'Rather t han embark on ambi ti ous Land Reforms, i t mi ght be wiser for African

governments t o allow customary land t enure t o evol ve and adapt t o changi ng

economic and social condi ti ons' . Wi th t his i n mi nd, how have Land Reforms i n
Zambi a affected ustomary Land Rights and handled t he duali t y of t enure
avail able i n t he count r y!
"n t he decades foll owi ng release from colonial regi mes, a wave of Land
Reforms has t aken place across t he African conti nent i n movements t o re#
eval uate t he i ne$ui table dist ri buti on of land t hat was endemic i n coloni al
states, and t o encourage development and economic growt h wi t hi n t hese
count ri es. %owever, issues relati ng di rectl y t o land conti nue t o i mpi nge
devel opment, and compl ai nts of eli te capt ure, displacement, forced evicti ons,
reset tl ements and alienati on of resources are domi nant. &his essay wi ll
e'ami ne land reforms i n Zambi a, and gi ven t he conti nui ng issues, wi ll $uesti on
t he e'tent t o which t hey have achieved t hei r ai ms whi lst also consideri ng t he
move away from ' customar y' forms of t enure, aski ng i f perhaps t hese systems
which pri or t o colonisati on endured wi t hout i nterrupti on coul d benefi t fut ure
Land policies.
Accordi ngl y, t he essay wi ll summarise t he histor y of Land ri ghts i n Zambi a,
movi ng t owards t he passi ng of t he Lands Act ()**+,
)
. -urther, i t wi l l e'ami ne
how t he refor ms have benefi ted (or ot herwise, t he state and ci ti.ens, t aki ng
i nto consi derati on social, economic and poli tical repercussions of t he refor ms.
Legal confl icts wi ll be i denti fi ed# t he i nterpl ay of formal and i nfor mal t enure, as
wel l as t he i mpact of reforms on ot her legal obli gati ons/ for e'ampl e t he
fundamental ri ghts t o li fe, shel ter, propert y and access t o nat ural resources
0

(A%1R, )*2)/ 3RZ )**4,. %avi ng studi ed t he actual course of movement
t aken by t he Zambi an government, and wi deni ng e'ampl es t o cases i n ot her
African count ri es, t he $uesti on wi l l be raised as t o why credence is near
uni versall y gi ven t o pri vate t enure, and i f ot her forms of t enure mi ght prove
more beneficial, gi ven t he di fficul ti es sti ll encountered af ter Land reform.
Zambi an law is rooted i n 5ri tish ommon Law (6nglish Law Act, 7ol. 0, h. ))
of t he Laws of Zambi a8 3RZ )**4, as a resul t of t he di vest ment of what was
9ort hern Rhodesia t o t he 5ri tish olonial Admi nist rati on i n )*0:. &hereaf ter i n
)*02 t he 9orthern Rhodesia (rown Lands and 9ati ve Reserves, ;rder i n
ouncil (9R;, )*028 <ec. 0, deli neated =rown Lands> t o facili tate t he
policies of segregati on and "ndirect Rule t hat characterised 5ri tish colonies,
erst whi le securi ng land deemed ' most appropri ate' (5rown 0??+, for 6uropean
use/ namel y fer ti l e land known t o contai n mi nerals, located along t rade routes
and rail ways. onse$uentl y, a porti on of remai ni ng of land was desi gnated
9ati ve Reserves (9R;, )*028 l. 0, and Zambi ans were evacuated t o t hese
.ones. -ollowi ng an i nfl u' of whi te set tl ers post#)*:+, (Roth, @han A Zul u
)**+, p+, t here came an i ncreased demand for far m labour i n t he rown
Lands, whi lst t he Reserves were chronicall y overpopul ated. "n response, t he
9ort hern Rhodesia (9ati ve &rust Land, ;rder i n ouncil )*:B (9R;, )*:B,
established ' t rusts' fri ngi ng t he crown lands , mai ntai ni ng poli tical di vision yet
mi ni misi ng spati al di vision, so easing t he issue of source#of#labour for t he
coloni alists. -reehol d and leasehol d were enC oyed solel y i n t he rown Lands
(9R;, )*028 <ec. 0, whi lst ustomary &enure stabili t y was under mi ned wi t h
1 3RZ ()**+, hapter )2:
2 Articles :, ): A )0 of t he African harter of %uman and 1eoples' Rights, and <ections ))a,
d and ))0c, b and d of t he onsti t uti on of Zambi a Act )**4.
t he enclosure of crowded &rusts and Reserves/ hasteni ng food i nsecuri t y and
restricti ng access t o resources such as buil di ng materi als and water.
Wi th "ndependence i n )*4:, t he land vested i n t he rown was i mmedi atel y
conver ted t o <tate Land. &he nati onalist movement passed t he Land
(Ac$uisi ti on, Act )*B? (3RZ )*B?, permi t ti ng alienati on of unoccupi ed land
and underused land t o t he state. "n )*B+ t he Land (onversion of &i tl es, Act
(3RZ )*B+, declared all land i n Zambi a statutory leasehol d. &he val ue of land
i tsel f was disregarded, wi t h onl y i mprovements accounti ng for saleabl e val ue
(3RZ Land Act)*B+8 <ec. )D.D,. &he i nstruments ai med t o correct some of t he
i nC ustices of land dist ri buti on e'perienced as a resul t of coloni alism, promoti ng
t he status of land as an i nvi olable commodi t y of t he people and li mi ti ng
forei gn i nvest ment, i nstead consi gned t o self#reliance. &hroughout t his period,
ustomary &enure conti nued t o be practised uni nterrupted (hi nene, Eai mbo,
5anda circa. )**+,. &he economic repercussions of @aunda's socialist policies
were severe. &he pl ummet of copper val ue, esti mated t o account for *?F of
Zambi a's e'port revenue (<aasa )**4 pD,, on i nternati onal markets saw
domestic spendi ng i ncrease i n accordance wi t h a conti nued rel uctance (and
i nabi li t y due t o t he Land Acts )*B? and )*B+, t o i nvi te ot her forms of
i nvest ment i nto t he count ry. Eassi ve debt had been accrued by t he end of t he
@aunda regi me i n )**). &he need for economic reform saw debtors, namel y
t he "nternati onal Eonetar y -und and Worl d 5ank, appl y pressure t o t he new
government (Eovement for Eul ti#part y Gemocracy, t o i mpl ement a market#led
reform of Land 1olicy. &his amounted t o =regul ar issuance of t i tl e land t o
producti ve land owners> (Roth, @han, Zul u )**+,, and a defi ni te preference for
&i tled Land over ustomar y &enure, supposedl y creati ng a stable envi ronment
for forei gn i nvest ment. &he movements were t reated suspiciousl y by chiefs,
who at t he Land 1olicy and Legal Reform onventi on chai red i n Lusaka, )**D
(behest of t he "E-, e'pressed discouragement of t he moves t o disrupt poli tical
t radi ti ons. Astutel y, one chief noted t hat = chi efs are not chiefs wi t hout land>
(5rown 0??+, his statement summarisi ng t he t hreat t o customary struct ure
t hat t he Reforms posed. &he proposed leasehol d t a'es and t he irreversi ble
nat ure of t enure conversions were also met wi t h discontent. &he Act was
nei ther well recei ved i n public/ t ours embarked on by t he newl y appoi nted
Einister of Lands were met wi t h vi olence (5rown 0??+, yet despi te
count r ywi de reCecti on, t he 5ill was passed i n )**+.
"mportant feat ures of &he )**+ Land Act i ncl ude8
&he vesti ng of all land i n t he 1resident ("".D.),.
&he permi t ti ng of alienati on of land t o non#Zambi ans ("".D.D,, i ncl udi ng
i ndi vi duals who are permanent resi dents ("".D.Da, or i nvestors
D
("".D.Db,.
&he re#i nstatement of i nt ri nsic land val ue, as opposed t o val ue i n
consi derati on of i mprovements ("".:.),.
&he aut hori t y of &he Act over ustomary &enure i n t he case of conflict ("".:a,.
&he abili t y t o conver t ustomar y Land i nto renewabl e leasehol d of ** years
("".2.), and dul y, a clause t aki ng i nto consi derati on t he aut hori t y of chiefs on
such mat t ers ("".2.0,.
As can be seen, &he Act pushes for li beralisati on of land markets vi a
conversion of ustomar y &enure and recogni ti on of land as a commodi t y as
opposed t o a shared resource. -or a legal document of such conse$uence &he
Act is remarkabl y short, consisti ng of a mere eleven pages, and as such fails t o
3 Definition of investor given in Investment Act 1993 GRZ
i ncorporate detail ed descri pti ons of t he correct procedures for conversions and
clear regulati ons vi tal t o t he success of i mpl ementati on. <ection 7.D?
empowers t he Ei nister of Lands t o = make regul ati ons for t he bet ter carryi ng
out of t he provisions of t he act >, however t o date none have been passed.
3i ven t he emphasis on conversion of t i tl e, t here is also a disti nct lack of
legislati on provi di ng for t he protecti on of t he populati on who are depend on
far ml and si tuated wi t hi n customar y domai ns for t hei r survi val. Eost farmers
have li t tl e i n t he way of i ncome (-A; 0??* pl aces t he average at H0)*p.a, and
are unable t o afford ground rent. &his pl aces t hem i n a vul nerable posi ti on
whereby t hei r land is potenti all y up#for#grabs t o i nvestors. &hirdl y, t he
irreversi ble nat ure of conversions shoul d be noted/ leasehol d may not be
revoked and ustomar y &enure is e'ti nguished upon conversion.
;ne of t he benefi ts ci ted i n passi ng of &he Act is t he abili t y t o conver t from
ustomary &enure, and so abandon practises t hat = were nor are characterised
by egali tari anism or collecti ve land management > (Lund 0???,. &he possibili t y
of leasehol d per mi ts members of societ y t o assert ownershi p who are currentl y
subC ect t o mi nor posi ti ons i n t he management and possession land. 3ender
i ne$uali t y wi t hi n customary systems is evi dent across t he conti nent as wel l as
wi t hi n Zambi a
:
(Eachi ra, 5weupe, hi yombwe 0?)), pD,, and i n t he maC ori t y
of systems women are unabl e t o ac$ui re or manage land. Eale emi grati on as a
resul t of rural#urban movement or empl oyment mi grati on i ncreases t he rate of
femal e#run househol ds, where women may fi nd t hemsel ves i n a posi ti on of
adversi t y i n t he management of land where conflict arises. Likewise, t he
i mpact of %"7IA"G< and resul ti ng wi dowhood has e'acerbated t he si tuati on of
women regardi ng access t o land, i nhi bi ti ng t hei r general wel l#bei ng and
devel opment. &he prospect of t enure conversion shoul d offer women an arena
i n which t hey are able t o enC oy full access t o land free from gender#based
const ricti ons
+
however, Eachi ra, 5weupe A hi yombwe note t hat women must
appl y for t enancy t hrough t he hief and land allocati on i nsti t uti ons
= domi nated by men>, and prone t o pat ri archal bi as. -urther, land is advertised
i n newspapers and bull eti ns whi lst t he li teracy rate amongst women is still
consi derabl y lower t han t hat of men (J9"6- 0??D, furt her i nhi bi ti ng
opport uni t y t o gai n t enure. As a measure agai nst t hese t rends, t he
3overnment produced a Graf t Land 1olicy (3RZ 0??0, proposi ng special
measures t o ensure t hat D?F of land allocati ons are t o go t o women. %owever
t he policy has yet t o be i mpl emented, and t here is no menti on of how
i mpl ementati on wi ll be enforced or moni tored.
&enure securi t y was ci ted as t he maC or cause for refor m upon t he passing of
&he Act. "mproved securi t y is favourable i n achi evi ng economic growt h/
leasehol ders can convert what was an unali enable commodi t y i nto collateral,
generate capi tal and enter i nto t rade. "n reali t y, t here e'ists a vast backi ng of
leasehol d applicati ons esti mated t o t ot al D? ??? (Eulol wa )**2 ci ted Loenen
)***, due t o chronic under#staffi ng i n t he Ei nistry of Lands
4
, which re$ui res a
land surveyor t o i nspect allot ments before granti ng t he ** year lease (<ection
4 ase l aw8 In Re estate Mekelani Mphanza, Mpenzi local court: B Grade case no.50, 1975. )
st

son of deceased appoi nted admi nistrator over wi dow wi t h ni ne chi l dren and In Re estate
Jee Msoni, !za"ane ol d l ocal court, B Grade case no. #1, 1975, younger son chosen over
ol der daughter to i nheri t. ited i n J9#%A5"&A& 0??+.
5 -reedom from discri mi nati on on t he basis of se' is enshri ned i n t he onsti tuti on of Zambi a
)**48 """.)), 3RZ
6 "n 0??+ t he EoL had empl yed t hree publ ic surveyors, and had access to one f uncti oni ng
31< system. (6vers, <pei nburg and Wels, 0??+,
"7, 3RZ )**+,. As a way t o ease congesti on, t he Einistry of Land issues
four teen#year non#renewable leases t o applicants i n t he wai ti ng list. &he
conse$uence has been a percepti on of i nsecuri t y, even wi t h t he t emporar y
leases. &he slow, overburdened system is i nevi tabl y also prone t o corrupti on
(Lusaka 7oice )*
th
Earch 0?)D, 5rown 0??+,.
&he ri ght of t he 1resident t o allocate land t o "nvestors (<ecti on "" D.b, 3RZ
)**+, has recurrentl y resul ted i n t he evicti on of ci ti.ens li vi ng i n ustomary
lands (Epundo,. "n Eansa dist rict vi ll agers reported evicti on at gunpoi nt,
wi t hout notice or compensati on ("R"9 0?)?,, obli gatory under <ecti on "" :.) of
t he Act wi t h public devel opments as t he onl y e'empti on t o t he clause.
Luapual a provi nce, i n which Eansa is si tuated, ranks as t he poorest of
Zambi a's provi nces (Labour -orce <urvey 0??2, 3RZ,. Gespi te mi ni ng
acti vi ti es i n t he area for decades, t he area has fail ed t o devel op. &he stri ppi ng
of t enure and fail ure of t he government t o provi de ade$uate (or any,
compensati on Ceopardises t he ri ght t o li fe (Article :, A%1R )*2), of
subsistence farmers whose land is i ntegral t o t hei r means of survi val, whi lst
forci bl y degradi ng t hei r legal stat us t o s$uat t ers. &he recogni ti on of customary
land as ancestral land
B
as wel l as t he pillar of poli tical power i n customar y
systems also demarcates t he acti ons of t he Zambi an government as i n breach
of Articles )B and 0? of t he 5anC ul harter, t o which t hey are part y and obli ged
t o honour. &he decli nati on of officials t o acknowl edge t he probl em is
disturbi ng. 9kata, t he Einister for Eines eschews government responsi bili t y i n
t he evicti ons and encourages Zambi ans t o address = t he bi gger pict ure> ("R"9
0?)?,. &ensions such as t hese bet ween local and cent ral authori ti es have
discouraged i nvestors i n t he past
2
. ohesion is vi tal not onl y t o prevent
fur t her abuse and removal of resi dents on customar y lands, but also t o retai n
Zambi a's i ntegri t y wi t h t he i nvestors &he Act was wri t t en t o entice.
&his essay has i nsofar focused on rural epi demics, as t his is where customary
land is si tuated as a resul t of e'cl usion from t he urbanisati on of land along
t rade routes t hat were desi gnated rown Land i n t he coloni al era. %owever,
rural and urban spheres do not e'ist as mut ual l y e'cl usi ve enti ti es. A benefi t
of t he Land Act is t he abili t y of urban mi grants, who have steadil y flowed from
t he count r ysi de for well over a cent ur y, t o i ndi vi dualise t hei r clai m t o land
where prolonged absence from clan land and societ y has di mi nished t hei r
clai m t o ri ghts wi t hi n t he rural communi t y (Adams 0??D,. "ndeed, t he response
of t he government t o urban s$uat ti ng has been considerabl y more progressi ve
t han i t 's approach t o s$uat ti ng i n rural Zambi a, and t hat of ot her governments
i n sub#<aharan Africa
*
. As earl y as )*B? wi t h t he %ousi ng (<tat utor y and
"mprovement Areas, Act (3RZ, )*B?, t he Zambi an government issued
= certi ficates of occupancy> t o urban s$uat ters, wi t h a vi ew t o grant of t enure,
which provi ded effecti ve collateral t o urban set tl ers. &he dispari t y bet ween t he
governments handl i ng of urban dwell ers and rural dwellers has drawn cri ticism
(hi nene, Eai mbo and 5anda, 0??+,, and is refl ected i n t he t ensions bet ween
i mpoverished rural dwell ers and wel l#connected urban Kli tes, who make many
of t he ' l and#grabs' wi t hi n t he count r y ( i $i d,.
7 <ee8 0B4 I 0??D L %entre or Mi nori t & Ri'hts (e)el op"ent and Mi nori t & Ri'hts Group
Internati onal on $ehal o *ndorois +el are %ouncil ) ,en&a
8 &he government i n )**D granted i nvestors to bui l d a tomato sauce factory i n Western
provi nce, yet fai led t o consul t t he hief. -ollowi ng heated dispute of t he devel opment, t he
i nvestors pul l ed out as a conse$uence of t he percei ved i nstabi l i t y of t he leasehol d. (5rown
0??+ ref. &i mes of Zambi a )**D,.
9 <ee8 1aper discussi ng cal l for puni ti ve powers over urban far mers i n i nformal set tl ements i n
9airobi (Lamba, 0??+,
;verall, t he Land Act )**+ can be deemed t o have fail ed i n many of i ts
obC ecti ves. Eany Zambi ans have not seen t he benefi t of t he rise i n 3G1 (Worl d
5ank, 0?)0, parti all y at t ri buted t o &he Act. -orei gn i nvestors t ypicall y develop
land t o t hei r own i nterests, i mpor ti ng workforces (3lobal Labour <trategi es,
0??B, and degradi ng t he envi ronment (Lane )**2, t o t he det ri ment of t he
li vel i hoods for t hose survi vi ng by sustenance means. 6'peri ments wi t h
for malised communal t enure i n @enya
)?
offer and e'ampl e of how securi t y can
be legall y afforded t o ci ti.ens unable t o purchase leasehol d on an i ndi vi dual
basis. &he dis#regul ati on of an over#ambi ti ous system i n Zambi a per mi ts
e'ploi tati on of ustomary lands and i nfri nges on t he ri ghts and securi t y of
Zambi a's rural poor, who have by and large fail ed t o benefi t from t he prospect
of t i tl e conversion, i nstead e'perienci ng displ acement and i nsecuri ty.
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"nstruments8
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Ltd, London
Lund, hristian, A# rican Land Tenure7 =uestioni ng ;asic Assumptions,
Gecember 0???, "ssue paper no. )??, "nternati onal "nsti t ute for 6nvi ronment
and Gevelopment, Gryl ands 1rogramme, Jni versi t y of London 1ress
Lusaka 7oice, = 5a')e "ounci$ di r ector arr est ed #or a$$ eged a'use o#
o##ice> , )*
th
Earch 0?)D.
Availabl e at8 ht t p8IIl usakavoice.comI0?)DI?DI)*I.anis#copy#kabwe#council#
di rector#arrestedI MAccessed 00.?D.)DN
Eachi ra, <tephen @., 5weupe 9Ci ra E, and hi yombwe, 9chi munya 6., 4omen
access, o)nershi p and cont ro$ over $ and i n &am'i a, paper presented at
Women Land Rights onference, Red ourt %otel, 9airobi, D?t h Eay t o 0nd
Qune 0?))
Availabl e at8 ht t p8IIl andforafricanwomen.orgIsi tesIdefaul tIfi lesIdocsI<tephen
F0?Eachi ra,F0?9Ci raF0?5weupe,F0?andF0?hi yombwe.F0?Women's
F0?AccesF0?i nF0?Zambi a.pdf MAccessed 00.?D.)DN
Roth, E. @han, A E and Zul u, E . Lega$ <rame)or6 and Admi nist r ation o#
Land ,o$icy i n &am'i a, 0??+, 1ublished onli ne.
Availabl e at8 ht t p8IIfsg.afre. msu.eduI.ambi aIresourcesIhapter).pdf Accessed
M 00.?D.)DN
<aasa, ;li ver <., ,o$icy /e#or ms and Struct ur a$ Ad> ust ment i n &am'i a8
&he ase of Agricul ture and &rade, ;ctober )**4, &echnical 1aper 9o. D+,
"nsti t ute for African <tudi es, Jni versi t y of Zambi a.
Availabl e on li ne at8
ht t p8II www.el dis.orgIvfi leIuploadI)IdocumentI?B?2Idoc:+DD.pdf Accessed
M 00.?D.)DN
J9"6-, "ount ry St atistics7 &am'i a, 0??D
Availabl e at8 ht t p8II www.unicef.orgIi nfobycount r yI.ambi aOstatistics.ht ml
MAccessed 00.?D.)DN
7an Loenen, 5asti aan, Land Tenur e i n &am'i a, Eay )***, Jni versi t y of
Eai ne, Gepart ment of <pati al "nformati on 6ngi neeri ng.
1ublished onli ne at8
ht t p8II www.spati al. mai ne.eduI TonsrudILandtenureIount r yReportIZambi a.pdf
MAccessed 00.?D.)DN
7ernon R.9. hinene, -abian Eai mbo, Giana Q. 5anda, A comparison o#
customary and $ easeho$ d t enur e7 agricu$ t ur e and deve$opment in
&am'i a, circa. )**+, Jni versi t y of Zambi a, Lusaka, Zambi a.
1ublished onli ne at8 ht t p8II www.fao.orgIdocrepI ')DB0&I')DB0t ?B.ht m Accessed
M 00.?D.)DN
Wider Readi ng
Gowns, R 6. and Reyna, <. 1., Land and "ont emporary Soci et y in A# rica,
)*22, Jni versi t y of 9ew %ampshire, 9ew 6ngland
Evunga, Ephan.a 1., Land La) and ,o$icy i n &am'i a, )*20, Zambi an 1aper
9o. )B, &he "nsti t ute for African <tudi es, Jni versi t y of Zambi a, Eambo 1ress,
Lusaka