, and often
removable. At the current time, the former is usually in silicon chips, while the latter in
hard disks, floppy disks, CDs and 80 on. There are two types of main memory: RAM
(random access memory) and ROM (read-only memory). Their differences are that the
contents of RAM can be modified, and are usually volatile i.e.. will be lost when the
computer is switched off. On the otber band, secondary memory is not volatile. In the
following, ~main memory means RAM. The terms used to quantify storage capacities:
1 byte (B) = 8 bite. 1 kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes, i.e.. 2 10 bytes 1 megabyte (MB) =
1024 kilobytes, i.e.. 220 bytes 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes. i.e.. 230 bytes 1
terabyte (fB) = 1024 gigabytes, i.e.. 2 0 bytes In a computer, most. Of the operations
are performed by a CPU (central processing unit.), though there are computers with
multiple CPUs. A CPU has two tasks: Coordination of all computer operations and
performing arithmetic and logical operations on data. The CPU follows the instructions
contained in a program (written in a computer-understandable language). In each step.
The CPU fetches (i.e.. retrieves) an instruction, interprets its content to decide what to
do, and then do it, which may mean to move data from one place to another, or change
data in a certain way. Other common operations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, comparison, and so on. CPU usually executes instructions one
after another, but can also jump to another memory cell according to an instruction. At
the current time. a CPU is in a single integrated circuit (IC), or call it a chip. A computer
uscs its inputJoutput (I/O) devices to communicate with human uscs and other
computers. For a human user, the usual input device is a keyboard and a mouse, and
the usual output device is a monitor (display screen), and a printer. The human-
computer interaction (Hef) can either happen in a command-line user interface. Or a
graphical user interface (GUI). A computer network carries out communications among
computer systems. There are different types of networks: Localarea network (LAN) and
wide area network (WAN). The Internet connects computers allover the world. Which
supports the World Wide Web WWW, among many of its usages. To connect to another
computer, a computer needs a modem (modulator or demodulator), or some other
network device, to translate between its internal language and the language used in the
network communication. The communications can go through all kinds of cables, or
wireless. Software In a computer, there is a software that occupies a special position:
The operating system (OS). With respect to it, all other softwares are application
softwares which are managed and supported by the OS. When a computer is turned on,
it starts by executing part of the OS that is stored in a ROM, which then loads the rest
of the OS from hard disk and starts it. This process is called booting When running,
an OS has the following main responsibilities: Another type of language are more
human oriented, called higher-level languages which are closer to mathematical
languages and natural languages (such as English), as well machine-independent.
Typical examples of high-level language include FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC,
Pascal, LISP, Prolog, Perl, C, C + +, and Java. Special programs accomplish the
translation from high-level languages and assembly languages into machine languages:
Compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. A compiler translates a source program in a
high level language into an object-program in the machine language. An interpreter
interprets and executes a program in a high-level language line by tine. An assembler
translate 8 a source program in an assembly language inti! an object program in the
machine language. A high-level language usually comes with many readymade common
programs, so the user can include them in programs, neither than rewrite them. The
program responsible for this is called a linker It links user object programs and
related library programs and produces executable programs. There are software
packages ca lled integrated development environment (IDE) which organize all the
related software (e. g. editor, compiler, linker, loader, debugger) together to support
the development of a software. During the execution of a program in machine
language, it typically get some input data from the memory, process them according
the predetermined procedure, then store some output data into the memory, and
display some information to the user. communicating with the user allocating resources
(CPU time, memory space, printer usage ____). connection 1/0 devices With running
programs. transferring data between main and secondary memory. In summary. We
often say t. Hat the OS manage processes and resources. At the current time, the most
often used OS include UnixlLinux, Microsoft Windows. And Macintosh OS. It is possible
for a Computer to have more than one as stored in its memory. But usually only one
can be used at a time. An application software uses the computer to accomplish a
specific task. They are usually purchased on CD. And installed into the computer (so itia
stored in memory and known to the OS), before they can be used in the computer. The
CPU, in a machine language, in which a program is in binary code. Eventually executea
every software. Since programs in this language are not easily understandable by a
human user, the same program is usually also described in other, more human-
readable languages. One type of them is a88Cmbly language. In which the instructions
are represented by symbols and numbers

Space Science And Communication Milestones 1962: Indian National Committee for
Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed by the Department of Atomic Energy and work on
establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) started. 1963: First
sounding rocket launched from TERLS (November 21, 1963). 1965: Space Science &
Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba. 1967: Satellite Telecommunication
Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad. 1968: TERLS dedicated to the United Nations
(February 2, 1968). 1969: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under
Department of Atomic Energy (August 15, 1969) 1972: Space Commission and
Department of Space set up. ISRO brought under DOS (June I, 1972). 1972 76: Air-
borne remote sensing experiments. 1975: ISRO becomes Government Organisation
(Ap, il1, 1975). First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975). 1975 76
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted. 1977 Satellite
Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out: 1979: Bhaskara-I, an
experimental satellite for earth observations, launched (June 7, 1979). First
Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rahini Technology Payload on board (August 10,
1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit. 1980: Second Experimental launch ofSLV-
3. Rohinisatellite successfully placed in orbit (July 18, 1980). 1981: First developmental
launch of SLV-3. RS-Dl placed in orbit (May 31, 1981) APPLE, an experimental geo-
stationary communication satellite successfully launched (June 19, 1981). Bhaskara-II
launched (November 20, 1981). 1982: INSAT-lA launched (April 10, 1982). Deactivated
on September 6, 1982. 1983: Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in
orbit (April 17, 1983). INSAT-IB, launched (August 30, 1983). 139 1984: I ndo-Soviet
manned space mIssion (April 1984). 1987: First developmental launch of ASLV with
SROSS-1 satellite on board (March 24, 1987). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
1988: Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, lRS-lA (March 17,
1988). INSAT-IC launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989. Second
developmental launch-of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July 13, 1988). Satellite could
not be placed in orbit. 1990: INSAT-I0 launched (June 12, 1990). 1991: Launch of
second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-LB (August 29, 1991). 1992: Third
developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C on board (May 20, 1992). Satellite placed
in orbit. INSAT-2A, the ft. Rst satellite of the indigenously built. Second-generat. Ion
INSAT series. Launched (July 10, 1992). 1993: INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the
INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23, 1993). First developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-
IE on board (September 20, L993). Satellite could not. Be placed in orbit. 1994: Fourth
developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board (May 4, 199--1). Satellite
placed in orbit. Second developmental launch ofPSLV with IRS-P2 on board (October
15, 1994). Satellite successfully placed in polar sun synchronous orbit. 1995: I NSAT-
2C, the third satellite m the INSAT-2 series, launched (December 7, 1995). Launch of
third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-IC (December 28, 1995). 1996:
Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 on board (March 21.1996). Satellite
placed in polar sun synchronous orbit. 1997: INSAT-20, fourth satellite in the INSAT
series. Launched (June 4.1997). Becomes inoperable on October 4.1997 (An in-orbit
satellite, ARABSAT-IC, since renamed INSAT. 2dt, was acquired in November 1997 to
partly augment the INSAT system). First operational launch otPSLV with IRS-1 D on
board (September 29, 1997). Satellite placed in orbit. 1998: INSAT system capacity
augmented With the readiness of INSAT-2DT acquired from ARABSAT (January 1998).
1999: INSAT-2E, the last satellite In the multipurpose INSAT-2 series, launched by
Ariane from French Guyana (April 3.1999). Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4
(OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (pSLV-C2) along with Korean
KITSAT-3 and German OLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikotn (May 26, 1999). 2000: I NSAT-
3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series. Launched by Artane from
Kurou French Guyana (March 22, 2000). 2001: Successful light test of Geosynchronous
Satelhte Launch Vehicle (OSLV) (April 18, 2001). With an experimental satellite GSAT
on board. Successful launch of PSLV-C3 (October 22, 2001) placing three satellites
India's TES, Belgian PROBA and German BI RD. In to Polar sunsynchronous orbit. 2002:
Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou. French Guyana (January 24,
2002). ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched KALPANA-l
satellite from Sriharikota (September 12, 2002). Succcssful launch ofINSAT-3A by
Arlane from Kourou French Guyana (April 10, 2003), The Second developmental launch
ofGSLV-02 with gsat 2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8, 2003). Successful launch of
INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana (September 28, 2003), ISRO's Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV. C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT 1 (lRS-P6)
satellite from Srihankota (October 17, 2003). India launches EDUSAT exclusive satellite
for educational services (September 2004). India recognised the potential of space
science and technology for the socio-economic development of the society soon after
the launch of Sputnik by erstwhile USSR in 1957. The Indian space efforts started in the
sixties with the establishment of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station near
Thiruvananthapuram for the investigation of ionosphere using sounding rockets. The
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), was established in 1969 under the
Department of Atomic Energy. The Government of India gave fillip to the space
activities by formally setting up Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS)
in June 1972 and ISRO was also brought under Department of Space. Over the last
three decades, India has achieved an enviable progress in the design, development and
operation of space systems, as well as using the systems for vital seryices like
telecommunication, television broadcasting, meteorology, disaster warning and natural
resources survey and management. The space programme has become largely self-
reliant with capability to design and build its own satellites for providing space services
and to launch them using indigenously designed and developed launch vehicles. The
successful first test flight of Geosrynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) from
Sriharikota on April 18, 2001 was the most significant milestone of the Indian space
programme. The launch unequivocally demonstrated India's capability to place satellites
into geo-synchronous transfer orbits. India is among the 6 nations in the world to
achieve such a capability. The launch of OS LV is the culmination of efforts of several
DOS centres and other institutions that involved complex interfaces between scientific
and technological disciplines, industries and research institutions. Another important
milestone during the year was the succeasfulflight of PSLV-C3 on October 22, 2001
from Sriharikota. In this fifth consecutively successful flight, PSLV placed three
satellites-India's Technology Experiment Satellite, TES, Belgian PROBA and German
BIRD into their intended polar sun-synchronous orbit. The requircment of a higher orbit
for the Belgian PROBA compared to other two satellites was successfully met by a flight.
Manoeuvre. Both German and Belgian satellites were launched under commcrcial
agreements.

Communication: Introduction Communication is an indispensable tool in all areas of
human interaction. But it is a process that is complex. The extent of its complexity can
be seen in the variety of ways in which it can be defined. Thus, communication is any
behaviour, verbal, nonverbal or graphic that is perceived by another. It involves a web
of activities that differ in different situations. In the workplace, for example, you would
probably communicate differently when talking formally to customers as compared to
informally with a peer. How you perceive the situation will often determine your
communication behavior. Forms and Types of Communication People communicate with
each other in a variety of ways that depend on the message they want to send and the
context in which it is to be sent. As a result there are a variety of forms and types of
communication such as e-mail, face-to-face, telephone, meetings, corridor
conversations and seminars. Dwyer categorises these into three forms of
communication-verbal, nonverbal and graphic four types of communication-
intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass. Communication Models and Theories
Communication is a dynamic and interactive procesS'Just as there are many definitions
of communication, so there are many models of communication, each providing
different views of how people transfer and interpret information. Like a jigsaw puzzle,
each model provides a part of the picture, but no one model seems to cover all aspects.
Berlo's Model Berlo's focus remained on the transmission model of communication.
However, he introduced more of the human elements, such as the relationship between
the message channel and the five senses Effective communication involves both the
sender and the receiver. The sender must be as clear as possible and the receiver must
signal understanding or clarification. It involves both content and relationship elements
content = message, idea relationship = emotions, power, status personal Encoding and
decoding are based on a person's perception of the world. The Transmission Model The
transmission model is concerned with the transfer of meaning from the sender to the
receiver. Communication is a one way process. The Process Model The transmission
model was subsequently adapted to form the process models in which people transmit,
receive, interpret and respond to messages with feedback. The process models have
seven main elements: Sender Message Receiver Feedback Channel Context or setting
(environment) Noise or interference In the process models, a message is encoded by
the sender through a communication channel, such as voice or body language, and
then decoded by the receiver. The receiver then provides feedback. The process is
influenced by the context of the situation and any noise or interference.

Communication Barriers Ineffective communication can lead to errors,
misunderstanding, poor performance, lower motivation and morale, negative feelings in
the workplace and many other issues that may detract from achieving organisational
goals. It is, therefore, important to try to minimise barriers to effective and efficient
communication: Communication barriers distort or interrupt the message and its
meaning Organizational Communication Communication in an organisation may be used
to influence, inform, control or inspire. Organisational communication can be divided
into two broad categories-formal or structured (within the systems established by
management) and informal (as when co-workers chat about company matters). Both
areas are significant and both need to be healthy for the organisation to be healthy.
Formal Communication Channels and Networks Formal communication channels follow
the organisational structure or hierarchy and flow in four directions: These four
directions in which communication can travel are: Downward; upward; lateral or
horizontal; and diagonal. Downward communication involves communication from
higher to lower levels so that leadership can communicate goals, strategies or role
expectations. Upward communication flows from lower levels to higher levels of the
organisation, for example, when there is a need to communicate problems, results or
suggestions. Horizontal communication occurs across the same level and involves for
example, coordination of activities with peers (teams, committees), dissemination of
useful information from one department to another (for example sales forecasts from
the sales department to production, and problems such as a problem with product
design from the production department to research and development). Horizontal
communication facilitates the l inking of different areas of expertise and this may
encourage innovation. Diagonal channels may potentially cause conflict as they involve
communication between the lower level of one department to a higher level in another.
In the diagram above, this may cause friction between the employee in accounting
department C and the Vice-President (VP) of Accounting as the employee has gone
around his or her own superior. Nevertheless this type of communication may be useful
as it may simply be information relevant to the Marketing Department and the VP
Accounting does not need to be involved. Formal communication networks also occur
within the hierarchy of the organisation and reflect how groups of employees, for
example those in a department, work together. Networking or mapping the flow of
communication in an organisation can be a useful device. This can identify who is
communicating with whom and whether the lines of communication are effective and
efficient, or whether there is potential for destructive conflict or tension arising from the
communication channels (for example, inappropriate diagonal communication). Formal
Communication: Problems and Solutions Many communication problems arise from the
structure of the organisation. Dwyer mentions three related organisational factors:
Centralisation; the creation of too many organisational layers; and the structure of the
organisation. Other factors may include downsizing which leads to ambiguous reporting
structure and poor leadership. Many of these problems may be overcome by: analysing
the organisation structure and communication networks for barriers to effectiveness
and efficiency ensuring downsizing is well planned and the survivors (those left in the
organisation) understand the impact of the process on communication networks and
procedures recruiting for competent communication, particularly when recruiting for
leadership roles. Informal Communication Informal organisational communication exists
outside the formal lines of the organisational structure. An example of this is friendship
groups. The informal communication channel serves two main purposes: It permits
employees to satisfy their need for social interaction in the workplace and it can
improve an organisation's performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster
and more efficient, channels of communication (Robbins et al. 2000). One of the most
common forms of informal communication is the grapevine According to Kreitner and
Kinicki (1995) the term grapevine originated from the American Civil War practice of
stringing battlefield telegraph lines between trees as a means of efficient
communication. Now it supplements the formal channels of communication.

The Elements Of Communication We can determine the elements involved (circulatory
and digestive systems, for example), analyze how those elements'affect one another,
and thus determine the nature of the process as a whole. Applying this approach to the
communication process, we find eight elements a source/encoder of communication,
which sends a message through a channel to a receiver/decoder, which responds via
feedback with possibilities of communication breakdowns (Barrier) in each stage of
communication. However, these elements must be understood and analyzed in relation
to the situation or context the system (such as relationship), which is created and
maintained. At some level by the communicators.

Follow-On Satellites For Earth Observation IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-l) IRS-P6
(RESOURCESAT-l) is launched by PSLV in 2002 03. It will carry the following
payloads: IRS-P6 will not only provide service continuity to IRS-1C and IRS-IO but also
enhance the service capabilities in the areas of agriculture, disaster management, land
and water resources, with better resolution imageries. mS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1), lRS-P5 is
launched by PSLV in 2003 04. The satellite is primarily intended for advanced
cartographic applications. IRS-P5 will have two panchromatic cameras on board with
2.5 m resolution with a swath of 30 km each. These cameras are mounted with a tilt of
+ 26 deg and-5 deg along the track with respect to nadir to provide stereo pairs of
images needed for the generation of Digital Terrain Model (OTM)/Digital Elevation
Models (OEM) of the required regions. The data products will be used for cartographic
applications, cadastral mapping and updating, land use and other GIS applications. The
satellite has a revisit capability of 5 days, which can be realised by steering the
spacecraft about roll axis by 26 degrees. During tbe year tbe equipment panel design
bas been finalised. Various components are under development and testing. Ground
Segment: The ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) monitors
and controls aU the IRS satellites besides other low earth orbit satellites. ISTRAC has a
network of ground stations located at Bangalore, Sriharikota, Port Blair.
Thiruvanantapuram, Mauritius and Bearslake with multi-mission Spacecraft Control
Centre at Bangalore. TIC stations at Brunei and Biak have aso been added recently.
ISTRAC. At present tra. Cks, monitors and controls IRS-IC, IRS-ID, IRS-P3, JRS-P4 and
TES. ISTRAC was extensively used for conducting various demonstrations on TES. The
payload operations on IRS-IC and IRS-ID are carried out over the Inman stations at
Shadnagar in India as well as foreign data reception stations at Fairbank (USA), Seoul,
Korea, Cotopaxy (Ecuador), Dubai, NeustraJitz (Germany), Norman (USA), Tokai
(Japan) and Riyad (Saudi Arabia). On an average about 350 to 400 payload operations
are being carried out per month. IRS-P3 payload operations are being carried out for
about 250 times per month over Shadnagar in India, Neustralitz and Wallops
(Germany) and Maspolamas (Spain). a multi-spectral camera USS 3 providing 23.5
m spatial resolution in four spectral bands with a swath of 140 km a high resolution
multi-spectral camera LISS-4 providing 5.8 m spatial resolution operating in three
spectral bands an Advanced Wide Field Sensor (A WiFS) with a spatial resolution better
than 70 m in three spectral bands and providing a swath of 740 km.

The term Internet stands for Inter Network Systems. It is a global network of networks.
It consists of thousands of interconnected computer networks. The growth of the
Internet is phenomenal. The Internet is being viewed as a phenomenon unparalleled
since the invention of the printing press that ushered in a revolution in the production,
circulation and exchange of information. The technical foundation of the Internet allows
it to keep expanding almost indefinitely. The Internet has been compared with a tidal
wave that will wash over the computer industry and many others and drowning those
who don't learn to swim in its waves. As the computer has become a part and parcel of
modern offices the Internet will force itself into the very texture of our life by the turn
of the century. For millions of users the world over, Internet has become a means of
cross-border transfer of information. It facilitates direct contact between researchers
from different countries. It is an exceptional means of communication. It offers an
opportunity to every individual to exercise power in a way that no information structure
has ever provided. Information put on the Internet becomes instantaneously available
and which can be accessible to millions of individuals. No single individual or
organisation owns the Internet. Its management is completely decentralised. It is
entirely managed by individual and organisational volunteers. Each network meets the
expenditure for the installation and operating costs as well as those of connecting up
with the other networks. Uses Of The Internet The list of services available on the
Internet is expanding everyday. It has come to be the single unparalleled device for
finding solutions to all sorts of problems. Image, sound and text travel easily on the
Internet. Users from all over the world can discuss back and forth. The Internet can
arrange a round table conference at much lower cost. It has already become a new
medium of business. Some important applications of the Internet are: E-mail: E-mail is
the most widely used Internet service and it has abolished the notion of distance. To
send a message through E-mail one has to type a message and it would travel instantly
over the network to whomever one wishes. An electronic mailbox that is an address,
which specifies the source or destination of an electronic mail message, is the essence
of electronic mail. This mailbox, a storage area that keeps the message until the user
reads it. An e-mail message can include text, graphics, voice and video. FTP: File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), a client-server protocol allows a user on one computer system
to transfer files to and from another computer system over a TeptIP network regardless
of the platforms the users or the host (remote). Site are using provided the user knows
the address of the host computer and has some kind of idea of the information stored
there. Usenet: Usenet originally implemented in 1979 80 has grown to develop as the
largest decentralised information utility in existence. It encompasses government
agencies, universities, high schools, business houses of all denominations and
individuals. Usenet has emerged as one of the important segments of the Internet.
There are innumerable topics. A typical Use net message may contain plain text and or
encoded binary information. Each message has a series of headlines which defme the
source bfthe messagc, its destination, time and location of posting, what route it has
taken over the network and 80 on. Chatting interactively in real time: It is possible to
speak (VOICE) in real time on the Internet provided one uses the right kind of software.
The quality of the audio depends on the application, the speed of the computer and the
compression method used. Standard compression protocols are: CSM, CVSD AND RTP.
In a full duplex conversation, one can speak and hear the other person at the same
time. In half duplex, only one person can speak at a time. TelNet: One can access other
computers via the Internet by using TeLNet-one of the most important protocols of the
Internet. TelNet provides the user an opportunity to be on one computer system and do
work on another-which may be very near or thousands of kilometers away. Acquiring
software; The Internet is the world's biggest software library and it is possible to
acquire software from the Internet. The software which are available free from the
Internet are known as freeware and another kind is known as shareware software
which is available for nominal charge. World Wide Web (WWW): There is an incredible
amount of information on the Internet and it is growing exponentially. As any individual
or organisation does not control the Internet there is no master record of its
information resources. WWW, a product of the continuous search for innovative ways of
searching information, is a mechanism that links together information stored on many
computers throughout the world. One of the important characteristics of the WWW
documents is their hypertext structure created by Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)
a simple data format. HTML lets one easily link words or pictures in one document to
other documents and the resulting hypertext documents are portable from one platform
to another. HTML works on matter where the documents are stored-whether in the
same computer or elsewhere on the Net. One will just have to click on a phrase or icon
in t he first document with one's mouse for the Internet to fetch the related documents
on the computer's screen. The system requirements for running a WWW server are
minimal. WWW provides a way to interconnect computers running different operating
systems. The simplicity of the HTML used for interactive documents allows a user to
contribute to the expanding database of documents. The possibilities for hypertext in
the WWW environment are endless. Issues Of Concern As the Internet is growing 80
are host of ethical concerns abo ut it. Certainly researchers and scholars-the early users
of the Internet-would like to protect the Internet from censorsh ip. But law-enfoL'cing
age ncies particularly in those countries where the Internet is widely used are
considering means to curb impersonators, pirates and other improper users. At present
censorship is mainly intended to protect children against indecent material.
Advertisement on the Net is another thorny issue. By its interactive nature it is more
persuasive. In the beginning, everything that was available on the Net was free. It was
intended to provide help to researchers around the world. But as the popularity of the
Internet is growing a number of pay-service networks are appearing. Problems of
copyright and security have already surfaced. The continuation of the Internet as a
democratic information infrastructure seems to be threatened by the notorious web-
based terrorists who attempt to spread disinformation and the software giants who are
trying to define the Webonomics. Some people think that Internet may eventually end
up in being a medium of ideological propaganda. However, such concerns do not seem
to the well founded unlike other technologies of the past it is diversifying rather than a
centralising force. The rising popularity of the Internet is creating traffic jams and at
certain times of the day the networks are so crowded that it is practically impossible to
connect with certain server. The Internet is still evolving. The real Internet of the future
may bear very little resemblance to today's Internet. The growth of the Internet has
not followed any planned path in the past. But one thing about its future can be said
with certainty that it is poised to be much bigger and exponentially faster.

Satellite Data Acquisition, Processing And Dissemination The National Remote Sensing
Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, continues to receive remote sensing data from the Indian
satellites, IRS-IC, IRS-lO, IRS-PS, IRS-P4 and the TES as well as the US NOAA-14,
Landsat-5 and European ERS-2. The Data Reception Station (ORS) of NRSA at
Shadnagar, has been further augmented to receive data from TRS-P5 (CARTOSAT) and
IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT). Aerial Remote Sensing: NR5A operates two aircraft that have
been modified for multi-sensor operation with high performance work station and digital
photogrammetry system to generate data products. Aerial remote sensing services
provided by NRSA is availed by several agencies for aerial photography, mapping,
infrastructure planning, aeromagnetic surveys, large scale base maps and topographic
and cadastral mapping. Some of the aerial surveys carried out include aerial
photography of nine towns of Gujarat that were affected by the earthquake in January
2001, twenty seven towns in Andhra Pradesh, seven districts in Madhya Pradesh, three
towns of Rajasthan, Bangalore peripheral areas and flood affected areas of Orissa. Low
altitude flight for airborne geophysical survey for Atomic Mineral Division and nights
carrying Synthetic Aperture Radar have also been carried out. Re mote Sensing Data
Policy: The Government has announced, a Remote Sensing Data Policy (RSDP) in order
to streamline the availability of remote sensing data from Indian and foreign satellites
to users in India. As per the RSDP. Government's permission will be required for
operating remote sensing satellites in India and for distribution of satellite images in
India. The NRSA, Hyderabad, will be the national acquisition and distribution array for
all satellite data within India. NRSA can enter into agreements for distribution of data
from foreign satellite in India. Antrix Corporation, the commercial agency under the
Department of Space, will license the use of IRS capacities outside India. The
announcement of RSDP is an important step towards making transparent. The
procedures of satellite data distribution, including those from high resolution imaging
systems. I t would help to regulate the process of image distribution so that Indian
users are not denied access to valuable satellite based imageries, which can be used in
the development of natural resources. Remote Sensing Applications: Space-based
remote sensing, because of its synoptic and repetitive coverage of large areas as well
as providing data in a quantifiable manner has enabled monitoring and assessment of
various natural resources. Today space-based remote sensing is used for several areas
of resources, survey and management. Projects of national relevance in different
application themes are being carried out with the involvement of user agencies at
central and state levels. Some of the major applications to which remote sensing is
being used in the country are highlighted in the following paragraphs. Crop Acreage
And Production Estimation (CAPE): CAPE was initiated in 1995 with the sponsorship of
the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Under this project, multi-date lRS
satellite data are used for pre-harvest acreage and production estimation for major food
crops as well as cotton. The estimates are provided far kharif rice in Bihar. Rabi dee in
Orissa, mustard in Assam, Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan and West Bengal, wheat in
Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and
sorghum in Maharashtra. FASAL: Based on the success of CAPE. An enlarged and
comprehensive scheme known as Forecasting Agricultural output using Space,
Agrometeorology and Land based observations (FASAL) bas been taken up. FASAL now
covers kharif rice in Orissa as a pilot project as well as forecasting kharif rice production
at the national level. It is proposed to set up a FASALNCCF (National Centre for Crop
Forecasting) under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture. Drought Assessment and
Monitoring: Based on the data collected by the satellites on the vegetation indices and
ground based information, fortnightly bulletins on crop conditions depicting agricultural
drought are being issued for eleven slates, and at sub-district level during kharif
season. Flood Mapping: The Flood Mapping. Using satellite imageries are being
undertaken since 1987 to help Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and State
Relief Agencies and Central Water Commission. Under this, flood prone river basins of
Brahmaputra, Kosi, Ganga, Indus, Godavari and Mahanadi are covered and near real
time inundation and damage estimation maps are generated. Forest Monitoring: The
Forest Survey of India carries out the forest cover mapping on 1: 250, 000 scale on a
biennial basis. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra have used satellite based
dala for preparation of forest working plans. A biodiversity characterisation at landscape
level has also been taken up in four regions of the country, namely, North-Eastern
Himalaya, Western Himabya, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The
activities related to preparation ofbiome level ecological zone maps and topographical
details are nearing completion. The project is being undertaken with the sponsorship of
the Department of Biotechnology. A few medicinal plant colonies in the Himalayas like
Hyppophae rhamnoides, Ephedra gerardiana and Taxus baccata have been mapped.
Irrigatron Command Areas: Under the sponsorship of the Central Water Commission,
14 large irrigated commands covering five states (Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan and West Bengal) extending to an area of 3.12 Mha (million
hectare) have been taken up for monitoring using satellite data. So far evaluation of
seven command areas has been completed. Snow-melt Run-off Prediction: Forecasting
and monitoring of Snow-melt Run-off for the Satellite River Basin is being carried out
since 1994 with the sponsorship of Bhakra-Beas Management Board. The forecast is
made every year by the first week of April, which is further updated subsequently.
Integrated Land and Water Resources Development: Generation of data for Integrated
Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) for 84 Mha area covering 175 districts
located in 28 States have been completed and similar work has been extended to
Koraput-Bolangir-Kalahandi (KBK) region of Orissa. The Department of Land Resources
under the Ministry of Rural Development is now working towards institutionalising IMSD
for implementation. Wasteland Mapping: The Wasteland Mapping has been carried out
in five phases during 1986 2000 on a1: 50, 000 scale under the sponsorship of the
Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development.

Wastelands A wasteland atlas of India has been generated and the information is used
for planning several developmental programmes. A digital data base is also now being
created. National Drinking Water Mission: Under the sponsorship of the Department of
Drinking Water of the Ministry of Rural Development, maps showing prospective zones
of ground water occurrence and recharge are being prepared on 1: 50, 000 scale ill six
states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Kerala and
Rajasthan). So far 930 maps have been prepared out of the 1800 maps required. The
maps are integrated with GIS data base and identify areas and sites for locating
borewells. Coastal Studies: Information on Coastal wet lands, land forms, land use,
shore line changes, etc. have been mapped on 1: 250, 00011: 50, 000 scales for the
Ministry of Environment and Forests. Coral reef maps on 1: 50, 000 scale for Gulf of
Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Palk's Bay, Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar islands have
been generated. Mapping of features between High Tide Line (HTL) and Low Tide Line
(LTL) and land use features for a strip of 500 m from HTL, on 1: 25, 000 scale, under
Coastal Regulation Zone has also been carried out. The maps are used for preparing
coastal zone management plans and for formulating regulations on construction along
HTL. Use ofIRS-P4 (OCEANSAT) Data: An end to-end task of using IRS-P4 data for
oceanographic, marine-atmospheric and coastal environmental applications has been
taken up. Several agencies like Department of Ocean Development, Indian
Meteorological Department, National Institute of Oceanography, Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute, etc. besides several State Departments are participating in
this task. The Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) of IRS-P4 provides data on Chlorophyll
distribution and primary productivity for locating potential fish zones, sea surface
velocities, suspended sediment movement, coastal landforms, coral reefs, etc. The
Multi-frequency Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) on board the satellite
provides data on humidity over oceans, water vapour content, winds, rain rate, fluxes,
sea ice, etc. Disaster Management: Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) Mapping:
Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) mapping on 1: 25, 000 scale is being carried out for
all major pilgrim and tourist routes in the Himalayan region in Uttaranchal and
Himachal Pradesh. Database has been created for the entire 2000 km long corridor and
LHZ maps have been prepared. The routes covered include: RishikeshRudraprayag-
Chamoli-Badrinath, RishikeshGaumukh, Rudraprayag-Okhimath-Kedarnath, Chamoli-
Okhimath and Pithoragarh-Malpa, all in Uttarancha1; Shimla-Manali, Shimla-Sumdo and
Dalhousie-Brahmaur in Himachal Pradesh. The maps are used by State Public Works
Departments (PWD), Border Roads Organisation and some NOOs. Gujarat Earthquake:
The space based imagery along with aerial remote sensing provided inputs to the
Gujarat State Administration during the Earthquake in January 2001 in terms of
locating the worst affected towns, to assess the changes in the terrain features and
damage assessment. The satellite news gathering terminal was also moved from the
Space Applications Centre and set up at Bhuj which was the only link till February 2,
2001 to co-ordinate rescue and relief operation. National (Natural) Resources
Information System: A spatial information infrastructure organised around GIS for
facilitating developmental planning and decision making at District-State-National level
is being implemented for the Planning Authorities. Already NRIS has been implemented
for 30 districts and four state nodes. The NRrs comprises 22 spatial layers and 8 non-
spatial layers pertaining to natural resources as well as socio-economics. 3 categories of
wastelands in three broad categories have been identified: Barren rocky sheet rock
Gullied areal ravines Mining Industrial wastelands.

HR NOTES
An audit is a means by which an organization can measure where it currently stands
and determine what it has to accomplish to improve its human resources function. It
involves systematically reviewing all aspects of human resources, usually in a checklist
fashion, ensuring that government regulations and company policies are being adhered
to. The key to an audit is to remember it is a learning or discovery tool, not a test.
There will always be room for improvement in every organization. An HR audit provides
a quick way to take stock of a company's human resources and practices with an eye
toward improving them. While there are different ways to conduct an HR audit,
depending on the company's goals, audits usually involve interviewing senior and mid-
level management, reviewing the company's HR policies and forms, and sometimes
even surveying employees. The advantage of HR audits is that they bring a level of
expertise to bear on issues that, while important, most companies simply do not have
the time or capacity to undertake themselves. A basic audit will address compliance
issues such as, the hiring process or personnel policies. We recommend a fuller
assessment to address possible organization design issues and to identify opportunities
for making better use of the company's human resources. Once the audit is completed,
the findings are presented to management. What happens after that depends on
management. The company owns the findings and can choose whether, when, and to
what degree to act on them. The HR Audit helps by: providing feedback on the value of
the contribution of the HR function to the organisation's strategic business objectives
assessing the quality of HR practices, policies and delivery reporting on extent of
statutory HR compliance and remedial action required assessing HR and line
management relationships and ways these can be improved setting guidelines for
establishing HR performance standards identifying areas for change and improvement
with specific recommendations The HR Audit focuses on the following elements of
People Management: Organisational Data Strategic HRM overview Staff Communication
and Change Management HRM Operational Delivery Staff Performance and Morale HR
Performance Measures Purpose Of HR Audit To insure the effective utilization of an
organization's human resources. To review compliance with a myriad of administrative
regulations. To instill a sense of confidence in management and the human resources
function that it is well managed and prepared to meet potential challenges. To maintain
or enhance the organization's and the department's reputation in the community. To
perform a due diligence review for shareholders or potential investors/owners. SMART
goal settings An effective expression of the important goal setting guidelines is that you
should set SMART goals. What the SMART goal setting guidelines actually mean is that
your goals should be Specific Measurable Attainable Rewarding timely Specific
Guidelines for SMART Goals With a specific goal you can clearly see what it is you want
to achieve, and you have specific standards for that achievement. In making your goals
specific it is important that you actually write them, which is crucial in all goal setting
guidelines. The more specific is your goal, the more realistic is your success, and the
shorter is path to it. When you work on making your goal specific, you program your
subconscious mind to work for you. Then, your feelings and thoughts will lead you to
your goal instead of pointing at the obstacles. To make your goals specific you also
need to work out the other components of SMART goal setting guidelines below:
Measureable: For a goal to be measurable you need a way to measure the progress and
some specific criteria that will tell you when you can stop and the goal is achieved.
Feeling the progress is very important for you to stay motivated and enjoy the process
of achieving the goal. Attainable: An attainable goal is a goal for which you see a
realistic path to achievement, and reasonable odds that you get there. This does not
mean that the lower you aim the more likely you reach success. It is well known that
goals that work best have a challenge in them. They are chosen as ambitious as
possible, but still reachable. Then they will give you more motivation and sense of
achievement. Rewarding: A goal is rewarding when you have clear reasons why you
want to reach that goal. This is one more place where it is important that the goal is
really yours. Have your specific reasons and expected reward in writing. If possible,
even with some visual pictures. Imagine how you are going to feel when the goal is
finally reached. This will ensure that the goal is really worth achieving. Then, every time
you get stuck and don't feel motivated enough, read your reasons and look at the
pictures. This is a known and very powerful practical technique of how to get through
difficult moments and not quit. Timely: The fifth requirement of the SMART goal setting
guidelines is that your goal should have a specific time limit. This is also very important
for your subconscious mind. Besides, time is the price you pay for the reward from
achieving a goal. Setting the deadline will protect you from paying higher price than the
goal is worth. This is also your protection from procrastination and perfection.

What is the process of training? Identify various sources of training need analysis.
Training is the teaching of vocational or practical and relates to specific useful skills. It
forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at technical
colleges or polytechnics. Today it is often referred to as professional development.
Training is the means the planned and organized activity of a consultant to impart
skills, techniques and methodologies to employers and their employees to assist them
in establishing and maintaining employment and a place of employment which is safe
and healthful. Training is the systematic process of developing knowledge, skills, and
attitudes for current or future jobs. Training refers to seminars or workshops conducted
for a private client, usually a corporation, specifically for a group of its employees. Most
corporate training seminars are one or two days. Training is the systematic
development of attitudes, knowledge and skills, behavioral pattern required by an
individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job between actual and
required human performance at work forms the basic of the need. Process of training
Training needs identification and setting of objectives by the organization Planning,
design and preparation of the training programmes against the objectives Pre-course
identification of people with needs and completion of the preparation required by the
training program Provision of the agreed training programmes Pre-course briefing
meeting between learner and line manager Pre-course or start of program identification
of learners'existing knowledge, skills and attitudes Interim validation as programme
proceeds Assessment of terminal knowledge, skills, etc. and completion of
perceptions/change assessment Completion of end-of-programme reactionnaire
Completion of end-of-programme Learning Questionnaire or Key Objectives Learning
Questionnaire Completion of Action Plan Post-course debriefing meeting between
learner and line manager Line manager observation of implementation progress Review
meetings to discuss progress of implementation Final implementation review meeting
what is training evaluation? enumerate the process of evaluation of training
effectiveness using kirk Patrick model. Most training takes place in an organizational
setting, typically in support of skill and knowledge requirements originating in the
workplace. This relationship between training and the workplace. The Structure of the
Training Evaluation Problem We can identify five basic points at which we might take
measurements, conduct assessments, or reach judgments. These five points are
indicated in the diagram by the numerals 1 through 5: Before Training During Training
After Training or Before Entry (Reentry) In The Workplace Upon Exiting The Workplace
The four elements of Kirkpatrick's framework, are defined below using Kirkpatrick's
original definitions The Kirkpatrick Model for Summative Evaluation In 1975, Donald
Kirkpatrick first presented a four-level model of evaluation that has become a classic in
the industry: Level One: Reaction Level Two: Learning Level Three: Behavior Level
Four: Results These levels can be applied to technology-based training as well as to
more traditional forms of delivery. Modified labels and descriptions of these steps of
summative evaluation follow. Level One: Students'Reaction In this first level or step,
students are asked to evaluate the training after completing the program. These are
sometimes called smile sheets or happy sheets because in their simplest form they
measure how well students liked the training. However, this type of evaluation can
reveal valuable data if the questions asked are more complex. For example, a survey
similar to the one used in the formative evaluation also could be used with the full
student population. This questionnaire moves beyond how well the students liked the
training to questions about: The relevance of the objectives. The ability of the course to
maintain interest. The amount and appropriateness of interactive exercises. The ease of
navigation. The perceived value and transferability to the workplace. With technology-
based training, the survey can be delivered and completed online, and then printed or
e-mailed to a training manager. Because this type of evaluation is so easy and cheap to
administer, it usually is conducted in most organizations. Level Two: Learning Results
Level Two in the Kirkpatrick model measures learning results. In other words, did the
students actually learn the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the program was supposed
to teach? To show achievement, have students complete a pre-test and post-test,
making sure that test items or questions are truly written to the learning objectives. By
summarizing the scores of all students, trainers can accurately see the impact that the
training intervention had. This type of evaluation is not as widely conducted as Level
One, but is still very common. Level Three: Behavior in the Workplace Students
typically score well on post-tests, but the real question is whether or not any of the new
knowledge and skills are retained and transferred back on the job. Level Three
evaluations attempt to answer whether or not students'behaviors actually change as a
result of new learning. Ideally, this measurement is conducted three to six months after
the training program. By allowing some time to pass, students have the opportunity to
implement new skills and retention rates can be checked. Observation surveys are
used, sometimes called behavioral scorecards. Surveys can be completed by the
student, the student's supervisor, individuals who report directly to the student, and
even the student's customers. For example, survey questions evaluating a sales
training program might include: Did the representative open each customer dialogue
with a product benefit statement, followed by a request to proceed? Was the
representative able to analyze and describe to you the category of customers'objections
as either valid, misinformation, or smokescreen? Did the representative use the
appropriate model answer in response to each objection? Did the representative close
each sales call with a request for purchase? If the prospect did not buy anything, did
the representative end the call with specific future action steps? Did the representative
complete call history records that include summaries of who, what, where, when, and
why? Level Four: Business Results The fourth level in this model is to evaluate the
business impact of the training program. The only scientific way to isolate training as a
variable would be to isolate a representative control group within the larger student
population, and then rollout the training program, complete the evaluation, and
compare against a business evaluation of the non-trained group. Unfortunately, this is
rarely done because of the difficulty of gathering the business data and the complexity
of isolating the training intervention as a unique variable. However, even anecdotal
data is worth capturing. Below are sample training programs and the type of business
impact data that can be measured. Sales training. Measure change in sales volume,
customer retention, length of sales cycle, profitability on each sale after the training
program has been implemented. Technical training. Measure reduction in calls to the
help desk; reduced time to complete reports, forms, or tasks; or improved use of
software or systems. Quality training. Measure a reduction in number of defects. Safety
training. Measure red uction in number or severity of accidents. Management training.
Measure increase in engagement levels of direct-reports

Define induction, describe the importance of induction from the point of views of an
organization and anew recruit joining the job Induction is a systematic process of
familiarizing the new recruits to the organization functioning so that they become
productive in the least possible time. Induction is the tool to orient the new recruits to
various aspects of the organization and his/her job. The aim of the induction process is
to help new employees make a smooth, positive adjustment to the workplace.
Induction enables the new employee to gain familiarity with the work environment and
to acquire a sense of belonging that will build a commitment to the organization.
Recruitment is an expensive business. It takes time, money and effort to find the right
people to join your team. What a pity it would be to jeopardise this by forgetting the
importance of treating a new employee really well on joining you. Induction is the
process, formal or informal that introduces newcomers to your organisation. Ideally it
should take place as soon as possible after the new member has arrived. An effective
induction process shortens the time it takes to get the new recruit up to speed. An
induction process is not simply for new employees. The same benefits can be received
by staff who have been promoted or transferred or those who have returned from a
long period of absence. Furthermore you should be careful to include against long term
temporary staff, who are entitled to the same training and development as permanent
staff members. To not do so could harm your organisation and may be considered
discriminatory. Proper induction will give both the employees and the organisation the
following benefits: quickly assimilate the workplace culture, as well as their knowledge
of the products/services provided by the organisation and the systems in place. This in
turn boosts confidence and improves work quality and productivity, as well as helping
to reduce incidences of early leaving, which can be extremely costly to the organisation.
As induction involves other staff other than the inductee, the process can also be useful
in developing the skills of existing staff. As well as these benefits induction can ensure
that health and safety rules are properly disseminated to all staff and a good induction
will help with an investment in People application. 3 Goals A successful induction
process has three Goals- Helps new employees settle in: Helps new employees
understand their responsibilities and what is expected of them Ensures the employer
receives the benefit of the new employee as quickly as possible. 3 Themes An induction
process should have three themes running through it. It should be. Flexible and
interesting Employee centred Meets equal opportunities requirements. Objectives of
induction Despite its particular term, induction is simply another part of the training
process that organisations invest in their staff. Like any form of training it should have
the objective of developing the relevant skills, knowledge and behaviour of employees
that their posts require. Such training should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Action
orientated, Relevant, Time bound) Training Define training in an organization. Also
explain the difference between training and education. Training is the teaching of
vocational or practical and relates to specific useful skills. It forms the core of
apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at technical colleges or
polytechnics. Today it is often referred to as professional development. Training is the
The process of making proficient through instruction and hands-on practice in the
operation of equipment, including respiratory protection equipment, that is expected to
be used and in the performance of assigned duties. Training is the systematic
development of attitudes, knowledge and skills, behaviors pattern required by an
individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job between actual and
required human performance at work forms the basis of the need. Difference between
training and education Formal education is usually thought of studies done in schools.
The students range from the very youngest through college to those in adult education.
There is also informal education or self-study, where adults read books, listen to tapes
and learn through other media. Observing life itself is a form of education. The
objective of classes or of self-education is usually to gain knowledge about facts,
events, principles, concepts, and such. In some classes the student is required to
demonstrate the memorization of facts and the association between concepts. In other
classes, they must apply rules to solve problems. Testing concerns memorization and
understanding, plus perhaps analytic and problem solving skills. On the other hand,
formal training is usually concerned with gaining a skill. Training is done in trade
schools, seminars, and business training classes. Learners of training are usually adults,
although there are some classes to teach youngsters certain skills. Informal training is
usually done through reading, viewing or listening to how-to material. Sometimes that
material is then used as a guide, while the person applies the skills learned. For
example, you may refer to a how-to book when trying to fix your plumbing at home.
Verification of skills is best achieved by actually doing something in the real world.
Sometimes tests given in trade schools check for knowledge, as opposed to skill. Often
in corporate training sessions and in seminars, there is no verification that the learner
had achieved the desired skills. Education is for the rounding-out of the individual and
the good of society; it is general, provides background, and increases understanding
Training is for the good of (in the case of TWI) production-it is a way to solve
production problems through people; it is specific and helps people to acquire skill
through use of what they have learned Conclusion Education concerns remembering
facts and understanding concepts. It is usually taught in school, although self-study is
possible. Training concerns gaining skills and taught either in trade schools or business
training sessions.

An important component of the performance management process is the growth and
development of employees'work-related competencies. This process offers an
opportunity for employees to work together to improve and build upon their
performance and to contribute to organizational effectiveness. Developing an
employee's performance furthers the mission of the University and enhances the overall
quality of our workforce by: Promoting a climate of continuous learning and
professional growth Helping to sustain employee performance at a level which meets or
exceeds expectations Enhancing knowledge, experience, position, or career related
skills Enabling employees to keep abreast of changes in their fields Making employees
competitive for employment opportunities within the University Motivating employees
Promoting affirmative action objectives The Career Planning tool helps to think about
how we would like our career to develop. This is particularly useful in jobs where there
is no clear, established career path or where we are locked into a job that does not
satisfy us. Planning career helps us to avoid the boredom, disillusionment, frustration
and stress that come with failing to have achieved your potential. This is a real risk if a
good, clear, satisfying career path is not open to you. The tool provides a5-stage
process for thinking through your Career Plan: Analyzing your current position. Thinking
through what you want to achieve in your career. Research your options. Plan your
approach; and Take action! Career Planning (CP) Training Programs and services that
assist employees in conducting individual assessments and establishing a professional
career development plan that helps them reach their full potential and fulfill the
organization's mission. Career planning is when the employee analyzes his/her own
aptitudes, skills, qualifications, interests, and values and plans accordingly. Career
management is when the company supports and assists in the development and
achievement of a career plan through a commitment made by the employee's
manager/supervisor and department Concept and objective for succession planning
succession planning to be a process by which one or more successors are identified for
key posts (or groups of similar key posts), and career moves and/or development
activities are planned for these successors. Successors may be fairly ready to do the job
(short-term successors) or seen as having longer-term potential (long-term
successors). Succession planning therefore sits inside a very much wider set of
resourcing and development processes which we might call succession management.
This encompasses the management resourcing strategy, aggregate analysis of
demand/supply (human resource planning and auditing), skills analysis, the job filling
process, and management development (including graduate and high flyer
programmes). Organisations use succession planning to achieve a number of objectives
including: Improved job filling for key positions through broader candidate search, and
faster decisions Active development of longer-term successors through ensuring their
careers progress, and engineering the range of work experiences they need for the
future Auditing the talent pool of the organisation and thereby influencing resourcing
and development strategies Fostering a corporate culture through developing a group of
people who are seen as a corporate resource and who share key skills, experiences
and values seen as important to the future of the organisation. Of these, it is the active
development of a strong talent pool for the future which is now seen as the most
important. Increasingly, this is also seen as vital to the attraction and retention of the
best people. Typical activities covered by succession planning include: identifying
possible successors challenging and enriching succession plans through discussion of
people and posts agreeing job (or job group) successors and development plans for
individuals analysis of the gaps or surpluses revealed by the planning process review,
i.e.checking the actual pattern of job filling and whether planned individual
development has taken place. Theory X And Theory Y Douglas McGregor, an American
social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book The Human Side
Of Enterprise Theory x and theory y are still referred to commonly in the field of
management and motivation, and whilst more recent studies have questioned the
rigidity of the model, Mcgregor's X-Y Theory remains a valid basic principle from which
to develop positive management style and techniques. McGregor's XY Theory remains
central to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture.
McGregor's X-Y theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for
managing people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily
forgotten. McGregor maintained that there are two fundamental approaches to
managing people. Many managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor
results. Enlightened managers use theory y, which produces better performance and
results, and allows people to grow and develop. Theory x ( authoritarian management
style) The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can. Therefore most
people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organisational
objectives. The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is
relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else. Characteristics of the X
Theory Manager Results-driven and deadline-driven, to the exclusion of everything else
Intolerant Issues deadlines and ultimatums Distant and detached Aloof and arrogant
Elitist Short temper Shouts Issues instructions, directions, edicts Issues threats to make
people follow instructions Demands, never asks Does not participate Does not team-
build Unconcerned about staff welfare, or morale Proud, sometimes to the point of self-
destruction One-way communicator Poor listener Fundamentally insecure and possibly
neurotic Anti-social vengeful and recriminatory Does not thank or praise Withholds
rewards, and suppresses pay and remunerations levels Scrutinises expenditure to the
point of false economy Seeks culprits for failures or shortfalls Seeks to apportion blame
instead of focusing on learning from the experience and preventing recurrence Does not
invite or welcome suggestions Takes criticism badly and likely to retaliate if from below
or peer group Poor at proper delegating-but believes to be good at delegating Thinks
giving orders is delegating Holds on to responsibility but shifts accountability to
subordinates Relatively unconcerned with investing in anything to gain future
improvements Theory y ( participative management style) Effort in work is as natural
as work and play. People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of
organisational objectives, without external control or the threat of punishment.
Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement.
People usually accept and often seek responsibility. The capacity to use a high degree
of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organisational problems is widely, not
narrowly, distributed in the population. In industry the intellectual potential of the
average person is only partly utilised.

Human resource planning is the process of determining future human resource needs
relative to an organization's strategic plan and devising the steps necessary to meet
those needs. It involves estimating the size and composition of the future work force,
and helping the organization acquire the right number and the right kind of people
when they are needed. Staffing Though the term human resource management is
frequently used for the managerial function of staffing, staffing is just a part of the HRM
process and plays an important role. Staffing involves a set of activities aimed at
attracting and selecting individuals for positions in a way that will facilitate the
achievement of organizational goals. The two basic steps of staffing are recruitment and
selection. The staffing process is a systematic attempt to implement the human
resource plan by recruiting, evaluating and selecting qualified candidates for job
positions in the organization. Recruitment involves finding and attempting to attract job
candidates who are suitable for filling job vacancies. Job analysis, job description, and
job specification are important tools in the recruitment process. Once suitable
candidates are attracted to the job position, the management needs to find qualified
people to fill the positions through the selection process. Several methods are used in
selecting prospective candidates. These include preliminary screening, application
blank, selection test, comprehensive interviews, etc. Training and Development
Although organizations often recruit fully qualified individuals who require little or no
training, training is usually undertaken for new recruits as well as for existing
manpower, who require improved skills in order to advance in the organization.
Employees at all levels managerial, technical and operative will require some training at
some point of time in their careers. Although the objectives, methods, and course or
program contents often differ, the basic principles of teaching/learning are the same.
Training is formally defined as a planned effort to improve the performance of the
employee in his area of work. In other words, training denotes efforts to increase
employee skills in their jobs. For instance, employees might be instructed in new
decision-making techniques or the capabilities of data processing systems.
Development programs are designed to educate employees beyond the requirements of
their present positions in order to prepare them for promotions. They also help them
get accustomed to the organizational climate. Development is long-term in nature. It
helps the employee fit into the organization. Thus, the processes of training and
development aim at increasing the ability of individuals and groups to contribute to
organizational effectiveness. Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal compares an
individual's job performance against standards or objectives developed for the
individual's position. The process of performance appraisal involves defining the
expectations for employee performance, measuring, evaluating and recording employee
performance against these expectations, and providing the employee with feedback
regarding his performance. The major purpose of performance appraisal is to influence
employee performance and development in a positive way. When the performance is
high, the individual is likely to be rewarded (by a hike in pay or a promotion). If
performance is low, some corrective action (such as additional training and
development) might be arranged to make the performance meet the desired standards.
Thus, effective performance appraisal as a control technique, requires standards,
information and corrective action. Standards in performance evaluation are prior
specifications of acceptable levels of job performance. Information must be available in
order to measure the actual job performance against the standard job performance.
Corrective action must be taken by managers to restore any imbalance between actual
and standard job performance. Compensation Compensation consists of the wages paid
directly to the employees for the amount of time worked or the number of units
produced. It also includes the monetary and non-monetary benefits that an employee
receives as part of his employment relationship with the organization. Wages paid for
time worked (or number of units produced) are typically payments made in the form of
cash and reflect direct work-related remuneration such as basic pay, merit increases, or
bonuses. Benefits, on the other hand, are forms of supplementary non-monetary
payments over and above the wages paid. They include various protection plans (such
as employee insurance), services (such as company cafeteria), pay for time not worked
(such as during vacations or sick leave), and income supplements (such as stock
ownership plans). A sound compensation program enhances the organization's ability to
attract and retain employees. The compensation program affects every member of the
organization, and it is one of the most important and time-consuming tasks of the
human resources department.

What is job evaluation? what are the different ways in which a job evaluation can be
carried out? Job evaluation is a systematic assessment of job content. It establishes the
worth of a job in terms of salary or wage compared to other jobs. Many elaborate
schemes have been developed and applied with varying degrees of success. While some
structure is necessary on a project, pay is more likely to be governed by market
conditions, scarcity, individual knowledge, performance or trade agreements. Job
evaluation is the method of ordering jobs or positions with respect to their value or
worth to the organization, and placing them into job families and zones. Job evaluation
is the A formal process by which management creates a job worth hierarchy within an
organization. The two basic approaches are the market data approach and the job
content approach. The different ways in which a job evaluation can be carried out is
Ranking This method is one of the simplest to administer. Jobs are compared to each
other based on the overall worth of the job to the organization. The worth of a job is
usually based on judgements of skill, effort (physical and mental), responsibility
(supervisory and fiscal), and working conditions. Advantages Simple. Very effective
when there are relatively few jobs to be evaluated (less than 30). Disadvantages
Difficult to administer as the number of jobs increases. Rank judgements are
subjective. Since there is no standard used for comparison, new jobs would have to be
compared with the existing jobs to determine its appropriate rank. In essence, the
ranking process would have to be repeated each time a new job is added to the
organization: Ranking Methods, Ordering Simply place job titles on 3 5 inch index
cards then order the titles by relative importance to the organization, Weighting and
Paired Comparison Classification Jobs are classified into an existing grade/category
structure or hierarchy. Each level in the grade/category structure has a description and
associated job titles. Each job is assigned to the grade/category providing the closest
match to the job. The classification of a position is decided by comparing the whole job
with the appropriate job grading standard. To ensure equity in job grading and wage
rates, a common set of job grading standards and instructions are used. Because of
differences in duties, skills and knowledge, and other aspects of trades and labor jobs,
job grading standards are developed mainly along occupational lines. The standards do
not attempt to describe every work assignment of each position in the occupation
covered. The standards identify and describe those key characteristics of occupations
which are significant for distinguishing different levels of work. They define these key
characteristics in such a way as to provide a basis for assigning the appropriate grade
level to all positions in the occupation to which the standards apply. Advantages
Simple. The grade/category structure exists independent of the jobs. Therefore, new
jobs can be classified more easily than the Ranking Method. Disadvantages
Classification judgments are subjective. The standard used for comparison (the
grade/category structure) may have built in biases that would affect certain groups of
employees (females or minorities). Some jobs may appear to fit within more than one
grade/category. Factor Comparison A set of compensable factors are identified as
determining the worth of jobs. Typically the number of compensable factors is small (4
or 5). Examples of compensable factors are: Skill Responsibilities Effort Working
Conditions Next, benchmark jobs are identified. Benchmark jobs should be selected as
having certain characteristics. equitable pay (not overpaid or underpaid) range of the
factors (for each factor, some jobs would be at the low end of the factor while others
would be at the high end of the factor). This process establishes the rate of pay for
each factor for each benchmark job. Slight adjustments may need o be made to the
matrix to ensure equitable dollar weighting of the factors. The other jobs in the
organization are then compared with the benchmark jobs and rates of pay for each
factor are summed to determine the rates of pay for each of the other jobs. Advantages
The value of the job is expressed in monetary terms. Can be applied to a wide range of
jobs. Can be applied to newly created jobs. Disadvantages The pay for each factor is
based on judgements that are subjective. The standard used for determining the pay
for each factor may have build in biases that would affect certain groups of employees
(females or minorities). Point Method A set of compensable factors are identified as
determining the worth of jobs. Typically the compensable factors include the major
categories of: Skill Responsibilities Effort Working Conditions Factors The point method
is an extension of the factor comparison method. Each factor is then divided into levels
or degrees which are then assigned points. Each job is rated using the job evaluation
instrument. The points for each factor are summed to form a total point score for the
job. Jobs are then grouped by total point scores and assigned to wage/salary grades so
that similarly rated jobs would be placed in the same wage/salary grade. These factors
can then be further defined. Skill Experience Education Ability Responsibilities Fiscal
Supervisory Effort Mental Physical Working Conditions Location Hazards Extremes in
Environment Advantages The value of the job is expressed in monetary terms. Can be
applied to a wide range of jobs. Can be applied to newly created jobs. Disadvantages
The pay for each factor is based on judgements that are subjective. The standard used
for determining the pay for each factor may have build in biases that would affect
certain groups of employees (females or minorities).

The most important resource of an organization is its human resources the people who
work in the organization. People are vital for the effective operation of a company. To
meet the challenges and competitive atmosphere of today's business environment,
managers must recognize the potential of human resources, and then acquire, develop
and retain these resources. This forms the basis of human resource management
(HRM). HRM is the management of various activities that are designed to enhance the
effectiveness of the manpower in an organization in the achievement of organizational
goals. Acquiring skilled, talented, and motivated employees is an important part of
HRM. Human resource management forms a crucial function in organizations of all
sizes. Larger firms usually have a separate HRM department. Small organizations,
however, cannot always afford to have a separate HRM department that can continually
follow the performance of individuals in the organization and review their
accomplishment of goals. Instead, in such organizations, each manager is responsible
for utilizing the skills and talents of the employees under him, effectively. Traditionally,
HRM departments had a relatively small role to play in the organization's overall
mission and plans. They developed staffing plans, handled complaints, determined
benefits and compensation, and conducted performance appraisal programs. These
activities were, and still are, very important in managing an organization. However,
today HRM departments are playing a more strategic role in charting the course of their
firms. Changes in the environment, such as increasing costs, changing demographics
and limited skilled labor supply, rapid technological changes and the need for new skills,
have created a strategic need for HRM expertise. These changes have led to the
acknowledgment that human resources need careful attention and are vital to the
success of any business. In this chapter, we will first discuss HR planning. The other
steps in the HRM process staffing, training and development, performance appraisal,
and compensation will also be discussed. The later part of the chapter will discuss the
two important elements of staffing recruitment and selection. The chapter concludes
with a description of the socialization process of new employees. Human resource
management: An overview Human Resource Management (HRM) may be defined as the
organized function of planning for human resource needs, and recruitment, selection,
development, compensation and evaluation of performance to fill those needs. The HRM
process is an ongoing function that aims to keep the organization supplied with the
right people in the right positions, when they are needed. HRM includes five basic
activities: human resource planning staffing training and development performance
appraisal compensation

Describe the scope of payement of gratuity act 1972, to who this entire act does not
apply. How the forfeiture of gratuity is applies to an employee. Scope of coverage Every
factory (as defined in Factories Act), mine, oilfield, plantation, port and railway. Every
shop or establishment to which Shops & Establishment Act of a State applies in which
10 or more persons are employed at any time during the year end. Any establishment
employing 10 or more persons as may be notified by the Central Government. Once Act
applies, it continues to apply even if employment strength falls below 10. The act does
not apply to Apprentices and Persons who hold civil posts under central government or
sate government and are governed by any other act or by any rules providing for
payment of gratuity Payment of Gratuity payment of gratuity by an employer to an
employee as defined under the act is mandatory Gratuity shall be payable to an
employee on the termination of his employment after he has rendered continuous
service for not less than five years on his superannuation, or On his retirement or
resignation, or on his death or disablement due to accident or disease: Provided that
the completion of continuous service of five years shall not be necessary where the
termination of the employment of any employee is due to death or disablement:
Provided further that in the case of death of the employee, gratuity payable to him shall
be paid to his nominee or, if no nomination has been made, to his heirs, and where any
such nominees or heirs is a minor, the share of such minor, shall be deposited with the
controlling authority who shall invest the same for the benefit of such minor in such
bank or other financial institution, as may be prescribed, until such minor attains
majority. Explanation: For the purposes of this section, disablement means such
disablement as incapacitates an employee for the work which he was capable of
performing before the accident or disease resulting in such disablement. For every
completed year of service or part thereof in excess of six months, the employer shall
pay gratuity to an employee at the rate of fifteen days'wages based on the rate of
wages last drawn by the employee concerned: Provided that in the case of a piece-
rated employee, daily wages shall be computed on the average of the total wages
received by him for a period of three months immediately preceding the termination of
his employment, and, for this purpose, the wages paid for any overtime work shall not
be taken into account: Provided further that in the case of an employee who is
employed in a seasonal establishment and who is not so employed throughout the year,
the employer shall pay the gratuity at the rate of seven days'wages for each season.
Explanation: In the case of a monthly rated employee, the fifteen days'wages shall be
calculated by dividing the monthly rate of wages last drawn by him by twenty-six and
multiplying the quotient by fifteen. The amount of gratuity payable to an employee
shall not exceed three lakhs and fifty thousand rupees. For the purpose of computing
the gratuity payable to an employee who is employed, after his disablement, on
reduced wages, his wages for the period preceding his disablement shall be taken to be
the wages received by him during that period, and his wages for the period subsequent
to his disablement shall be taken to be the wages as so reduced. Nothing in this section
shall affect the right of an employee to receive better terms of gratuity under any
award or agreement or contract with the employer. Notwithstanding anything contained
in sub-section (1) (a), the gratuity of an employee, whose services have been
terminated for any act, willful omission or negligence causing any damage or loss to, or
destruction of, property belonging to the employer, shall be forfeited to the extent of
the damage or loss so caused (b). The gratuity payable to an employee may be wholly
or partially forfeited- if the services of such employee have been terminated for his
riotous or disorderly conduct or any other act of violence on his part, or if the services
of such employee have been terminated for any act which constitutes an offence
involving moral turpitude, provided that such offence is committed by him in the course
of his employment. Gratuity Explain the procedure for determination and recovery of
gratuity? Determination of gratuity: A person who is eligible for payment of gratuity
under this Act or any person authorised, in writing to act on his behalf shall send a
written application to the employer, within such time and in such form, as may be
prescribed, for payment of such gratuity. As soon as gratuity becomes payable, the
employer shall, whether an application referred to in sub-section (1) has been made or
not, determine the amount of gratuity and give notice in writing to the person to whom
the gratuity is payable and also to the controlling authority specifying the amount of
gratuity so determined. The employer shall arrange to pay the amount of gratuity
within thirty days from the date it becomes payable to the person to whom the gratuity
is payable. If the amount of gratuity payable under sub-section (3) is not paid by the
employer within the period specified in sub-section (3), the employer shall pay, from
the date on which the gratuity becomes payable to the date on which it is paid, simple
interest at such rate, not exceeding the rate notified by the Central Government from
time to time for repayment of long-term deposits, as that Government may, by
notification specify: Provided that no such interest shall be payable if the delay in the
payment is due to the fault of the employee and the employer has obtained permission
in writing from the controlling authority for the delayed payment on this ground. It
includes If there is any dispute to the amount of gratuity payable to an employee under
this Act or as to the admissibility of any claim of, or in relation to, an employee for
payment of gratuity, or as to the person entitled to receive the gratuity, the employer
shall deposit with the controlling authority such amount as he admits to be payable by
him as gratuity. Where there is a dispute with regard to any matter or matters specified
in clause a, the employer or employee or any other person raising the dispute may
make an application to the controlling authority for deciding the dispute. The controlling
authority shall, after due inquiry and after giving the parties to the dispute a reasonable
opportunity of being heard, determine the matter or matters in dispute and if, as a
result of such inquiry any amount is found to be payable to the employee, the
controlling authority shall direct the employer to pay such amount or, as the case may
be, such amount as reduced by the amount already deposited by the employer. The
controlling authority shall pay the amount deposited, including the excess amount, if
any, deposited by the employer, to the person entitled thereto. As soon as may be after
a deposit is made under clause (a), the controlling authority shall pay the amount of
the deposit- to the applicant where he is the employee; or where the applicant is not
the employee, to the 6 nominee or, as the case may be, the guardian of such nominee
or heir of the employee if the controlling authority is satisfied that there is no dispute as
to the right of the application to receive the amount of gratuity. For the purpose of
conducting an inquiry under sub-section 4, the controlling authority shall have the same
powers as are vested in a court, while trying a suit, under the Code of Civil Procedure,
1908 (5 of 1908), in respect of the following matters, namely: enforcing the attendance
of any person or examining him on oath requiring the discovery and production of
documents receiving evidence on affidavits issuing commissions for the examination of
witnesses. Recovery of gratuity If the amount of gratuity payable under this Act is not
paid by the employer, within the prescribed time, to the person entitled thereto, the
controlling authority shall, on an application made to it in this behalf by the aggrieved
person, issue a certificate for that amount to the Collector who shall recover the same,
together with compound interest thereon 1At such rate as the Central Government
may, by notification, specify, from the date of expiry of the prescribed time as arrears
of land revenue and pay the same to the person entitled thereto

How do you visualize the need for a labour legislation in the industrial world? Give out
the classification and principles of labour laws? Labour legislation is necessary for the
following reason: The workers were financially weak and had little bargaining power.
The wages paid to factory workers were quite inadequate to meet their barest needs. If
workers exposed to serious accidents because machine lost their employment and had
no right to compensation The employment was not secured. Worker would be
discharged suspended or dismissed at any time without assigning any reason. Children
and women were taking to work under hazardous conditions It establishes a legal
system that facilitates productive individual and collective employment relationships,
and therefore a productive economy. by providing a framework within which employers,
workers and their representatives can interact with regard to work-related issues, it
serves as an important vehicle for achieving harmonious industrial relations based on
workplace democracy. It provides a clear and constant reminder and guarantee of
fundamental principles and rights at work which have received broad social acceptance
and establishes the processes through which these principles and rights can be
implemented and enforced. Labour legislation is widely used both to regulate individual
employment relationships and to establish the framework within which workers and
employers can determine their own relations on a collective basis, for example through
collective bargaining between trade unions and employers or employers'organizations
or through mechanisms of worker participation in the enterprise. Regulation of the
collective relations of workers and employers typically includes laying down legal
guarantees of the right of workers and employers to organize in occupational
organizations, to bargain collectively and the right to strike, as well as mechanisms for
worker participation at the enterprise level The legislative regulation of the individual
employment relationship typically entails the enactment of provisions governing the
formation and termination of the relationship (that is, the conclusion of contracts of
employment, their suspension and termination) and the rights and obligations relating
to the different aspects of the relationship (such as the minimum age for admission to
employment of work, the protection of young workers, equality at work, hours of work,
paid holidays, the payment of wages, occupational safety and health and maternity
protection). Provision also has to be made for enforcement procedures and supporting
institutions (such as labour inspection services and courts or tribunals). Classification of
Labor Laws General laws which are applicable to all establishments not otherwise
provided for, e. g factories act, 1948; the industrial employment act 1946. Specific laws
which are applicable to specific industry-the mines act, 1962. The plantation labour act,
1948, Indian merchants shipping act 1923. Working journalist's newspaper employees
and miscellaneous provisions act, 1955. Laws relating to specific matters, namely
wages or social securities welfare housing leave the payment of wages act 1936, the
minimum wages act 1948, the worker men compensation act 1923, the employees
compensation act 1923; the employment provident act 1952, the employees state
insurance act 1948 the bonded labour and system act, 1976. Laws relating to
association of workers e. g. The trade unions act, 1926, the industrial dispute act. Laws
relating to social insurance. The workmen compensation act 1923, the maternity
benefits act, 1961 and the employee's state insurance act 1948 Principle of labour laws
Labour legislation in any country should be based upon- Social justice: Ideal condition
in which all members of a company have the same basic rights, security, opportunities,
obligations and social benefits. Social legislation: Laws aimed at promoting the social
functioning of individuals and groups and at protecting their rights. Social equity:
Legislation based on social justice prescribes a definite standard for adoption in future.
Such standard is forced after taking into consideration the past and present
circumstances. Once this standard is fixed by legislation it cannot be changed unless
the circumstances and conditions so warrant. International uniformity: International
uniformity is another principle on which labour laws are based. This important role
played by international organization in this connection is praiseworthy. This
organization aims at securing minimum uniform standard in respect of all labour
matters. National economy: While framing the labour law the general economic
situation of the country has to be kept in mind so that object may not be defeated.

Objectives To ensure adequate safety measures and to promote the health and welfare
of the workers employed in factories. To prevent haphazard growth of factories through
the provisions related to the approval of plans before the creation of a factory. To
regulate the working condition in factories, regulate the working hours, leave, holidays,
overtime, employment of children, women an d young persons ext. Scope and coverage
Regulates working condition in factories. Basic minimum requirements for ensuring
safety, health and welfare of workers. Applicable to all workers. Applicable to all
factories using power and employing 10 or more workers, and if not using power,
employing 20 or more workers on any day of the preceding 12 months. Main provisions
Compulsory approval, licensing and registration of factories. Health measures. Safety
measures. Welfare measures. Working hours. Employment of women and young
persons. Annual leave provision. Accident and occupational diseases. Dangerous
operations. Penalties. Obligations and rights of employees. Obligation of employers
Compulsory approval: The occupier of any factory has to obtain prior approval of the
state government for the site on which the factory is to be situated and for the
construction or extension of a factory. registration/license and notice by occupier: The
occupier of factory is also required to get the factory registered for obtaining a license
for operating it and send a notice of occupation to a chief inspector of factories, at least
15 days before he begins to occupy the factory. The application for registration and
notice of occupation shall be submitted in triplicate in the prescribed fee and such other
information as may be required by the licensing authority. The license fee shall be paid
a Treasury challenge under the appropriate head of the account. Notice of change of
manager: Whenever a new manager is appointed the occupier must intimate the
inspector and the chief inspector in thE prescribe form, within 7 days from the date he
takes over the charge. General duties as to health, safety and welfare of workers:
Every occupier shall- Ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and
welfare of all workers while they are at work in the factory Provide and maintain plant
and systems of work in the factory that are safe and without risks to health Make
arrangements for ensuring safety and absence of risks to health in connection with the
use, handling, storage and transport of article and substances. Provide necessary
information, instruction, training and supervision for health and safety of all workers.
Maintain all places in the factory in a condition that is safe and without risks to health.
Provide and maintain such working environment in the factory that is safe, without risks
to health and with adequate facilities and arrangements for the welfare of workers
Certificates of Fitness A certifying surgeon shall, on the application of any young person
or his parent or guardian accompanied by a document signed by the manager of a
factory that such person will be employed therein if certified to be fit for work in a
factory, or on the application of the manager of the factory in which any young person
wishes to work, examine such person and ascertain his fitness for work in a factory.
The certifying surgeon, after examination, may grant to such young person, in the
prescribed form, or may renew- a certificate of fitness to work in a factory as a child, if
he is satisfied that the young person has completed his fourteenth year, that he has
attained the prescribed physical standards and that he is fit for such work a certificate
of fitness to work in a factory as an adult, if he is satisfied that the young person has
completed his fifteenth year, and is fit for a full day's work in a factory: Provided that
unless the certifying surgeon has personal knowledge of the place where the young
person proposes to work and of the manufacturing process in which he will be
employed, he shall not grant or renew a certificate under this sub-section until he has
examined such place. A certificate of fitness granted or renewed under sub-section 2
shall be valid only for a period of twelve months from the date thereof may be made
subject to conditions in regard to the nature of the work in which the young person may
be employed, or requiring re-examination of the young person before the expiry of the
period of twelve months. A certifying surgeon shall revoke any certificate granted or
renewed under sub-section 2 if in his opinion the holder of it is no longer fit to work in
the capacity stated therein in a factory. Where a certifying surgeon refuses to grant or
renew a certificate or a certificate of the kind requested or revokes a certificate, he
shall, if so requested by any person who could have applied for the certificate or the
renewal thereof, state his reasons in writing for so doing. Where a certificate under this
section with reference to any young person is granted or renewed subject to such
conditions as are referred to in clause (b) of sub-section (3), the young person shall not
be required or allowed to work in any factory except in accordance with those
conditions. Any fee payable for a certificate under this section shall be paid by the
occupier and shall not be recoverable from the young person, his parents or guardian.
Employment Of Young Persons On Dangerous Machines No young person shall be
required or allowed to work at any machine to which this section applies, unless he has
been fully instructed as to the dangers arising in connection with the machine and the
precautions to be observed and- has received sufficient training in work at the machine,
or Is under adequate supervision by a person who has a thorough knowledge and
experience of the machine. Sub-section 1 shall apply to such machines as may be
prescribed by the State Government, being machines which in its opinion are of such a
dangerous character that young persons ought not to work at them unless the
foregoing requirements are complied with: General duties as regards article and
substances for use in factories: Every person who design, manufacture, Imports or
supplies any article for use in any factory shall Ensure, so far as is reasonably
practicable, that the article is so designed and constructed as to be safe and without
risks to health of the workers when properly used Take necessary steps to ensure that
adequate information will be available in the connection with the use of the article and
conditions necessary to ensure that the article, when put to such use, will be safe and
without risks to health of the workers. To provide health measure: The occupier of
factory is obligated to undertake following measure for measures for ensuring good
health and physical fitness: The occupier is required to keep the factory premises clean
and free waste and effluvia. Should make arrangement for sweeping and removing dirt
daily. Keep the factory adequately ventilated temperature and humid. Prevents dust
and fumes Avoid overcrowding: Sufficient and suitable natural or artificial Lighting and
wholesome drinking water at suitable points and during hot season. Every factory
should provide and, maintain latrine, urinals and spittoons Latines and Urinals In every
factory sufficient latrine and urinal accommodation of prescribed types shall be provided
conveniently situated and accessible to workers at all times while they are at the
factory separate enclosed accommodation shall be provided for male and female
workers such accommodation shall be adequately lighted and ventilated, and no latrine
or urinal shall, unless specially exempted in writing by the Chief Inspector,
communicate with any workroom except through an intervening open space or
ventilated passage all such accommodation shall be maintained in a clean and sanitary
condition at all times sweepers shall be employed whose primary duty it would be to
keep clean latrines, urinals and washing places. In every factory wherein more than two
hundred and fifty workers are ordinarily employed- all latrine and urinal accommodation
shall be of prescribed sanitary types the floors and internal walls, up to a height of
ninety centimeters, of the latrines and urinals and the sanitary blocks shall be laid in
glazed titles or otherwise finished to provide a smooth polished impervious surface
without prejudice to the provisions of clauses of sub-section (1), the floors, portions of
the walls and blocks so laid or finished and the sanitary pans of latrines and urinals
shall be thoroughly washed and cleaned at least once in every seven days with suitable
detergents or disinfectants or with both. The State Government may prescribe the
number of latrines and urinals to be provided in any factory in proportion to the
numbers of male and female workers ordinarily employed therein, and provide for such
further matters in respect of sanitation in factories, including the obligation of workers
in this regard, as it considers necessary in the interest of the health of the workers
employed therein. First Aid Appliances There shall in every factory be provided and
maintained so as to be readily accessible during all working hours first-aid boxes or
cupboards equipped with the prescribed contents, and the number of such boxes or
cupboards to be provided and maintained shall not be less than one for every one
hundred and fifty workers ordinarily employed at any one time in the factory. Nothing
except the prescribed contents shall be kept in a first-aid box or cupboard. Each first-
aid box or cupboard shall be kept in the charge of a separate responsible person who
holds a certificate in first-aid treatment recognized by State Government and who shall
always be readily available during the working hours of the factory. In every factory
wherein more than five hundred workers are ordinarily employed there shall be
provided and maintained an ambulance room of the prescribed size, containing the
prescribed equipment and in the charge of such medical and nursing staff as may be
prescribed and those facilities shall always be made readily available during the working
hours of the factory. To undertake safety measures: Every factory must take
appropriate safety measure as provided under the act Fencing of all dangerous and
moving parts of the machinery while in motion or use Young persons (between 15 to
18) are not supposed to work on any dangerous machine without adequate training and
supervision. Keeping floors, stairs, steps, etc free from obstructions and slippery
substances and provided with substantial handrails. taking necessary precautions and
providing screens or goggles for protection of eyes, precautions to prevent exposure to
dangerous fumes, gases or dust, and measure to prevent accumulation of explosive or
in flammable dust, fumes, gases or vapors. Welfare amenities All the factories shall
provide adequate and suitable facilities for Washing and drying of wet cloths and storing
of cloths Sitting arrangements for employee who are required to work in standing
position in order that they may take shorts rests in the course of their work First aid
box or cupboards equipped with prescribe contents shall be provided Factory should
provide ambulance room if workers are more than 500 The canteen should be provided
with sufficient light and ventilated They should provide drinking water in rest rooms,
shelters and lunch rooms. Creches should provide when more tan 30 women workers
are employed in than factory. Working hours, holidays and overtime Restriction for
women workers not to work at night. And the child below 14 is not to be employed in
the factory No dual employment The working hours for an adult should not exceed 48
hours in a week. Every worker should allowed at least half an hour rest interval after a
maximum working of 5 hours at a stretch No overlapping of shift Every worker should
have one holiday in a week If a person does more work at usual time he should receive
the wages double the ordinary rate of wages Leave with wages Earned leave-every
workers who has worked for a period of 240 days or more during a calendar year or. If
his services commence after first of January, then for at least two third s or the total
number of days in the remaining part of the year. Display notice, maintain and submit
returns: The occupier and manager should required to intimate ant intention of closure
of factory or any section or department thereof, along with the reasons for such
closure, number of workers to be affected, etc. They should also maintain register of
accidents and dangerous occurrence, inspection book etc. The manager is generally
required to furnish certain returns such as annual return, half yearly returns which
relating to wages, leaves holidays etc. Display Of Notices In addition to the notices
required to be displayed in any factory by or under this Act, there shall be displayed in
every factory a notice containing such abstracts of this Act and of the rules made
thereunder as may be prescribed and also the name and address of the Inspector and
the certifying surgeon. All notices required by or under this Act to be displayed in a
factory shall be in English and in a language understood by the majority of the workers
in the factory, and shall be displayed at some conspicuous and convenient place at or
near the main entrance to the factory, and shall be maintained in a clean and legible
condition. The Chief Inspector may, by order in writing served on the manager of any
factory, require that there shall be displayed in the factory any other notice or poster
relating to the health, safety or welfare of the workers in the factory. Returns The State
Government may make rules requiring owners, occupiers or managers of factories to
submit such returns, occasional or periodical, as may in its opinion be required for the
purposes of this Act. Notice of accidents, dangerous occurrence and diseases: The
manager of a factory is required to send notice of the fatal and other accidents causing
disablement to worker for a period of 48 hours or more, dangerous occurrences
whether causing any bodily, injury or not, and any worker contacting any occupational
disease Obligations regarding hazardous process/substances; The manager required to
undertake the following measure for ensuring safety of life and health of the workers
the occupier or manager inform the workers, the local authority and the general public
in the vicinity of the factory, about the dangerous and health hazards caused by the
hazardous process They should have plane to handle usage and storage of hazardous
inside the factory and their deposal outside the factory The occupier shall also maintain
accurate and up to date health/medical records of the workers who are exposed to any
chemical, toxic or ant other harmful substances. the occupier should inform the chief
inspector about the hazardous process within 30 days before the commencement of
such process Right of Workers The obligation of the employers, practically speaking the
right of employees. Every worker shall have the right to: obtain from the occupier,
information relating to workers'health and safety at work get trained within the factory
wherever possible, or, to get himself sponsored by the occupier for getting trained at a
training centre or institute, duly approved by the Chief Inspector, where training is
imparted for workers'health and safety at work Represent to the Inspector directly or
through his representative in the matter of inadequate provision for protection of his
health or safety in the factory. A workers has the right to claim wages for leave
allowable to him, under the provisions of the payment of wages act. A workers has the
right not to pay any fee or charge for the facilities for the facilities provided by the
employer. Right of employers The obligation of the employee can also be reckoned as
right of the employers. Beside some more right have been vested in the employer
under the factories act. Right to carry on the plan of setting up a new factory or
extension of an existing one, if no adverse order is communicated to him within 3
months of the application for approval. Right to appeal to the central government
against the sate government's refusal to grant approval to his application for setting up
a factory. Right to retain a child or a young person not holding a certificate of fitness,
from working in the factory right of appeal against the order of the inspector or chief
inspector, to the prescribed appellate authority, within 30 days of the service of the
order. Right to demand an application for leave from the workers and a medical
certificate when leave is availed on the ground of illness. Provision of overcrowding No
room in any factory shall be overcrowded to an extent injurious to the health of the
workers employed therein. Without prejudice to the generality of sub-section (1), there
shall be in every workroom of a factory in existence on the date of the commencement
of this Act at least 9.9 cubic metres and of a factory built after the commencement of
this Act at least 14.2 cubic metres or space for every worker employed therein, and for
the purposes of this sub-section no account shall be taken of any space which is more
than 4.2 metres above the level of the floor of the room. If the Chief Inspector by order
in writing so requires, there shall be posted in each workroom of a factory a notice
specifying the maximum number of workers who may, in compliance with the
provisions of this section, be employed in the room. The Chief Inspector may by order
in writing exempt, subject to such conditions, if any, as he may think fit to impose, any
workroom from the provisions of this section, if he is satisfied that compliance
therewith in respect of the room is unnecessary in the interest of the health of the
workers employed therein. Write short notes on any five Medical befit council under
employee's state insurance act-1948 Medical Benefit Council The Central Government
shall constitute a Medical Benefit Council consisting of- The Director General, Health
Services, ex officio, as Chairman A Deputy Director-General, Health Services, to be
appointed by the Central Government The Medical Commissioner of the Corporation, ex
officio One member each representing each of the States (other than Union territories)
in which this Act is in force to be appointed by the State Government concerned Three
members representing employers to be appointed by the Central Government in
consultation with such organizations of employers as may be recognized for the
purpose by the Central Government three members representing employees to be
appointed by the Central Government in consultation with such organizations of
employees as may be recognized for the purpose by the Central Government Three
members, of whom not less than one shall be a woman, representing the medical
profession, to be appointed by the Central Government in consultation with such
organizations of medical practitioners as may be recognized for the purpose by the
Central Government. Save as otherwise expressly provided in this Act, the term of
office of a member of the Medical Benefit Council, other than a member referred to in
any of the clause a to d of sub-section 1, shall be four years from the date on which his
appointment is notified: Provided that a member of the Medical Benefit Council shall,
notwithstanding the expiry of the said period of four years continue to hold office until
the appointment of his successor is notified. A member of the Medical Benefit Council
referred to in clauses b & d of sub-section 1 shall hold office during the pleasure of the
Government appointing him. Wages Act An Act to provide for fixing minimum rates of
wages in certain employments. WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for fixing minimum
rates of wages in certain employments. An Act to provide for certain benefits to
employees in case of sickness, maternity and employment injury and to make
provision for certain other matters in relation thereto WHEREAS it is expedient to
provide for certain benefits to employees in case of sickness, maternity and
employment injury and to make provision for certain other matters in relation thereto
The act lays down for fixation of: A minimum time rate of wages A minimum piece rate
A guaranteed time rate An overtime rate For different occupation, localities or classes of
work and for adults, adolescents, children and apprentices. Minimum Wages The
minimum rate of wages may consist of: a basic rate of wages and a cost of living
allowance or A basic arte of wages with or without the cost of living allowance and the
cash value of the concessions in respect of essential commodities supplied at
concessional rates. The act lays down that wages shall be paid in cash although it
empowers the appropriate government to authorize the payment of minimum wages
either wholly or partly in kind in particular cases. It provides that the cost of living
allowance and cash value of the concessions in respect of supplies of essential
commodities at concessional rates shall be computed by component authority at certain
interval. The act empowers the appropriate government to fix the number of hours of
work per day, to provide for a weekly holiday and the payment of overtime wages of
which minimum rates of wages have been fixed under the act. The act lays down for
appointment of inspectors and other authorities to hear and decide claims arising out of
payment of wages at less than the minimum rates of wages or remuneration for days of
rest of work done on such days or of overtime wages All establishments covered by the
act are required to maintain registers and office records in the prescribe manner The
act provides the procedure for dealing with complaints arising out of the violation of the
provisions of the act and for imposing penalties for offences under the act. Eligibility
and determination of bonus: Every employee shall be entitled to be paid by his
employer in an accounting year, bonus, in accordance with the provisions of this Act,
provided he has worked in the establishment for not less than thirty working days in
that year. Where an employee has not worked for all the working days in an accounting
year, the minimum bonus of one hundred rupees or, as the case may be, of sixty
rupees, if such bonus is higher than 8.33 per cent of his salary or wage for the days he
has worked in that accounting year, shall be proportionately reduced. Bonus under the
payment of bonus act cannot be claimed by workers as a matter of right. The bonus
formula under the act rest on calculation of the available surplus and it envisages the
following steps Computation of available surplus. The available surplus in respect of any
accounting year shall be the gross profits for that year after deducting there from the
sums referred to in section 6: Provided that the available surplus in respect of the
accounting year commencing on any day in the year 1968 and in respect of every
subsequent accounting year shall be the aggregate of The gross profits for that
accounting year after deducting there from the sums referred to in section 6 An amount
equal to the difference between- the direct tax, calculated in accordance with the
provisions of section 7, in respect of an amount equal to the gross profits of the
employer for the immediately preceding accounting year the direct tax, calculated in
accordance with the provisions of section 7, in respect of an amount equal to the gross
profits of the employer for such preceding accounting year after deducting there from
the amount of bonus which the employer has paid or is liable to pay to his employees in
accordance with the provisions of this Act for that year. Section 6 Sums deductible from
gross profits. The following sums shall be deducted from the gross profits as prior
charges, namely: any amount by way of depreciation admissible in accordance with the
provisions of sub-section 1 of section 32 of the Income-tax Act, or in accordance with
the provisions of the Agricultural Income-tax Law, as the case may be: Provided that
where an employer has been paying bonus to his employees under a settlement or an
award or agreement made before the 29th May, 1965, and subsisting on that date after
deducting from the gross profits notional normal depreciation, then, the amount of
depreciation to be deducted under this clause shall, at the option of such employer
(such option to be exercised once and within one year from that date) continue to be
such notional normal depreciation Any amount by way of development rebate or
investment allowance or development allowance which the employer is entitled to
deduct from his income under the Income-tax Act subject to the provisions of section 7,
any direct tax which the employer is liable to pay for the accounting year in respect of
his income, profits and gains during that year Such further sums as are specified in
respect of the employer in the Third Schedule Withdrawal or cancellation of trade union
A certificate of registration of a Trade Union may be withdrawn o cancelled by the
Registrar On the application of the Trade Union to be verified in such manner as may be
prescribed, or If the Registrar is satisfied that the certificate has been obtained by fraud
or mistake, or that the Trade Union has ceased to exist or has willfully and after notice
from the Registrar contravened any provision of this Act or allowed any rule to continue
in force which is inconsistent with any such provision, or has rescinded any rule
providing for any matter, provision for which is required by Section 6: Provided that not
less than two months previous notice in writing specifying the ground on which it is
proposed to withdraw or cancel the certificate shall be given by the Registrar to the
Trade Union before the certificate is withdrawn or cancelled otherwise than on the
application of the Trade Union. Section 10 provides that register may direct for
withdrawal or cancellation of registration in the following cases Trade union has ceased
to exist Trade union has on its own applied for its withdrawal or cancellation Allowed
any rule to continue against the provision of this act Conciliation proceeding and
settlement under industrial dispute act-1947 The appropriate Government may as
occasion arises by notification in the Official Gazette constitute a Board of Conciliation
for promoting the settlement of an industrial dispute. A conciliation officer may be
appointed for a specified area or for specified industries in a specified area or for one or
more specified industries and either permanently or for a limited period. A Board shall
consist of a Chairman and two or four other members, as the appropriate Government
thinks fit. The Chairman shall be an independent person and the other members shall
be persons appointed in equal numbers to represent the parties to the dispute and any
person appointed to represent a party shall be appointed on the recommendation of
that party: Provided that, if any party fails to make a recommendation as aforesaid
within the prescribed time, the appropriate Government shall appoint such persons as it
thinks fit to represent that party. A Board, having the prescribed quorum, may act
notwithstanding the absence of the Chairman or any of its members or any vacancy in
its number: Provided that if the appropriate Government notifies the Board that the
services of the Chairman or of any other member have ceased to be available, the
Board shall not act until a new chairman or member, as the case may be, has been
appointed. Duties of Conciliation Officers Where an industrial dispute exists or is
apprehended, the conciliation officer may, or where the dispute relates to a public
utility service and a notice under section 22 has been given, shall, hold conciliation
proceedings in the prescribed manner. The conciliation officer shall, for the purpose of
bringing about a settlement of the dispute, without delay, investigate the dispute and
all matters affecting the merits and the right settlement thereof and may do all such
things as he thinks fit for the purpose of inducing the parties to come to a fair and
amicable settlement of the dispute. If a settlement of the dispute or of any of the
matters in dispute is arrived at in the course of the conciliation proceedings the
conciliation officer shall send a report thereof to the appropriate Government or an
officer authorised in this behalf by the appropriate Government together with a
memorandum of the settlement signed by the parties to the dispute. If no such
settlement is arrived at, the conciliation officer shall, as soon as practicable after the
close of the investigation, send to the appropriate Government a full report setting forth
the steps taken by him for ascertaining the facts and circumstances relating to the
dispute and for bringing about a settlement thereof, together with a full statement of
such facts and circumstances, and the reasons on account of which, in his opinion, a
settlement could not be arrived at: If, on a consideration of the report referred to in
sub-section (4), the appropriate Government is satisfied that there is a case for
reference to a Board, Labour Court, Tribunal or National Tribunal, it may make such
reference. Where the appropriate Government does not make such a reference it shall
record and communicate to the parties concerned its reasons therefore. Duties of Board
Where a dispute has been referred to a Board under this Act, it shall be the duty of the
Board to endeavor to bring about a settlement of the same and for this purpose the
Board shall, in such manner as it thinks fit and without delay, investigate the dispute
and all matters affecting the merits and the right settlement thereof and may do all
such things as it thinks fit for the purpose of inducing the parties to come to a fair and
amicable settlement of the dispute. If a settlement of the dispute or of any of the
matters in dispute is arrived at in the course of the conciliation proceedings, the Board
shall send a report thereof to the appropriate Government together with a
memorandum of the settlement signed by the parties to the dispute. If no such
settlement is arrived at, the Board shall, as soon as practicable after the close of the
investigation, send to the appropriate Government a full report setting forth the
proceedings and steps taken by the Board for ascertaining the facts and circumstances
relating to the dispute and for bringing about a settlement thereof, together with a full
statement of such facts and circumstances, its findings thereon, the reasons on account
of which, in its opinion, a settlement could not be arrived at and its recommendations
for the determination of the dispute. If, on the receipt of a report under-sub-section 3
in respect of a dispute relating to a public utility service, the appropriate Government
does not make a reference to a Labour Court, Tribunal or National Tribunal under
section 10, it shall record and communicate to the parties concerned its reasons
therefore. The Board shall submit its report under this section within two months of the
date on which the dispute was referred to it or within such shorter period as may be
fixed by the appropriate Government: Provided that the appropriate Government may
from time to time extend the time for the submission of the report by such further
periods not exceeding two months in the aggregate: Provided further that the time for
the submission of the report may be extended by such period as may be agreed on in
writing by all the parties to the dispute. A report under this section shall be submitted
within fourteen days of the commencement of the conciliation proceedings or within
such shorter period as may be fixed by the appropriate Government: Provided that,
Subject to the approval of the conciliation officer, the time for the submission of the
report may be extended by such period as may be agreed upon in writing by all the
parties to the dispute. Settlements A settlement shall come into operation on such date
as is agreed upon by the parties to the dispute, and if no date is agreed upon, on the
date on which the memorandum of the settlement is signed by the parties to the
dispute. Such settlement shall be binding for such period as is agreed upon by the
parties, and if no such period is agreed upon, for a period of six months from the date
on which the memorandum of settlement is signed by the parties to the dispute, and
shall continue to be binding on the parties after the expiry of the period aforesaid, until
the expiry of two months from the date on which a notice in writing of an intention to
terminate the settlement is given by one of the parties to the other party or parties to
the settlement. An award shall, subject to the provisions of this section, remain in
operation for a period of one year from the date on which the award becomes
enforceable under section 17a: Provided that the appropriate Government may reduce
the said period and fix such period as it thinks fit: Provided further that the appropriate
Government may, before the expiry of the said period, extend the period of operation
by any period not exceeding one year at a time as it thinks fit, so however, that the
total period of operation of any award does not exceed three years from the date on
which it came into operation. Where the appropriate Government, whether of its own
motion or on the application of any party bound by the award, considers that since the
award was made, there has been a material change in the circumstances on which it
was based, the appropriate Government may refer the award or a part of it to a Labour
Court, if the award was that of a Labour Court or to a Tribunal, if the award was that of
a Tribunal or of a National Tribunal, for decision whether the period of operation should
not, by reason of such change, be shortened and the decision of Labour Court or the
Tribunal, as the case may be, on such reference shall be final. Nothing contained in
sub-section 3 shall apply to any award which by its nature, terms or other
circumstances does not impose, after it has been given effect to, any continuing
obligation on the parties bound by the award. Notwithstanding the expiry of the period
of operation under sub-section 3, the award shall continue to be binding on the parties
until a period of two months has elapsed from the date on which notice is given by any
party bound by the award to the other party or parties intimating its intention to
terminate the award. No notice given under sub-section 2 or sub-section 6 shall have
effect, unless it is given by a party representing the majority of persons bound by the
settlement or award, as the case may be.

How would you categories a dispute into an industrial dispute. Explain illegal strike and
lockouts industrial dispute Disagreement between an employer and its employees,
usually represented by a trade union, over some aspect of the terms or conditions of
employment. A dispute is often followed by industrial action, in the form of a strike or a
work to rule. A dispute arising from the negotiation ct a new collective agreement or
the revision of on existing agreement on expiry. An industrial dispute must necessarily
be a dispute in an industry. An industrial dispute has three ingredients There should be
real and substantial dispute or difference. The dispute or difference must be between
employers and or workmen. The dispute or difference must be connected with
employment and non-employment, or with the conditions of labour of any person.
Categories of Disputes The following dispute have been categorized as industrial dispute
allegation of wrongful termination of service Compulsory retirement employee Claim for
reinstatement of dismissed workmen. Dispute connected with minimum wages Dispute
regarding payment to be made under production bonus scheme Claim fro compensation
for wrongful dismissal. Dispute regarding interpretation of standing orders Dispute
relating to lock out or bona fide and genuine closure of business. Non implementation of
award and claim for compensation payable by workmen to the employer for loss caused
by strike Demand of an employee relating to his confirmation on a post holding in an
acting capacity strike and lockout are two corecive meaure resorted to by the
employees and tge employers respectively, for compelling the employers or employees
to accept their demands or conditions or services. strike (industrial) Stoppage of work
by employees, often as members of a trade union, to obtain or resist change in wages,
hours, or conditions. Strikes may be official (union-authorized) or wildcat (undertaken
spontaneously), and may be accompanied by a sit-in or work-in, the one being worker
occupation of a factory and the other continuation of work in a plant the employer
wishes to close. In a sympathetic strike, action is in support of other workers on strike
elsewhere, possibly in a different industry. A general strike is action by members of
several key industries, that aims to halt a country's economic activity. Illegal strike A
strike called in violation of the law. Strikes are generally illegal when they occur as a
result of a dispute over the interpretation of a collective agreement currently in force,
when they occur before conciliation procedures have been complied with, or when
certification proceedings are under way. If the strike is illegal, workmen are not only
liable to those wages but are also liable to punishment by way of discharge or
dismissal. Workers are however entitled to wages for a period of lock out which is illegal
and unjustified. A lockout is a weapon of an employer to thwart or enforce such change
by preventing employees from working. Another measure is work to rule, when
production is virtually brought to a halt by the strict following of union rules. Illegal
Lockouts and Strikes A strike or a lock-out shall be illegal if- it is commenced or
declared in contravention of section 22 or section 23; or it is continued in contravention
of an order made under sub-section 3 of section 10 lda-136 or sub-section 4a of section
10a Where a strike or lock-out in pursuance of an industrial dispute has already
commenced and is in existence at the time of the reference of the dispute to a Board,
an arbitrator, a Labour Court, Tribunal or National Tribunal, the continuance of such
strike or lock-out shall not be deemed to be illegal, provided that such strike or lock-out
was not at its commencement in contravention of the provisions of this Act or the
continuance thereof was not prohibited under sub-section 3 of section 10 or sub-section
4a of section 10a. A lock-out declared in consequence of an illegal strike or a strike
declared in consequence of an illegal lock-out shall not be deemed to be illegal.

what do you understand by term labour welfare? What is it all about? classical
economics and all micro-economics labour is one of four factors of production, the
others being land, capital and enterprise. It is a measure of the work done by human
beings. There are macro-economic system theories which have created a concept called
human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual
work), although there are also counterpoising macro-economic system theories that
think human capital is a contradiction in terms. The term welfare suggests the state of
well being and implies wholesomeness of the human being. It is a desirable state of
existence involving the mental, physical, moral and emotional factor of a person
Adequate levels of earnings, safe and humane conditions of work and access to some
minimum social security benefits are the major qualitative dimensions of employment
which enhance quality of life of workers and their productivity. Institutional mechanisms
exist for ensuring these to workers in the organized sector of the economy. These are
being strengthened or expanded to the extent possible. However, workers in the
unorganized sector, who constitute 90 per cent of the total workforce, by and large, do
not have access to such benefits. Steps need to be taken on a larger scale than before
to improve the quality of working life of the unorganized workers, including women
workers. Labor welfare is the key to smooth employer-employee relations. In order to
increase labor welfare, Employers offer extra incentives in the form of labour welfare
schemes, and to make it possible to pursued workers to accept mechanization.
Sometimes the employers to combat the influence of outside agencies on their
employees, use labor welfare as a tool to minimize the effect they may have on the
labour. Labour welfare measures are also initiated with the view to avoiding payment of
tax on surplus and to build up at the same time better relations with employees. There
are some theories which constitutes the conceptual frame framework of the labour
welfare, describe these theories Several theories constituting the conceptual framework
of labour welfare have so far been outlined these are Policy theory Religious theory
Philanthropic theory Trusteeship theory Placating theory Public relations theory
Functional theory Policy theory This theory is based on the contention that a minimum
standard of welfare is necessary for workers. The assumption on which the theory is
based is the without compulsion, supervision and fear of punishment, no employer will
provide even the barest minimum of welfare facilities for workers this theory is based
on the assumption that man is selfish and self centered, and always tries to achieve his
own ends, even at the cost of the welfare of others. According to this theory, owners
and managers of industrial undertakings make use of every opportunity to engage in
this kind of exploitation. The sate has therefore to step in to prevent exploitation by
enacting stiff laws to coerce industrialists into offering a minimum standard of welfare
to their workers. Such interference it is felt is in the interests of the progress and
welfare of the state as well. Laws are enacted to compel management to provide
minimum wages, congenial working conditions and reasonable hours of work and social
security. The policy theory involves several stages of implementation Enactments
Periodical supervision Punishment Religious theory The theory views were an essentially
religious. Religious feelings are what sometimes prompt employers to take up welfare
activities in the belief of benefits either in his life or in support after life. Any good work
is considered an investment, because both the benefactor and the beneficiary are
benefited by the good work done by the benefactor. This theory does not take into
consideration that the workers are not beneficiaries but rightful claimants to a part of
the gains derived by their labour. Philanthropic theory Philanthropy is the inclination to
do or practice of doing well to ones fellow men. Man is basically self centered and acts
of these kinds stem from personal motivation, when some employers take compassion
on their fellowmen, they may undertake labor welfare measures for their workers.
Trusteeship theory In this theory it is held that the industrialists or employers holds the
total industrial estate, properties and profits accruing form them in trust for the
workmen, for himself, and for society. It assumes that the workmen are like minors and
are not able to look after their own interests that they are ignorant because of lack of
education. Employers therefore have the moral responsibility to look after the interests
of their wards, who are the workers. Placating theory As labour groups are becoming
better organized and are becoming demanding and militant, being more conscious of
their rights and privileges that even before, their demand for higher wages and better
standards increases. The placing theory advocates timely and periodical acts of labour
welfare to appease the workers. Public relations theory This underlining philosophy
behind this theory is an atmosphere of goodwill between management and labour and
also between management and the public. Labour welfare programms under this
theory, work as assort of an advertisement for companies and helps build up good and
healthy public relations. The labour welfare movements may be utilized to improve
relations between management and labour. An advertisement or an exhibition of
alobour welfare programme may help the management projects a good image of the
company. Functional theory The concept behind this theory is that a happy and healthy
person is a better, more productive worker. Here, welfare is used as a means to secure,
preserve and develop the efficiency and productivity of labour. As discussed earlier, the
approach to any solutions, especially as that as between the workers and the
management should be dialogue and an understanding of one another's viewpoint.
Once agreement has been reached, compliance by both parties can be assured to a
vary great extent. This also called the efficiency theory.

Classical management thought can be divided into three separate schools: Scientific
management, administrative theory and bureaucratic management. Classical theorists
formulated principles for setting up and managing organizations. These views are
labeled classical because they form the foundation for the field of management thought.
The major contributors to the three schools of management thought scientific
management, administrative theory and bureaucratic management are Frederick W.
Taylor, Henry Fayol and Max Weber respectively. Scientific Management Scientific
management became increasingly popular in the early 1900S. In the early 19th
century, scientific management was defined as that kind of management which
conducts a business or affairs by standards established, by facts or truths gained
through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. In other words, it is a
classical management approach that emphasizes the scientific study of work methods
to improve the efficiency of the workers. Some of the earliest advocates of scientific
management were Frederick W. Taylor (1856 1915), Frank Gilbreth (1868 1924),
Lillian Gilbreth (1878 1972), and Henry Gantt (1861 1919). Frederick Winslow
Taylor Frederick Winslow Taylor took up Henry Towne's challenge to develop principles
of scientific management. Taylor, considered father of scientific management, wrote
The Principles of Scientific Management in 1911. An engineer and inventor, Taylor first
began to experiment with new managerial concepts in 1878 while employed at the
Midvale Steel Co. At Midvale, his rise from laborer to chief engineer within 6 years gave
him the opportunity to tackle a grave issue faced by the organization the soldiering
problem. Soldiering refers to the practice of employees deliberately working at a pace
slower than their capabilities. According to Taylor, workers indulge in soldiering for
three main reasons: Workers feared that if they increased their productivity, other
workers would lose their jobs. Faulty wage systems employed by the organization
encouraged them to work at a slow pace. Outdated methods of working handed down
from generation to generation led to a great deal of wasted efforts. Four Steps in
Scientific Management Step Description Step 1 Develop a science for each element of
the job to replace old rule of thumb methods. Step 2 Scientifically select employees and
then train them to do the job as described in Step 1. Step 3 Supervise employees to
make sure they follow the prescribed methods for performing their jobs. Step 4
Continue to plan the work but use workers to actually get the work done. Essence In
essence, scientific management as propounded by Taylor emphasizes: Need for
developing a scientific way of performing each job. Training and preparing workers to
perform that particular job. Establishing harmonious relations between management
and workers so that the job is performed in the desired way. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
After Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made numerous contributions to the concept of
scientific management. Frank Gilbreth (1868 1924) is considered the father of motion
study. Lillian Gilbreth (1878 1972) was associated with the research pertaining to
motion studies. Motion study involves finding out the best sequence and minimum
number of motions needed to complete a task. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were mainly
involved in exploring new ways for eliminating unnecessary motions and reducing work
fatigue. The Gilbreths devised a classification scheme to label seventeen basic hand
motions such as search, select, position, and hold which they used to study tasks in a
number of industries. These 17 motions, which they called therbligs (Gilbreth spelled
backward with the't and h' transposed), allowed them to analyze the exact elements of
a worker's hand movements. Frank Gilbreth also developed the micromotion study. A
motion picture camera and a clock marked off in hundredths of seconds was used to
study motions made by workers as they performed their tasks. He is best known for his
experiments in reducing the number of motions in bricklaying. By carefully analyzing
the bricklayer's job, he was able to reduce the motions involved in bricklaying from 18
to 4. Using his approach, workers increased the number of bricks laid per day from
1000 to 2700 (per hour it went up from 120 to 350 bricks) without exerting
themselves. Lillian's doctoral thesis (published in the early 1900S as The Psychology of
Management) was one of the earliest works which applied the findings of psychology to
the management of organizations. She had great interest in the human implications of
scientific management and focused her attention on designing methods for improving
the efficiency of workers. She continued her innovative work even after Frank's death in
1924, and became a professor of management at Purdue University. Lillian was the first
woman to gain eminence as a major contributor to the development of management as
a science. In recognition of her contributions to scientific management, she received
twenty-two honorary degrees.

One of the most important activities in business is the management of the 4M's men,
machines, material and money. The term management can be interpreted differently
in different contexts. Hence, it is difficult to define. In one context, it may comprise the
activities of executives and administrative personnel in an organization, while in
another, it may refer to a system of getting things done. In a broad perspective,
management can be considered as the proper utilization of people and other resources
in an organization to accomplish desired objectives. With increasing global competition,
changes in the world of technology, changing business practices and increasing social
responsibility of organizations, the role of managers has become all the more
significant. In this chapter, we will first examine the definitions of management given
by some eminent management thinkers to understand the essence of management.
Secondly, we will discuss the five basic functions of management i.e.. planning,
organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. The chapter also focuses on the managerial
skills required at various levels of the organizational hierarchy and briefly explains the
various approaches to management. Definitions Of Management The term
management can be interpreted in a variety of ways. To gain a better insight into the
nature of management, let us look at some of the definitions of management: Harold
Koontz and Heinz Weihrich define management as the process of designing and
maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently
accomplish selected aims. Louis E. Boone and David L. Kurtz define management as the
use of people and other resources to accomplish objectives. Dalton E. McFarland defines
management as a process, by which managers create, direct, maintain, and operate
purposive organizations through systematic, coordinated, cooperative human effort.
Mary Parker Follet termed management as the act of getting things done through
people. Definitions by Follet and Louis E. Boone and Kurtz call attention to the fact that
managers achieve organizational goals by getting others to do the necessary tasks. The
other two definitions suggest that management is much more than just getting the
work done and suggest the following aspects of management: Managers carry out the
functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling: Henry Fayol was the
first management thinker to outline the five basic functions carried out by managers.
Every manager performs these basic functions. These functions are discussed in detail
in the later part of this chapter. Management is essential to any kind of organization:
Wherever there are groups of people working together to achieve some common
objectives, it becomes essential to guide, organize and control them. The term
management applies to any organization irrespective of the size or nature of
operations. The prime concern of a CEO of a multinational company, the General
Manager of a hotel, the first-level supervisor, the manager of a cricket team and the
student president in a college is to manage their people and resources effectively.
Management is essential at all hierarchical levels: Management is necessary at all
levels. However, the type of skills and the degree to which various skills are required at
different levels of the hierarchy may vary. In order to perform their duties satisfactorily,
managers need technical, human, conceptual and design skills. The goal of all
managers is to generate surplus: The aim of all business managers is to create a
surplus. To accomplish this objective, the manager has to create an environment which
encourages people to accomplish as much as possible with the least amount of
resources and personal dissatisfaction. Even in non-profit organizations, the aim of
managers is to accomplish their goals with the minimum amount of resources or to
make as much surplus as possible with available resources. The aim of all managers is
to improve productivity, efficiency and effectiveness: Productivity is defined as the
output-input ratio within a time period with due consideration for quality. It can be
expressed as: Improving Productivity Productivity = Outputs/Inputs (within a time
period, quality considered) Productivity can be improved in the following ways: By
producing more output with the same inputs. By reducing inputs, but maintaining the
same level of outputs. By increasing outputs and reducing inputs, thereby, making the
ratio more favorable. Productivity can be improved by ensuring efficiency and
effectiveness in the operations of the firm. Effectiveness refers to achievement of stated
organizational objectives while efficiency denotes the judicious use of resources to
achieve organizational objectives. In the words of Peter Drucker, efficiency means doing
things right, while effectiveness means doing the right things. In his book, Management
Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, Drucker states that effectiveness is the foundation of
success whereas efficiency is a minimum condition for survival after success has been
achieved.

As per workmen's compensation act-1923 what are the privileges and benefits those
are included in wage, also state employer's obligation and rights towards employees.
The following are the privileges and benefits included in the wages: Free
accommodation Maternity benefit payable to women delivering a child Dearness
allowances Overtime allowance Overtime pay Benefits in the form of food or clothing
Value of any other concessions, benefits or privileges capable of being estimated in
money Gratuity payable to a workman on retirement Bonus earned in the date of
accidents Employer's obligations and rights towards employees: The obligation and
rights of employers and employees under the workmen's compensation act given below
Section 3: Employer's liability for compensation. If personal injury is caused to a
workman by accident arising out of and. In the course of his employment, his.
Employer shall be liable to pay compensation in accordance with the provisions of this
Chapter: Provided that the employer shall not be so liable- in respect of any injury
which does not result in the total or partial disablement of the workman for a period
exceeding three days in respect of any injury, hot resulting in death or permanent total
disablement caused by an accident which is directly attributable to the workman having
been at the time thereof under the influence of drink or drugs, or the wilful
disobedience of the workman to an order expressly given, or to a rule expressly
framed, for the purpose of securing the safety of workmen, or the wilful removal or
disregard by the workman of any safety guard or other device which he knew to have
been provided for the purpose of securing the safety of workmen Provided that if it is
proved. that a workman whilst in the service of one or more employers in any
employment specified in Part C of Schedule III has contracted a disease specified
therein as an occupational disease peculiar to that employment during a continuous
period which is less than the period specified under this sub-section for that
employment, and Provided further that if it is proved that a workman who having
served under any employer in any employment specified in Part B of Schedule III or
who having served under one or more employers in any employment specified in Part C
of that Schedule, for a continuous period specified under this subsection for that
employment and he has after the cessation of such service contracted any disease
specified in the said Part B or the said Part C, as the case may be, as an occupational
disease peculiar to the employment and that such disease arose out of the
employment, the contracting of the disease shall be deemed to be an injury by accident
within the meaning of this section. Save as provided by 37 sub-sections (2) (2a), and
(3), no compensation shall be payable to a workman in respect of any disease unless
the disease is 38 directly attributable to a specific injury by accident arising out
of and in the course of his employment. Nothing herein contained shall be deemed to
confer any right to compensation on a workman in respect of any injury if he has
instituted in a Civil Court a suit for damages in respect of the injury against the
employer or any other person; and no suit for damages shall be maintainable by a
workman in any Court of law in respect of any injury if he has instituted a claim to
compensation in respect of the injury before a Commissioner; or if an agreement has
been come to between the workman and his employer providing for the payment of
compensation in respect of the injury in accordance with the provisions of this Act.
Section 4: Amount of compensation Subject to the provisions of this Act, the amount of
compensation shall be as follows, namely: Where death results from the injury an
amount equal fifty per cent of the monthly wages of the deceased workman multiplied
by the relevant factor; or an amount of 39B eighty thousand rupees, whichever is more
where permanent total dis-an amount equal to sixty per cent ablement results from the
in-of the monthly wages of the injured jury workman multiplied by the relevant factor;
or an amount of ninety thousand rupees, whichever is more. Explanation I: For the
purposes of clause a and clause b, relevant factor in relation to a workman means the
factor specified in the second column of Schedule IV against the entry in the first
column of that Schedule specifying the number of years which are the same as the
completed years of the age of the workman on his last birthday immediately preceding
the date on which the compensation fell due; Explanation II: Where the monthly wages
of a workman exceed 39 e four thousand rupees, his monthly wages for the purposes of
clause a and clause b shall be deemed to be 39 e four thousand rupees only where
permanent partial dis-ablement results from the injury in the case of an injury specified
in Part II of Schedule I, such percentage of the compensation which would have been
payable in the case of permanent total disablement as is specified therein as being the
percentage of the loss of earning capacity caused by that injury, and Explanation I:
Where more injuries than one are caused by the same accident, the amount of
compensation payable under this head shall be aggregated but not so in any case as to
exceed the amount which would have been payable if permanent total disablement had
resulted from the injuries; Explanation II: In assessing the loss of earning capacity for
the purposes of sub-clause the qualified medical practitioner shall have due regard to
the percentages of loss of earning capacity in relation to different injuries specified in
Schedule I Where temporary disablement, whether total or partial, results from the
injury a half monthly payment of the sum equivalent to twenty-five per cent of monthly
wages of the workman, to be paid in accordance with. The provisions of sub-section
(2). Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), while fixing the amount of
compensation payable to a workman in respect of an accident occurred outside India,
the Commissioner shall take into account the amount of compensation, if any, awarded
to such workman in accordance with the law of the country in which the accident
occurred and shall reduce the amount fixed by him by the amount of compensation
awarded to the workman in accordance with the law of that country. The half-monthly
payment referred to in clause a of sub-section (1) shall be payable on the sixteenth day
from the date of disablement where such disablement lasts for a period of twenty-eight
days or more, or after the expiry of a waiting period of three days from the date of
disablement where such disablement lasts for a period of less than twenty-eight days;
and thereafter half-monthly during the disablement or during a period of five years,
whichever period is shorter:

David C. McClelland has contributed to the theories of motivation by highlighting the
importance of three basic needs to understand motivation. They are achievement
needs, affiliation needs, and power needs. McClelland's initial work centered on the
need for achievement.
Need for achievement
Achievement-motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. People with a
high need for achievement have an intense desire for success. They typically seek
competitive situations in which they can achieve results through their own efforts and
which allow them to obtain immediate feedback on how they are doing. They take a
realistic approach to risk. People with high need for achievement are characterized by
restlessness and willingness to work long hours. Individuals with high need for
achievement can be a valuable source of creativity and innovative ideas in
organizations. Supervisors who want to motivate achievement-oriented employees need
to set challenging, but reachable goals and provide immediate feedback about their
performance.
Need for affiliation
Need for affiliation refers to the desire to maintain warm, friendly relationships with
others. Affiliation-motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others.
They suffer pain when they are rejected. They usually exhibit the following
characteristics:
They strive to maintain pleasant social relationships.
They enjoy a sense of intimacy and understanding.
They are ready to console and help others in trouble.
They love to engage in friendly interaction with others.
To motivate individuals with a high need for affiliation, managers should provide them
with a congenial and supportive work environment in which they can meet both
corporate goals and their high affiliation needs by working with others. In situations
that require a high level of cooperation with and support of others, including clients and
customers, individuals with a high need for affiliation prove to be assets for an
organization.
Need for power
The need for power refers to the desire to be influential and to have an impact on a
group. Power-motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to
seize control or dominate others. They are willing to assert themselves when a decision
needs to be made. The power motive has significant implications for organizational
leadership and for the informal political aspects of organizations.
The need for power is manifested in two forms: Personal and institutional. People with
high need for personal power try to dominate others by demonstrating their ability to
wield power. They often run into difficulties as managers because they attempt to use
the efforts of others for their own benefits. In contrast, individuals with a high need for
institutional power focus on working along with others to solve problems and achieve
organizational goals. McClelland's work suggests that individuals with a high need for
institutional power become the best managers, because they are able to coordinate the
efforts of others to achieve long-term organizational goals.
Vroom's expectancy theory
The expectancy theory of motivation was originally proposed by Victor H. Vroom. He
contends that before putting in the effort to perform at a given level, individuals
consider the following three issues:
What is the probability that the performance will be up to the required level?
What is the probability that the performance will lead to the desired outcomes?
What is the value assigned by the individual to the potential outcomes?
Valence
Valence is the motivational component that refers to the preference of an individual for
a particular outcome. In simple words, it signifies how much reward one wants. The
valence component helps an individual assess the anticipated value of various
outcomes. If the possible reward or outcome of the work is of interest to the individual
performing it, the valence component will be high.
Expectancy
Expectancy is the probability that certain efforts will lead to the required performance.
In other words, expectancy is the probability (ranging from 0 to 1) that a particular
action or effort will lead to a particular outcome. For an individual to exert efforts
towards a goal, he must see a non-zero probability of effort leading to that goal. In
other words, all individuals will be motivated to reach their goal only when they see
some connection between their effort and performance.
Instrumentality
This refers to the probability that successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.
The major outcomes we consider are the potential rewards such as incentives or
bonuses, or a good feeling of accomplishment.
Motivational techniques
Rewards
Managers have found that job performance and satisfaction can be improved by
properly administered rewards. Rewards may be defined as material or psychological
payoffs for the accomplishment of tasks. Rewards can be broadly categorized into
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards are pay-offs granted by others. They
include money, perks and amenities, promotion, recognition, status symbols, and
praise. Intrinsic (job content) rewards are self-granted and internally experienced pay-
offs. Individuals prefer intrinsic rewards such as satisfaction from performing
challenging and interesting jobs. The motivation theories discussed in this chapter
throw light on the role of the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards in improving productivity,
and offer constructive suggestions about how to use these rewards in organization
settings.
Participation
Motivation theories encourage the use of the participation techniques. The right kind of
participation ensures an increase in the motivation and knowledge levels which
contribute to the success of an enterprise. Participation allows an individual to satisfy
his or her need for esteem (from self and from others). It gratifies the need for
affiliation and acceptance. Above all, it gives people a sense of accomplishment and a
chance for advancement. MBO (discussed in Chapter 5) is the most popular and modern
method of motivating employees at all levels for better performance, since it ensures
participation and freedom in setting goals and achieving them.
Quality of Work Life (QWL)
One of the most interesting approaches to motivation is the quality of work life (QWL)
program. QWL is not only a very broad approach to job enrichment but also an
interdisciplinary field of inquiry and action. It is a combination of several fields which
include industrial and organization psychology and sociology, industrial engineering,
organization theory and development, motivation and leadership theory, and industrial
relations. Managers see this concept as a promising means of dealing with productivity
problems and workers'grievances.
Job Enrichment
A modern and more permanent approach to motivation is job enrichment. Here, the
attempt is to build a higher sense of challenge and achievement in jobs. A job may be
enriched in the following ways:
1. Allowing workers to make independent decisions on issues like work methods,
sequence and pace or the acceptance or rejection of materials
2. Encouraging involvement and participation of employees and interaction between
workers
3. Making workers feel personally responsible for their tasks
4. Ensuring that workers get to know how their tasks contribute to the finished product
and the welfare of the enterprise
5. Giving people feedback on their job performance
6. Involving workers when bringing about changes in the physical aspects of their work
environment, such as the layout of office or plant, temperature, lighting and
cleanliness.

Management Personnel ManagerManagement Plan TypesManagement PlanningView All
Related Links Organizing is a very important managerial function. If planning focuses on
deciding what to do, organizing focuses on how to do it. Thus, after a manager has set
goals and worked out a plan to accomplish those goals, the next managerial function is
to organize people and allocate resources to carry out the plan. People who know how
to make effective use of their resources can make any organizational design or pattern
work efficiently. A manager has to create the right conditions to enable the employees
to effectively utilize the resources of the organization to achieve organizational goals.
He has to make the employees understand the necessity of cooperation for
accomplishing tasks. Employees should understand their roles and responsibilities and
should work together to achieve the organizational objectives. This applies to any
organization business, government, or a football team. For a subordinate to understand
his role, a manager must provide verifiable objectives and a clear picture of the major
duties to be performed. The manager must also specify subordinates'authority and
responsibility. This gives the subordinate an idea of what he must do to achieve the
goals and objectives of the organization. In addition, a manager should provide the
subordinates with necessary information and tools for effectively performing their roles.
Organizing is therefore designing and maintaining a formal structure of roles and
positions. Definitions Of Organizing According to Stephen P. Robbins and Mary Coulter,
organizing is determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks
are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. Thus,
organizing refers to important dynamic aspects such as what tasks are to be performed,
who has to perform them, on what basis the tasks are to be grouped, who has to report
to whom and who should have the authority to take decisions. L A Allen defined
organizing as the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed,
defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationships for
the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing
objectives. According to this definition, organizing is a management function involving
assigning duties, grouping tasks, delegating authority and responsibility and allocating
resources to carry out a specific plan in an efficient manner. In a nutshell, organizing
refers to the grouping of activities and resources in a logical fashion. Benefits of
Organizing Effective organizing provides numerous organizational benefits: The process
of organizing helps an individual develop a clear picture of the tasks he or she is
expected to accomplish. The process of organizing supports planning and control
activities by establishing accountability and an appropriate line of authority. Organizing
creates channels of communication and thus supports decision-making and control. The
process of organizing helps maintain the logical flow of work activities. By so doing, it
helps individuals and work groups to easily accomplish their tasks. Organizing helps an
organization make efficient use of its resources and avoid conflict and duplication of
effort. Organizing coordinates activities that are diverse in nature and helps build
harmonious relationships among members involved in those activities. The process of
organizing helps managers to focus task efforts such that they are logically and
efficiently related to a common goal.

Planning is the process of bridging the gap between where we are and where we want
to be in the future. In other words, planning is looking ahead, relating today's events
with tomorrow's possibilities. It is the process of deciding in advance what to do, how to
do, when to do it, and who does what. Proper planning minimizes risk and ensures that
resources are efficiently and effectively utilized.
Planning and controlling are inseparable. Planning involves determining organizational
objectives and developing strategies to achieve the objectives, while controlling
involves establishing standards of performance and comparing actual results with the
planned results. Controlling without planning is meaningless. Unless one knows where
to go, one cannot tell whether one is going in the right direction or not. Planning gives
an organization the required focus and direction. Thus planning is a prerequisite of the
control function.
Definition of Planning
In simple words, planning is deciding in advance what action to take, how and when to
take a particular action, and who are the people to be involved in it. It involves
anticipating the future and consciously choosing the future course of action.
According to Peter Drucker, Planning is a continuous process of making present
entrepreneurial decisions (risk taking) systematically and with best possible knowledge
of their futurity, organizing systematically the efforts needed to carry out these
decisions and measuring the result of those decisions against the expectations through
an organized systematic feedback.
In the words of George R. Terry, Planning is the selecting and relating of facts and the
making and using of assumptions regarding the future in the visualization and
formulation of proposed activities believed necessary to achieve desired results. Thus,
while planning, a manager makes use of facts and reasonable premises and also
considers the relevant constraints. The manager then decides what activities are
needed, how they are to be carried out and how they would contribute to the
achievement of the desired results.
Dalton E. McFarland's definition of planning takes into account the dynamic nature of
the environment. He defines planning as follows:
Planning is a concept of executive function that embodies the skills of anticipating,
influencing and controlling the nature and direction of change.
According to Heinz Weihrich and Harold Koontz, Planning involves selecting mission and
objectives and the actions to achieve them; it requires decision-making that is,
choosing from alternative future courses of action. Thus, planning involves determining
organizational objectives and deciding how best to achieve them. It involves looking
ahead and relating today's events with tomorrow's possibilities.
Nature of Planning
Planning is Goal-oriented
Planning is an Intellectual or Rational Process
Planning is a Primary Function
Planning is All-pervasive
Planning is Forward-looking
Planning is a Perpetual Process
Planning is an Integrated Process
Planning Involves Choice
Significance Of Planning
In a complex business situation, planning helps managers meet the challenges posed
by the environment, while at the same time minimizing the risks associated with them.
Planning is a prerequisite not only for achieving success but also for surviving in a
complex and competitive world.
Planning is very important in all types of organizations. It forces organizations to look
ahead and decide their future course of action so as to improve their profitability.
Organizations that plan in advance are more likely to succeed than those which fail to
plan for the future.
Planning is the first step in the management process. It ensures that the employees of
an organization carry out their work in a systematic and methodical manner. It also
helps coordinate and control various tasks and makes sure that resources are used
optimally.
Focuses Attention on Objectives
Offsets Uncertainty and Risk
Provides Sense of Direction
Provides Guidelines for Decision-making
Increases Organizational Effectiveness
Provides Efficiency in Operations
Ensures Better Coordination
Facilitates Control
Encourages Innovation and Creativity
Facilitates Delegation

What is recruitment? What are the major channels through which the recruitment to
industries in India is done in modern days? Answer: Recruitment refers to the process
of finding possible candidates for a job or function. It may be undertaken by an
employment agency or a member of staff at the business or organisation looking for
recruits. Either way it may involve advertising, commonly in the recruitment section of
a newspaper or in a newspaper dedicated to job adverts. Employment agencies will
often advertise jobs in their windows. Posts can also be advertised at a job centre if
they are targeting the unemployed. Recruitment is an activity in which the organization
attempts to identify and attract candidates to meet the requirements of anticipated or
actual job openings Recruitment is the process whereby a firm attracts or finds capable
individuals to apply for employment. Of course, the objective is to find these applicants
at the lowest possible cost. This process begins when new recruits are sought, and ends
when applicants have submitted application forms or resumes. The result is a pool of
job-seekers from which the firms can then the select the most qualified. Smart
companies recruit employees they can retain, and retention depends on getting the
right people in the right job in the first place. So, while getting large pool applicants is
important, getting the right type of applicant is even more important. Methods of
workers recruitments the recruitment to industry in India today is made through certain
well-defines channels. The recruitment in these days is quite systematic thought it is
still not wholly scientific. Today the industrialists is quite alive to the problems of
recruitments and tries to adopt a systematic and scientific industrialist is quite alive to
the problems of recruitment and tries to adopt a systematic and scientific approach to
this problem. Following are the channels of recruitments employed today in India
Employee Referrals Another common recruitment methodology is the employee referral.
To fill job vacancies, present employees refer jobseekers to the HR department as
potential employees. There are some clear advantages to using employee referrals.
First, there is a good chance that a firm's current employees know others in the same
line of work. Further, if the recruits are acquainted with the referring employee, there is
also a good chance that the recruits already know something about the firm. In many
cases, the present employee also takes an active interest in helping the new employee
become successful. Finally, this method of recruitment is quick and inexpensive.
Conversely, the disadvantages of employee referrals include inbreeding, nepotism, and
maintaining the old boys network Also, firms using this methodology may tend to
maintain the racial, religious, or sex features of the current group of employees. Job
Posting One of the most common means of filling open positions within a firm is by
using internal job postings. Job postings have all of the advantages of internal
recruitment, discussed above. Further, job postings help employees feel they have
some control over their future in the organization, insofar as they can decide when to
apply for job openings (and which ones). By permitting employees to choose which jobs
to apply for, the employer avoids being put into the awkward position of promoting an
employee into a job they never wanted. Here are some guidelines for job postings:
procedure should be clearly explained to all employees and procedure must be
consistent to avoid employee suspicion job specifications must be clear and results in
fewer and better applicants must be specific with respect to the length of time the
positions will be open application procedure must be made clear and ensure that
applicants get adequate feedback once a selection is made reasons for nonacceptance
suggested remedial measures information concerning possible future openings
assistance in the posting process External Recruitment The opposite of internal
recruitment is external recruitment. The most obvious advantage of external
recruitment is the availability of a greater pool of applicants. Thus, only those
applicants who have the exact qualifications will apply and be selected. This has
consequences for the organization's training budget. Whereas external recruits will
require orientation upon being hired, they will not require any extra training (assuming
they were selected for their capabilities). External recruits also bring new ideas and
external contacts to the firm hiring them. Also, if political infighting over a promotion
might be a possibility, then external recruitment is one way of eliminating that
occurrence. Finally, with external recruitment, a firm does not have to worry about the
Peter Principle. Internal Recruitment There is nothing inherently better about either
internal or external recruitment. However, there are some advantages to internal
recruitment. First, internal recruitment may lead to increased morale for employees;
the organization is perceived to reward good performance or loyalty. Often, one
promotion leads to another vacant position and this chain effect contributes further to
increased morale. Another advantage to the firm is that Human Resource data is
immediately available for any employee recruited internally. Further, the employee's
work habits are known and previous performance appraisals are on record. Similarly, an
internal recruit will be familiar with the firm. This employee will be familiar with the
firm's products, clients, organizational policies, and corporate culture. Therefore, the
firm might be able to save money insofar as orientation sessions for such an employee
may not be necessary. Whereas the firm saves money by eliminating orientation
sessions for employees recruited internally, other training costs may go up. If company
policies mandate internal recruitment, then employees promoted from within may not
have all the requisite skills required for the job. In such cases, employees will have to
be trained for their new jobs. This can be a costly process. It becomes even more costly
if the chain-effect of successive internal promotions requires a series of training
sessions to be implemented. A succession of internal recruitments may, in fact, result in
the Peter Principle ( In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of
incompetence. --The Peter Principle by Laurence Peter and Raymond Hull, 1969). This
can be avoided by initially promoting internal recruits on a temporary basis. Demotions
for incompetence can have a demoralizing effect on the organization. To avoid such
disappointments, the temporary appointment ( acting manager ) serves to give the
internal employee an opportunity to show their worth. However, it also provides the
employer with an opportunity to replace that employee with a more qualified individual
if necessary. Another unintended negative consequence of internal recruitment might
be organizational politics. This may occur when more than one employee aspires to the
job vacancy. Those not getting the promotion will be disappointed and may be unwilling
to grant the new job-holder the authority required to do the job. Further, the
unsuccessful applicants coworkers may also resent the successful candidate and
demonstrate that resentment through less than satisfactory work output Internet
Recruiting Finding well-qualified applicants quickly at the lowest possible cost is a
primary goal for recruiters. Recent trends indicate that, if you're looking for a job in the
technical field or to fill a technical job, you need consider using the Internet. The same
may well be true for nontechnical jobs in the near future. Advantages A majority of
firms that have actually used the Internet for recruiting consider the Internet more
cost-effective than most recruitment methods. Other advantages include: access to
more people and a broader selection of applicants the ability to target the type of
people needed access to people with a technical background who know computers
convenience quicker response and turnaround ease of use Disadvantages Using the
Internet to recruit poses a dilemma with respect to attracting the passive job seeker --
the person who is not actively searching on the Internet, but may nonetheless be
interested in openings in your organization. To find these passive job seekers,
companies might consider setting up their own Web sites which welcome applicants. An
increased volume of applicants may also become a problem if Internet recruiting is
used. An organization must ensure that it uses an adequate tracking mechanism to deal
with this increased volume. A further disadvantage is that not everyone has access to
or uses the Internet

Henry L. Gantt (1861 1919) was a close associate of Taylor at Midvale and
Bethlehem Steel. Gantt later became an independent consultant and made several
contributions to the field of management. He is probably best remembered for his work
on the task-and-bonus system and the Gantt chart. Under Gantt's incentive plan, if the
worker completed the work fast, i.e.. In less than the standard time, he received a
bonus. He also introduced an incentive plan for foremen, who would be paid a bonus for
every worker who reached the daily standard. If all the workers under a foreman
reached the daily standard, he would receive an extra bonus. Gantt felt that this system
would motivate foremen to train workers to perform their tasks efficiently. The Gantt
Chart is still used today by many organizations. It is a simple chart that compares
actual and planned performances. The Gantt chart was the first simple visual device to
maintain production control. The chart indicates the progress of production in terms of
time rather than quantity. Along the horizontal axis of the chart, time, work scheduled
and work completed are shown. The vertical axis identifies the individuals and machines
assigned to these work schedules. The Gantt chart compares a firm's scheduled output
and expected completion dates to what was actually produced during the year. Gantt's
charting procedures were precursors of today's program evaluation and review
techniques. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has provided
many valuable insights in the development of management thought. In spite of the
numerous contributions it made, there are a few limitations of scientific management.
They are: The principles of scientific management revolve round problems at the
operational level and do not focus on the management of an organization from a
manager's point of view. These principles focus on the solutions of problems from an
engineering point of view. The proponents of scientific management were of the opinion
that people were rational and were motivated primarily by the desire for material gain.
Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of workers and overemphasized
their economic and physical needs. Scientific management theorists also ignored the
human desire for job satisfaction. Since workers are more likely to go on strike over
factors like working conditions and job content (the job itself) rather than salary,
principles of scientific management, which were based on the rational worker model,
became increasingly ineffective. Administrative Theory While the proponents of
scientific management developed principles that could help workers perform their tasks
more efficiently, another classical theory the administrative management theory
focused on principles that could be used by managers to coordinate the internal
activities of organizations. The most prominent of the administrative theorists was
Henri Fayol. French industrialist Henri Fayol (1841 1925), a prominent European
management theorist, developed a general theory of management. Fayol believed that
with scientific forecasting and proper methods of management, satisfactory results
were inevitable. Fayol was unknown to American managers and scholars until his most
important work, General and Industrial Management, was translated into English in
1949. Many of the managerial concepts that we take for granted today were first
articulated by Fayol. According to Fayol, the business operations of an organization
could be divided into six activities Fayol Principles Fayol outlined fourteen principles of
management: Division of work: Work specialization results in improving efficiency of
operations. The concept of division of work can be applied to both managerial and
technical functions. Authority and responsibility: Authority is defined as the right to give
orders and the power to exact obedience. Authority can be formal or personal. Formal
authority is derived from one's official position and personal authority is derived from
factors like intelligence and experience. Authority and responsibility go hand-in-hand.
When a manager exercises authority, he should be held responsible for getting the
work done in the desired manner. Discipline: Discipline is vital for running an
organization smoothly. It involves obedience to authority, adherence to rules, respect
for superiors and dedication to one's job. Unity of command: Each employee should
receive orders or instructions from one superior only. Unity of direction: Activities
should be organized in such a way that they all come under one plan and are
supervised by only one person. Subordination of the individual interest to the general
interest: Individual interests should not take precedence over the goals of the
organization. Remuneration: The compensation paid to employees should be fair and
based on factors like business conditions, cost of living, productivity of employees and
the ability of the firm to pay. Centralization: Depending on the situation, an
organization should adopt a centralized or decentralized approach to make optimum
use of its personnel. Scalar chain: This refers to the chain of authority that extends
from the top to the bottom of an organization. The scalar chain defines the
communication path in an organization. Order: This refers to both material and social
order in organizations. Material order indicates that everything is kept in the right place
to facilitate the smooth coordination of work activities. Similarly, social order implies
that the right person is placed in the right job (this is achieved by having a proper
selection procedure in the organization). Equity: All employees should be treated fairly.
A manager should treat all employees in the same manner without prejudice. Stability
of tenure of personnel: A high labor turnover should be prevented and managers should
motivate their employees to do a better job. Initiative: Employees should be
encouraged to give suggestions and develop new and better work practices. Espirit de
corps: This means a sense of union. Management must inculcate a team spirit in its
employees.

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