Second Sino-Japanese War

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Second Sino-Japanese War
Part of the Pacific War of World War II (from 1941)
Clockwise from top left: Chinese machine gun nest at the
Battle of Shanghai, P-40 fighter planes of the Flying Tigers
guarded by a Chinese soldier, Japanese surrender in
Nanjing on September 9, 1945, Japanese troops staged a
poison gas attack near Changsha, Japanese forces at the
Battle of Wuhan
Date Minor fighting since September 18,
1931
Full scale war: July 7, 1937
September 9, 1945
(8 years, 1 month, 3 weeks and 5 days)
Location Mainland China, Burma
Result
Chinese victory as part of the
Allied victory in the Pacific War
Surrender of all Japanese forces
in mainland China (excluding
Manchuria), Formosa and
French Indochina north of 16
north to the Republic of China
China becomes a permanent
member of the United Nations
Security Council
Resumption of Chinese Civil
Second Sino-Japanese War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"War of Resistance" redirects here. For the 2011 film, see War of Resistance (film).
The Second Sino-Japanese War (July 7, 1937
September 9, 1945), called so after the First Sino-
Japanese War of 189495, was a military conflict fought
primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire
of Japan from 1937 to 1941. China fought Japan with
some economic help from Germany (see Sino-German
cooperation), the Soviet Union (see Soviet Volunteer
Group) and the United States (see American Volunteer
Group). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in
1941, the war merged into the greater conflict of World
War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the
Pacific War. The Second Sino-Japanese War was the
largest Asian war in the 20th century.
[8]
It also made up
more than 50% of the casualties in the Pacific War if the
19371941 period is taken into account.
[citation needed]
The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese
imperialist policy aiming to dominate China politically and
militarily and to secure its vast raw material reserves and
other economic resources, particularly food and labour.
Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized
engagements, so-called "incidents". In 1931, the Japanese
invasion of Manchuria by Japan's Kwantung Army
followed the Mukden Incident. The last of these incidents
was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, marking
the beginning of total war between the two countries.
Initially the Japanese scored major victories in Shanghai
after heavy fighting, and by the end of 1937 captured the
Chinese capital of Nanking. After failing to stop the
Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was
relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior. By 1939
the war had reached stalemate after Chinese victories in
Changsha and Guangxi. The Japanese were also unable
to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, which
performed harassment and sabotage operations against
the Japanese using guerrilla warfare tactics. On December
7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the
following day (December 8, 1941) the United States
declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid
China via airlift matriel over the Himalayas after the
Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road. In
1944 Japan launched a massive invasion and conquered
War
Territorial
changes
China recovers all territories lost to
Japan since the Treaty of Shimonoseki.
Belligerents
Republic of China
[a]
with Foreign support
United States
(194245)
Soviet Union
(193741)
PGR Korea
Communist Party of
China
Empire of Japan
with Collaborator support
Nanjing
Government (1940
45)
Manchukuo
(193245)
Mengjiang
(193645)
Provisional
Government (1937
40)
Reformed
Government (1937
40)
East Hebei
(193738)
Commanders and leaders
Chiang Kai-shek
Chen Cheng
Cheng Qian
Yan Xishan
Li Zongren
Xue Yue
Bai Chongxi
Wei Lihuang
Du Yuming
Fu Zuoyi
Sun Liren
Mao Zedong
Zhu De
Peng Dehuai
Joseph Stilwell
Claire Chennault
Albert Wedemeyer
Hirohito
Korechika Anami
Yasuhiko Asaka
Shunroku Hata
Seishir Itagaki
Kotohito Kan'in
Iwane Matsui
Toshiz Nishio
Yasuji Okamura
Hajime Sugiyama
Hideki Tj
Yoshijir Umezu
Seizo Ishikawa
Puyi
Wang Jingwei
Henan and Changsha, but eventually surrendered on
September 2, 1945 after atomic bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Japanese-held
Manchuria.
Contents
1 Nomenclature
1.1 Name
1.2 Other names
2 Background
2.1 First Sino-Japanese War
2.2 The Republic of China
2.3 Twenty-One Demands
2.4 Jinan Incident
2.5 Nominal Unification of China
2.6 Communist Party of China
3 Course of the war
3.1 Invasion of Manchuria, interventions in
China
3.2 Full scale invasion of China
3.3 Chinese resistance strategy
3.4 Relationship between the Nationalists
and Communists
3.5 Foreign support for China
3.5.1 German support
3.5.2 Soviet support
3.5.3 Allied support
3.5.4 Japanese Political Dissidents
Support
3.6 Entrance of Western Allies
4 Intrusion into French Indochina
5 Contemporaneous wars being fought by China
6 Use of chemical and bacteriological weapons
7 Ethnic minorities
8 Conclusion and aftermath
8.1 End of Pacific War and surrender of
Strength
5,600,000 Chinese
3,600 Soviets (193740)
900 US aircraft (1942
45)[1]
4,100,000 Japanese [2]
900,000 Chinese
collaborators[3]
Casualties and losses
Nationalist: 1,320,000
KIA, 1,797,000 WIA,
120,000 MIA, and
17,000,00022,000,000
civilians dead [4]
Communist: 500,000 KIA
and WIA.
Japanese estimates
including 480,000 dead in
total and 1.9 million
military casualties [5] [b]
Contemporary PRC
studies: 1,055,000 dead
1,172,200 injured
Total: 2,227,200
[6]
Nationalist Chinese (ROC)
estimates1.77 million
deaths, 1.9 million
wounded
[7]
a. ^ Chiang Kai-shek was the leader of Nationalist
Government that led a Chinese united front which
included Nationalists, Communists, and regional
warlords.
b. ^ This number does not include the casualty of large
number of the Chinese collaborator government troops
fighting on Japanese side.
Japanese troops in China
8.2 Post-war struggle and resumption of
civil war
8.3 Peace treaty and Taiwan
8.4 Aftermath
8.4.1 Chinese/Japanese relations
8.4.2 Aftermath in Taiwan
9 Casualties assessment
9.1 Chinese casualties
9.2 Japanese casualties
10 Number of troops involved
10.1 Chinese forces
10.1.1 National Revolutionary
Army
10.2 Japanese forces
10.2.1 Imperial Japanese Army
10.2.2 Collaborationist Chinese
Army
11 Military equipment
11.1 National Revolutionary Army
11.2 Imperial Japanese Army
12 Major figures
12.1 Chinese Nationalists
12.2 Chinese Communists
12.3 Foreigners supporting China
12.4 Imperial Japanese Army
12.5 Chinese collaborators supporting
Japan
13 Military engagements of the Second Sino-
Japanese War
13.1 Battles
13.2 Aerial engagements
13.3 Japanese invasions and operations
14 Commemoration
15 See also
16 Notes
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Allied
Commander-in-Chief in the China
theatre from 1942 to 1945.
The beginning of the war.
17 References and bibliography
18 External links
18.1 Internet video
Nomenclature
Name
In the Chinese language, the war
is most commonly known as the
War of Resistance Against
Japan (simplified Chinese:
; traditional Chinese:
), and also known as the
Eight Years' War of Resistance
(simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ),
simply War of Resistance (simplified Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ), or Second Sino-Japanese War (simplified Chinese:
; traditional Chinese: ).
In Japan, nowadays, the name "JapanChina War" (Japanese:
Hepburn: Nitch Sens) is most commonly used because of its
perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as in
shinjitai. When the invasion of China proper began in earnest in July
1937 near Beijing, the government of Japan used "The North China
Incident" (Japanese: / Hepburn: Hokushi
Jihen/Kahoku Jihen), and with the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai
the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident" (Japanese:
Hepburn: Shina Jihen).
The word "incident" (Japanese: Hepburn: jihen) was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal
declaration of war. Especially Japan wanted to avoid intervention by other countries, particularly the United
Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum; the United States was also its biggest
supplier of steel. If the fighting had been formally expressed that it had already escalated to "general war", US
President Franklin D. Roosevelt would have been legally obliged to impose an embargo on Japan in observance of
the US Neutrality Acts.
Other names
In Japanese propaganda, the invasion of China became a "holy war" (Japanese: Hepburn: seisen), the first
step of the Hakk ichiu (
?
, eight corners of the world under one roof). In 1940, Japanese Prime
Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai. When both sides formally declared war in December
1941, the name was replaced by "Greater East Asia War" (Japanese: Hepburn: Daita Sens).

Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident" in formal documents,
[citation needed]
the
word Shina is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other
expressions like "The JapanChina Incident" (Japanese: Hepburn: Nikka Jiken, Nisshi
Jiken), which were used by media as early as the 1930s.
The name "Second Sino-Japanese War" is not usually used in Japan, as the First Sino-Japanese War (Japanese:
Hepburn: NisshinSens) between Japan and the Qing Dynasty in 1894 is not regarded as having obvious
direct linkage to the second,
[citation needed]
between Japan and the Republic of China.
Background
First Sino-Japanese War
The origin of the Second Sino-Japanese War can be traced to the First Sino-Japanese War of 189495, in which
China, then under the Qing Dynasty, was defeated by Japan and was forced to cede Formosa, and to recognize the
nominal independence (in fact, Japanese control) of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Qing Dynasty was on
the brink of collapse from internal revolts and foreign imperialism, while Japan had emerged as a great power
through its effective measures of modernization.
[9]
The Republic of China
The Republic of China was founded in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the Qing Dynasty.
However, central authority disintegrated and the Republic's authority succumbed to that of regional warlords.
Unifying the nation and repelling imperialism seemed a very remote possibility.
[10]
Some warlords even aligned
themselves with various foreign powers in an effort to wipe each other out. For example, the warlord Zhang Zuolin
of Manchuria openly cooperated with the Japanese for military and economic assistance.
[11]
Twenty-One Demands
In 1915, Japan issued the Twenty-One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from
China.
[12]
Following World War I, Japan acquired the German Empire's sphere of influence in Shandong
[13]
(Shantung), leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China, but China under the
Beiyang government remained fragmented and unable to resist foreign incursions.
[14]
To unite China and eradicate
regional warlords, the Kuomintang (KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party) in Guangzhou launched the Northern
Expedition of 192628 with the help of the Soviet Union.
[15]
Jinan Incident
The Kuomintang's National Revolutionary Army (NRA) swept through China until it was checked in Shandong,
where Beiyang warlord Zhang Zongchang, backed by the Japanese, attempted to stop the NRA's advance. This
battle culminated in the Jinan Incident of 1928 in which the National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese
Army were engaged in a short conflict that resulted in Kuomintang's withdrawal from Jinan.
[16]
Nominal Unification of China
Japanese troops entering Shenyang
during Mukden Incident
In the same year, Zhang Zuolin was assassinated when he became less willing to cooperate with Japan.
[17]
Afterwards Zhang's son Zhang Xueliang quickly took over control of Manchuria, and despite strong Japanese
lobbying efforts to continue the resistance against the KMT, he soon declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang
government under Chiang Kai-shek, which resulted in the nominal unification of China at the end of 1928.
[18]
Communist Party of China
In 1930, large-scale civil war broke out between warlords who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during
the Northern Expedition and the central government under Chiang. In addition, the Chinese Communists (CCP, or
Communist Party of China) revolted against the central government following a purge of its members by the KMT
in 1927. The Chinese government diverted much attention into fighting these civil wars, following a policy of "first
internal pacification, then external resistance" (Chinese: ).
Course of the war
Invasion of Manchuria, interventions in China
The chaotic situation in China provided excellent opportunities for
Japanese expansionism. Japan saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of
raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from
the influence of many Western countries in Depression era tariffs), and as
a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Japan
invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident (simplified
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Jiyb
Shbin) in September 1931. After five months of fighting, the puppet
state of Manchukuo was established in 1932, with the last emperor of
China, Puyi, installed as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge
Japan directly, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. The
League's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report,
condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, and causing Japan to
withdraw from the League of Nations. Appeasement being the
predominant policy of the day, no country was willing to take action against Japan beyond tepid censure.
Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought a battle known as
the January 28 Incident. This resulted in the demilitarisation of Shanghai, which forbade the Chinese from deploying
troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to defeat the anti-Japanese volunteer armies
that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan.
In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region, the Tanggu Truce taking place in its aftermath, giving Japan
control of Jehol province as well as a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beiping-Tianjin region. Japan
aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanjing.
Japan increasingly exploited internal conflicts in China to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. This was
precipitated by the fact that even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist
government was limited to just the area of the Yangtze River Delta. Other sections of China were essentially in the
hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek
announced the Kuomintang policy of
resistance against Japan at Lushan on
July 10, 1937, three days after the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident.
governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of North China (Chinese: ;
pinyin: habitshha), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern
provinces affected by this policy were Chahar, Suiyuan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong.
This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei. In 1935, under
Japanese pressure, China signed the HeUmezu Agreement, which forbade the KMT from conducting party
operations in Hebei. In the same year, the ChinDoihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar.
Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place, the
Japanese-backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the HebeiChahar Political Council were established.
There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol Military Government (simplified Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ; pinyin: Mngg jn zhngf) was formed on May 12, 1936, Japan providing all necessary
military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in
Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.
Full scale invasion of China
On the night of July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged
fire in the vicinity of the Lugou (or Marco Polo) bridge, a crucial access
route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon
escalated into a full-scale battle, in which Beijing and its port city of
Tianjin fell to Japanese forces. The initial skirmishes at the bridge, known
as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, is recognized by most historians as
the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo were initially
reluctant to escalate the conflict into full scale war, being content with the
gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident. The KMT, however, determined that the "breaking point" of
Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai-shek quickly
mobilized the central government's army and air force, placed them under
his direct command, and attacked Japanese Marines in Shanghai on
August 13, 1937, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. The Imperial
Japanese Army (IJA) had to commit over 200,000 troops, along with
numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than
three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial
expectations.
[20]
Building on the hard won victory in Shanghai, the IJA captured the KMT
capital city of Nanjing (Nanking) and Northern Shanxi by the end of
1937. These campaigns involved approximately 350,000 Japanese
soldiers, and considerably more Chinese. Historians estimate up to 300,000 Chinese (mostly civilians) were mass
murdered and tortured and tens of thousands of women raped during the Nanking Massacre (also known as the
"Rape of Nanking"), after the fall of Nanking from December 13, 1937 to late January 1938; some Japanese deny
that the massacre occurred.
At the start of 1938, the leadership in Tokyo still hoped to limit the scope of the conflict to occupy areas around
Shanghai, Nanjing and most of northern China. They thought this would preserve strength for an anticipated
showdown with the Soviet Union, but by now the Japanese government and GHQ had effectively lost control of the
Casualties of a mass panic during a
June 1941 Japanese bombing of
Chongqing. More than 5000 civilians
died during the first two days of air
raids in 1939
[19]
Map showing the extent of Japanese
occupation in 1940 (in red).
Japanese army in China. With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an
attempt to wipe out Chinese resistance, but were defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang. Afterwards the IJA
changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack the city of Wuhan, which by
now was the political, economic and military center of China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the
National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace.
[21]
The Japanese
captured Wuhan on October 27, 1938, forcing the KMT to retreat to Chongqing (Chungking), but Chiang Kai-
shek still refused to negotiate, saying he would only consider talks if Japan agreed to withdraw to pre-1937
borders.
With Japanese casualties and
costs mounting, the Imperial
General Headquarters
attempted to break Chinese
resistance by ordering the air
branches of the navy and the
army to launch the war's first
massive air raids on civilian
targets. Japanese raiders hit the
Kuomintang's newly
established provisional capital
of Chongqing and most other
major cities in unoccupied
China, leaving millions dead, injured, and homeless.
From the beginning of 1939 the war entered a new phase with the
unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Changsha and Guangxi. These
outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large-scale
counter-offensive against the IJA in early 1940; however, due to its low
military-industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, the
NRA was defeated in this offensive. Afterwards Chiang could not risk
any more all-out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under-
equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his
leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained
and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals, who maintained a high
degree of autonomy from the central KMT government.
After 1940 the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories,
and tried to solve its occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments
favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, the most prominent being the Nanjing Nationalist
Government headed by former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. However, atrocities committed by the Japanese army,
as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left them very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only
success the Japanese had was the ability to recruit a large Collaborationist Chinese Army to maintain public security
in the occupied areas.
By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, but guerilla fighting continued in these
occupied areas. Japan had suffered high casualties from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side
could make any swift progress in the manner of Nazi Germany in Western Europe.
Chinese soldiers in house-to-house
fighting in Battle of Taierzhuang.
National Revolutionary Army soldiers
march to the front in 1939.
Chinese resistance strategy
The basis of Chinese strategy before the entrance of Western Allies can
be divided into two periods:
First Period: July 7, 1937 (Battle of Lugou Bridge) October 25, 1938
(Fall of Wuhan).
Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for total war and had little military-
industrial strength, no mechanized divisions, and few armoured forces.
[22]
Up until the mid-1930s China had hoped that the League of Nations
would provide countermeasures to Japan's aggression. In addition, the
Kuomintang (KMT) government was mired in a civil war against the
Communist Party of China (CCP), as Chiang Kai-shek was quoted: "the
Japanese are a disease of the skin, the Communists are a disease of
the heart". The Second United Front between the KMT and CCP was
never truly unified, as each side was preparing for a showdown with the
other once the Japanese were driven out.
Even under these extremely unfavorable circumstances, Chiang realized
that to win support from the United States and other foreign nations,
China had to prove it was capable of fighting. Knowing a hasty retreat
would discourage foreign aid, Chiang resolved to make a stand at
Shanghai, using the best of his German-trained divisions to defend
China's largest and most industrialized city from the Japanese. The battle
lasted over three months, saw heavy casualties on both sides, and ended
with a Chinese retreat towards Nanjing, but proved that China would not
be easily defeated and showed its determination to the world. The battle became an enormous morale booster for
the Chinese people, as it decisively refuted the Japanese boast that Japan could conquer Shanghai in three days and
China in three months.
Afterwards China began to adopt the strategy of "trading space for time" (simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ). The Chinese army would put up fights to delay the Japanese advance to
northern and eastern cities, allowing the home front, with its professionals and key industries, to retreat west into
Chongqing. As a result of Chinese troops' scorched earth strategies, in which dams and levees were intentionally
sabotaged to create massive flooding, Japanese advances began to stall in late 1938.
Second Period: October 25, 1938 (Fall of Wuhan) December 1941 (before the Allies' declaration of war on
Japan).
During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible, thereby exhausting
Japanese resources while building up Chinese military capacity. American general Joseph Stilwell called this
strategy "winning by outlasting". The National Revolutionary Army adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare" to
attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and
encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of
Changsha in 1939 (and again in 1941), in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA.
Eighth Route Army
Commander Zhu De with
KMT Blue Sky White
Sun Emblem cap.
Local Chinese resistance forces, organised separately by both the communists and KMT, continued their resistance
in occupied areas to pester the enemy and make their administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In
1940 the Chinese Red Army launched a major offensive in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine.
These constant harassment and sabotage operations deeply frustrated the Japanese army and led them to employ
the "Three Alls Policy" (kill all, loot all, burn all) (, Hanyu Pinyin: Sngung Zhngc, Japanese On:
Sank Seisaku). It was during this period that the bulk of Japanese war crimes were committed.
By 1941 Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China, but the KMT central government and military had
successfully retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in
control of base areas in Shaanxi. In the occupied areas, Japanese control was mainly limited to railroads and major
cities ("points and lines"). They did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese
countryside, where Chinese guerillas roamed freely. This stalemate situation made a decisive victory seem
impossible to the Japanese.
Relationship between the Nationalists and Communists
After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of
Manchuria's leader, the "young marshal" Zhang Xueliang, for his nonresistance to the
Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also
responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to "improvise" while not offering
support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his Northeast Army
were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP) in Shaanxi after their Long March. This resulted in great casualties for his
Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang
Kai-shek.
On 12 December 1936 a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-
shek in Xi'an, hoping to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CCP. To
secure the release of Chiang, the Kuomintang agreed to a temporary end to the
Chinese Civil War and, on 24 December, the creation of a United Front between the
CCP and KMT against Japan. The alliance having salutary effects for the
beleaguered CCP, they agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route
Army and place them under the nominal control of the National Revolutionary Army.
The CCP's Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their
cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan.
Despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in
central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break
down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by
absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were
often labelled "collaborators" and attacked by CCP forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked
and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei in June, 1939.
[23]
Starting in 1940, open
conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese
control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941.
Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong
outlined the preliminary plan for the CCP's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai-shek. Mao began his final
push for consolidation of CCP power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CCP
I-16 with Chinese insignia. I-16
was the main fighter plane used
by the Chinese Air Force and
Soviet volunteers.
doctrine that came to be formalized as "Mao Zedong Thought". The communists also began to focus most of their
energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass
organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted
to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CCP and fighting the
Japanese at the same time
[24]
Foreign support for China
See also: Motives of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union provided aid to China at the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. By 1940
the United States had become China's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter.
[25]
German support
Main article: Sino-German cooperation (19111941)
Prior to the outbreak of the war, Germany and China had close economic and military cooperation, with Germany
helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. More than half of German arms
exports during its rearmament period were to China. Nevertheless, the proposed 30 new German-trained divisions
in the National Revolutionary Army failed to materialize after Germany withdrew its support in 1938. By that time
Adolf Hitler was forming an alliance with Japan against the Soviet Union.
Soviet support
After the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan,
the Soviet Union hoped to keep China in the war as a way of deterring the
Japanese from invading Siberia, thus saving itself from the threat of a two-
front war. In September 1937, the Soviet leadership signed the Sino-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, the formation of a
Soviet volunteer air force. As part of this secret operation, Soviet technicians
upgraded and ran some of China's transportation systems. Bombers,
fighters, supplies and advisors arrived, including Soviet general Vasily
Chuikov, the future victor of the Battle of Stalingrad. Prior to the entrance of
the Western Allies, the Russians provided the largest amount of foreign aid
to China, totalling some $250 million in credits for munitions and other
supplies. In April 1941, Soviet aid ended as a result of the SovietJapanese
Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting
against Germany and Japan at the same time. In total, 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China,
[26]
and 227
of them died fighting there.
[27]
Japan lost a separate local confrontation with the Soviet Union at the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May - September
1939. The defeat left the Japanese army reluctant to fight the Soviets again.
[28]
Allied support
Flying Tigers Commander Claire
Lee Chennault
A "blood chit" issued to AVG
pilots requesting all Chinese to
offer rescue and protection.
From December 1937 events such as the Japanese attack on the USS
Panay and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply
against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which
prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide
loan assistance for war supply contracts to the Republic of China. Australia
also prevented a Japanese government-owned company from taking over an
iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in 1938.
[29]
However in
July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira
and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, Robert Craigie, led to an agreement
by which Great Britain recognized Japanese conquests in China. At the same
time, the U.S. government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six
months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks
for the Kwantung Army,
[30]
machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic
materials (steel and scrap iron up to October 16, 1940, petrol and
petroleum products up to June 26, 1941
[31]
), and various other much-
needed supplies.
Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina (present-
day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) in September 1940 to prevent China from
receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the
HaiphongYunnan Fou Railway line.
On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding
non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler's assault threw the world
into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects.
On July 21, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina
(Southern Vietnam and Cambodia), contravening a 1940 "Gentlemen's
Agreement" not to move into southern French Indochina. From bases in
Cambodia and Southern Vietnam, Japanese planes could attack Malaya,
Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese occupation of
Northern French Indochina in 1940 had already cut off supplies from the
West to China, the move into Southern French Indochina was viewed as a
direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the
Japanese government and military (particularly the navy) were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite
retaliation from the West.
On 24 July 1941 Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the USA and
the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the
Second Sino-Japanese war. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on
a long term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the
attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
In mid-1941, the United States government financed the creation of the American Volunteer Group (AVG), or
Flying Tigers, to replace the withdrawn Soviet volunteers and aircraft. Contrary to popular perception, the Flying
Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan. Led by Claire Lee
US Air Forces video:Flying Tigers
Bite Back
A former Japanese POW now a Japanese
People's Emancipation League member in a
Eighth Route Army uniform.
On February 18, 1943, Madame
Chiang addressed both houses of the
U.S. Congress.
Chennault, their early combat success of 300 kills against a loss of 12 of their shark painted P-40 fighters earned
them wide recognition at a time when the Allies were suffering heavy losses, and soon afterwards their dogfighting
tactics would be adopted by the United States Army Air Forces.
Japanese Political Dissidents Support
See also: Japanese resistance to the Empire of Japan in World
War II
Due to the Peace
Preservation Law, and the
Tokubetsu Kt
Keisatsu, any sign of
resistance in Japan was
suppressed.
[32]
Some
resisters who fled
persecution from their
homeland, found themselves working with Chinese resistance
against the Empire of Japan.
[33]
The Japanese People's Anti-war
League or Hansen Dmei, worked with the Kuomintang, in
Chongqing.
[34]
Sanzo Nosaka, a founder of the Japanese
Communist Party, and a Comintern agent, worked with the
Communist People's Liberation Army at their base in Yan'an. He
was in charge of the Japanese People's Emancipation League (JPEL)
[35]
The League to Raise the Political
Consciousness of Japanese Troops (The Nihon Heishi Kakusei Domei), was a Japanese anti-war organization
made up of Japanese POWs of the Eighth Route Army who became disillusioned of the Empire of Japan.
[36]
Entrance of Western Allies
Within a few days of the attack on Pearl Harbor, China formally declared
war against Japan, Germany and Italy,
[37]
and almost immediately
Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of
Changsha, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the
Allies. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States,
United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world's "Four
Policemen", elevating the international status of China to an
unprecedented height after a century of humiliation at the hands of various
imperialist powers.
Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive supplies from the United States as
the Chinese conflict was merged into the Asian theatre of World War II.
However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union
which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the
YunnanVietnam Railway had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942
and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "The
Hump".

Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill
met at the Cairo Conference in
1943 during World War II.
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek
and his wife Madame Chiang with
Lieutenant General Joseph Stilwell
in 1942, Burma.
A U.S. poster advocating to help
China fight on.
Most of China's own industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to
allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had
turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the
supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite
the severe shortage of matriel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in
repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde.
Chiang was named Allied commander-in-chief in the China theater in 1942.
American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang's chief of staff,
while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China-Burma-
India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang
soon broke down. Many historians (such as Barbara W. Tuchman) have
suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the
Kuomintang (KMT) government, while others (such as Ray Huang and
Hans van de Ven) have depicted it as a more complicated situation. Stilwell
had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an
aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive
strategy of outwaiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a
defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese
blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war
casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of
America's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies
gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive
operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts
against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific
Area, employing an island hopping strategy.
[38]
Longstanding differences in national interest and political stance among
China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British
Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops,
many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the
reopening of the Burma Road; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that
reopening the road was vital, as all China's mainland ports were under
Japanese control. The Allies' "Europe First" policy did not sit well with
Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more
troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as
an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial holdings.
Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from
Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers he
hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American
general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed.
In addition, Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a 1942
meeting with Mahatma Gandhi, which further soured the relationship
between China and the United Kingdom.
[39]
American and Canadian-born Chinese were recruited to act as covert
operatives in Japanese-occupied China (Canadian-born Chinese having not
yet been granted citizenship were trained by the British army). Employing
their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of
sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies (signaling bomber destruction of
railroads, bridges).
[40]
The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being
a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands. In 1944, with the Japanese
position in the Pacific deteriorating rapidly, the IJA mobilized over 400,000 men and launched Operation Ichi-Go,
their largest offensive of World War II, to attack the American airbases in China and link up the railway between
Manchuria and Vietnam. This brought major cities in Hunan, Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation. The
failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the
Chinese army, and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady
Wedemeyer.
By the end of 1944 Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li-jen attacking from India, and those under Wei
Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong-Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma
and securing the Ledo Road, China's vital supply artery.
[41]
In Spring 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that
retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer
planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and
from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and
Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.
Intrusion into French Indochina
See also: Invasion of French Indochina and Second French Indochina Campaign
The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang in its battle against French and
Japanese imperialism.
In Guangxi Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD
had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army.
[42]
Under the umbrella of KMT
activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi
(Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of
Chinghsi.
[42]
The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of Phan Boi
Chau,
[43]
was named as the deputy of Pham Van Dong, later to be Ho's Prime Minister. The front was later
broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League).
[42]
The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese
VNQDD. Chinese KMT General Zhang Fakui created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against
the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created
by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists.
[44][45]
The Revolutionary League
was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang
shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as Zhang's main goal
was Chinese influence in Indochina.
[46]
The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II
against Japanese forces.
[42]
Franklin D. Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they
preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the
war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai-shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai-shek
replied: "Under no circumstances!".
[47]
After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang Kai-shek to northern Indochina
(north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina
until 1946, when the French returned.
[48]
The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese
Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents.
[49]
Chiang Kai-shek
threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each
other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February, 1946 he also forced the French to surrender all of
their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing
from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France's agreement to these
demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946.
[50][51][52][53]
Contemporaneous wars being fought by China
The Chinese were not entirely devoting all their resources to the Japanese, because they were fighting several other
wars at the same time.
The Soviet Union attacked the Republic of China in 1937 during the Xinjiang War (1937). The Muslim General Ma
Hushan of the Kuomintang 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) resisted the Soviet invasion, which was
being led by Russian troops commanded by Muslim General Ma Zhanshan, previously one of Chiang Kaishek's
suboordinates.
General Ma Hushan was expecting some sort of help from Nanjing, as he exchanged messages with Chiang
regarding Soviet attack. Both the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Xinjiang War erupting simultaneously
rendered Chiang and Ma Hushan on their own to confront the Japanese and Soviet forces.
The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province, and Soviet troops
moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but was forced to mask these manoeuvers to the public as "Japanese
propaganda" to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets.
[54]
Because the pro-Soviet governor Sheng Shicai controlled Xinjiang, which was garrisoned with Soviet troops in
Turfan, which bordered Gansu, the Chinese government had to keep troops stationed there as well.
The Muslim General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor at this time.
[55]
Ma Buqing had earlier
fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang made some arrangements regarding
Ma's position. In July, 1942 Chiang Kai-shek instructed Ma Buqing to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam
marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai.
[56][57]
Chiang named Ma Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng
Shicai's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam.
After Ma evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area, and infiltrated
Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaiming it and forcing Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets. The
Kuomintang ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the pro-Soviet
Governor Sheng Shicai. This helped provide protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang.
[58]
Japanese Special Naval Landing
Forces with gas masks and rubber
gloves during a chemical
attack
[citation needed]
near Chapei in
the Battle of Shanghai.
The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Chinese Muslim Officer Liu Bin-Di was killed while
fighting Turkic Uyghur Rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the
Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces were fighting back.
[59]
Use of chemical and bacteriological weapons
Despite Article 23 of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), article V
of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in
Warfare,
[60]
article 171 of the Treaty of Versailles and a resolution
adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, 1938, condemning the
use of poison gas by the Empire of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army
frequently used chemical weapons during the war.
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, the
chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Japanese
Emperor Hirohito himself, transmitted by the Imperial General
Headquarters. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas
on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to
October 1938.
[61]
They were also used during the invasion of Changde.
Those orders were transmitted either by Prince Kan'in Kotohito or
General Hajime Sugiyama.
[62]
Bacteriological weapons provided by Shir Ishii's units were also profusely used. For example, in 1940, the
Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague.
[63]
During the
Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941,
some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. These attacks caused epidemic
plague outbreaks.
[64]
Ethnic minorities
Main article: Chinese ethnic minorities in the Second Sino-Japanese War
Japan attempted to reach out to ethnic minorities to rally to their side, but only succeeded with certain Manchu,
Mongol, and Uyghur elements.
Conclusion and aftermath
End of Pacific War and surrender of Japanese troops in China
Main articles: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet invasion of Manchuria and
Japanese Instrument of Surrender
The United States and the Soviet Union put an end to the Sino-Japanese War (and World War II) by attacking the
Japanese with a new weapon (on America's part) and an incursion into Manchuria (on the Soviet Union's part). On
August 6, 1945, an American B-29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped the first atomic bomb used in combat on
Japanese troops surrendering to
the Chinese.
The Chinese return to Liuzhou in July
1945
Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong in
1946.
Hiroshima, killing tens of thousands and leveling the city. On August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union renounced its non-
aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack
the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe. The attack was made by three Soviet army
groups. On that same day, a second equally destructive atomic bomb was
dropped by the United States on Nagasaki.
In less than two weeks the Kwantung Army, which was the primary
Japanese fighting force,
[65][66]
consisting of over a million men but lacking in
adequate armor, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets.
Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on August 15,
1945, and the official surrender was signed aboard the battleship
USS Missouri on September 2, 1945.
After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur ordered
all Japanese forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Formosa and
French Indochina north of 16 north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai-shek, and the Japanese troops in China
formally surrendered on September 9, 1945.
Post-war struggle and resumption of civil war
Main article: Chinese Civil War
In 1945, China emerged from the war nominally a great military power
but economically weak and on the verge of all-out civil war. The
economy was sapped by the military demands of a long costly war and
internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by corruption in the Nationalist
government that included profiteering, speculation and hoarding.
Furthermore, as part of the Yalta Conference, allowing a Soviet sphere
of influence in Manchuria, the Soviets dismantled and removed more than
half of the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese before handing
over Manchuria to China. Large swathes of the prime farming areas had
been ravaged by the fighting and there was starvation in the wake of the
war. Many towns and cities were destroyed, and millions were rendered
homeless by floods.
The problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction from the ravages of a
protracted war were staggering, and the war left the Nationalists severely
weakened, and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile, the war
strengthened the Communists both in popularity and as a viable fighting
force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the communist controlled areas, Mao
Zedong was able to adapt MarxismLeninism to Chinese conditions. He
taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them,
eating their food, and thinking their thoughts.
The Chinese Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare
in defense of the people. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime
conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. With skillful organizational and propaganda, the Communists
The Taiwan Strait and
the island of Formosa.
increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945.
Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and
elsewhere to Manchuria. This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist
representatives were not invited to Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of
Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Nationalist government after the war.
However, the Soviet occupation of Manchuria was long enough to allow the Communist forces to move in en
masse and arm themselves with the military hardware surrendered by the Japanese army, quickly establish control
in the countryside and move into position to encircle the Nationalist government army in major cities of northeast
China. The Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and Communists following that, which concluded
with the Communist victory in mainland China and the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949.
Peace treaty and Taiwan
Main article: Legal status of Taiwan
Formosa and the Penghu islands were put under the administrative control of the
Republic of China (ROC) government in 1945 by the United Nations Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration.
[67]
The ROC proclaimed Taiwan Retrocession Day on
October 25, 1945. However, due to the unresolved Chinese Civil War, neither the
newly established People's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China nor the
Nationalist ROC that retreated to Taiwan was invited to sign the Treaty of San
Francisco, as neither had shown full and complete legal capacity to enter into an
international legally binding agreement.
[68]
Since China was not present, the Japanese
only formally renounced the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu islands
without specifying to which country Japan relinquished the sovereignty, and the treaty
was signed in 1951 and came into force in 1952.
In 1952, the Treaty of Taipei was signed separately between the ROC and Japan that basically followed the same
guideline of the Treaty of San Francisco, not specifying which country has sovereignty over Taiwan. However,
Article 10 of the treaty states that the Taiwanese people and the juridical person should be the people and the
juridical person of the ROC.
[67]
Both the PRC and ROC governments base their claims to Taiwan on the Japanese
Instrument of Surrender which specifically accepted the Potsdam Declaration which refers to the Cairo Declaration.
Disputes over the precise de jure sovereign of Taiwan persist to the present. On a de facto basis, sovereignty over
Taiwan has been and continues to be exercised by the ROC. Japan's position has been to avoid commenting on
Taiwan's status, maintaining that Japan renounced all claims to sovereignty over its former colonial possessions after
World War II, including Taiwan.
[69]
Aftermath
The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the
Japanese remains a controversial issue.
In the Chinese People's War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge and in mainland
Chinese textbooks, the People's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Nationalists mostly avoided fighting the
Japanese to preserve their strength for a final showdown with the Communist Party of China (CCP or CPC), while
China War of Resistance Against
Japan Memorial Museum on the
site where Marco Polo Bridge
Incident took place.
the Communists were the main military force in the Chinese resistance efforts.
[70]
Recently, however, with a change
in the political climate, the CCP has admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in
resisting the Japanese. The official history in mainland China now states that the KMT fought a bloody, yet
indecisive, frontal war against Japan, while the CCP engaged the Japanese forces in far greater numbers behind
enemy lines. For the sake of Chinese reunification and appeasing the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan, the
PRC has begun to "acknowledge" the Nationalists and the Communists as
"equal" contributors, because the victory over Japan belonged to the
Chinese people, rather than to any political party.
[71]
Other scholars
document quite a different view. Such studies find evidence that the
Communists actually played a minuscule role in the war against the Japanese
compared to the Nationalists, and preserved their strength for a final
showdown with the Kuomintang (KMT).
[72]
This view point gives the KMT
credit for the brunt of the fighting, which is confirmed by Communists leader
Zhou Enlai's secret report to Joseph Stalin in January 1940. This report
stated that out of more than one million Chinese soldiers killed or wounded
since the war began in 1937, only 40,000 were from the Communists Eighth
Route Army and New Fourth Army. In other words, by the CCP's own
account, the Communists had suffered a mere three percent of total
casualties half way into the war.
[73]
The Nationalists suffered higher casualties because they were the main combatants opposing the Japanese in each
of the 22 major battles between China and Japan (involving more than 100,000 troops on both sides). The
Communist forces, by contrast, usually avoided pitched battles against the Japanese and generally limited their
combat to guerilla actions (the Hundred Regiments Offensive and the Battle of Pingxingguan are notable
exceptions). The Nationalist committed their strongest divisions in early battle against the Japanese (including the
36th, 87th, 88th divisions, the crack divisions of Chiang's Central Army) to defend Shanghai and continued to
deploy most of their forces to fight the Japanese even as the Communists changed their strategy to engage mainly in
a political offensive against the Japanese while declaring that the CCP should "save and preserve our strength and
wait for favorable timing" by the end of 1941.
[74]
Chinese/Japanese relations
Today, the war is a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan. The war remains a major
roadblock for Sino-Japanese relations, and many people, particularly in China, harbor grudges over the war and
related issues.
Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist. For example, the Japanese government has been
accused of historical revisionism by allowing the approval of a few school textbooks omitting or glossing over
Japan's militant past, although the most recent controversial book, the New History Textbook was used by only
0.039% of junior high schools in Japan
[75]
and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers, by
the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to, for instance, the Nanking
Massacre, Unit 731, and the comfort women of World War II, all historical issues which have faced challenges
from ultranationalists in the past.
[76]
In response to criticism of Japanese textbook revisionism, the PRC government
has been accused of using the war to stir up already growing anti-Japanese sentiments in order to spur nationalistic
feelings.
Aftermath in Taiwan
Traditionally, the Republic of China government has held celebrations marking the Victory Day on September 9
(now known as Armed Forces Day) and Taiwan's Retrocession Day on October 25. However, after the
Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, these national holidays commemorating
the war has been cancelled as the pro-independent DPP does not see the relevancy of celebrating events that
happened in mainland China.
Meanwhile, many KMT supporters, particularly veterans who retreated with the government in 1949, still have an
emotional interest in the war. For example, in celebrating the 60th anniversary of the end of war in 2005, the
cultural bureau of KMT stronghold Taipei held a series of talks in the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall regarding the war
and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters. Whereas the KMT
won the presidential election in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war.
Casualties assessment
See also: Japanese war crimes, 1938 Yellow River flood and 1938 Changsha Fire
The conflict lasted for eight years, a month and three days (measured from 1937 to 1945).
Chinese casualties
Chinese sources list the total number of military and non-military casualties, both dead and wounded, at 35
million.
[77]
Most Western historians believed that the total number of casualties was at least 20 million.
[78]
The official PRC statistics for China's civilian and military casualties in the Second Sino-Japanese War from
1937 to 1945 are 20 million dead and 15 million wounded. The figures for total military casualties, killed and
wounded are: Nationalist 3.2 million; Communist 500,000.
The official account of the war published in Taiwan reported the Nationalist Chinese Army lost 3,238,000
men ( 1,797,000 WIA; 1,320,000 KIA and 120,000 MIA.) and 5,787,352 civilians casualties. The
Nationalists fought in 22 major engagements, most of which involved more than 100,000 troops on both
sides, 1,171 minor engagements most of which involved more than 50,000 troops on both sides, and 38,931
skirmishes.
[79]
An academic study published in the United States estimates military casualties: 1.5 million killed in battle,
750,000 missing in action, 1.5 million deaths due to disease and 3 million wounded; civilian casualties: due to
military activity, killed 1,073,496 and 237,319 wounded; 335,934 killed and 426,249 wounded in Japanese
air attacks.
[80]
According to historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million civilians died during the "kill all, loot all, burn
all" operation (Three Alls Policy, or sanko sakusen) implemented in May 1942 in north China by general
Yasuji Okamura and authorized on December 3, 1941 by Imperial Headquarter Order number 575.
[81]
The property loss suffered by the Chinese was valued at 383 billion US dollars according to the currency
exchange rate in July 1937, roughly 50 times the gross domestic product of Japan at that time (US$7.7
billion).
[82]
In addition, the war created 95 million refugees.
Japanese casualties
Contemporary studies from the Beijing Central Compilation and Translation Press have revealed that the Japanese
suffered a total of 2,227,200 casualties, including 1,055,000 dead and 1,172,341 injured. These numbers were
largely based on Japanese statistics.
[6]
The Japanese recorded around 1.1 to 1.9 million military casualties during all of World War II (which include killed,
wounded and missing). The official death-toll of Japanese KIA in China, according to the Japan Defense Ministry,
is 480,000 men. The combined Chinese forces claimed to have killed at most 1.77 million Japanese soldiers during
the eight-year war.
Another source from Hilary Conroy claim that a total of 447,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the
Second Sino-Japanese War. Of the 1,130,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers who died during World War II,
39 percent died in China.
[83]
Then in "War Without Mercy", John Dower claim that a total of 396,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the
Second Sino-Japanese War. Of this number, the Imperial Japanese Army lost 388,605 soldiers and the Imperial
Japanese Navy lost 8,000 soldiers. Another 54,000 soldiers also died after the war had ended, mostly from illness
and starvation.
[83]
Of the 1,740,955 Japanese soldiers who died during World War II, 22 percent died in China.
[5]
Japanese statistics, however, lack complete estimates for the wounded. From 1937 to 1941, 185,647 Japanese
soldiers were killed in China and 520,000 were wounded. Disease also incurred critical losses on Japanese forces.
From 1937 to 1941, 430,000 Japanese soldiers were recorded as being sick. In North China alone, 18,000
soldiers were evacuated back to Japan for illnesses in 1938, 23,000 in 1939, and 15,000 in 1940.
[5][a]
From 1941
to 1945: 202,958 dead; another 54,000 dead after war's end. Chinese forces also report that by May 1945,
22,293 Japanese soldiers were captured as prisoners. Many more Japanese soldiers surrendered when the war
ended.
[5][83]
Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths
of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers.
[7]
The Communist claim, which almost equate total Japanese deaths in all of
World War II, was ridiculed by Nationalist authorities as propaganda since the Communist People's Liberation
Army was outnumbered by the Japanese Army by approximately 3 to 1. Nationalist War Minister He Yingqin
himself contested the claim, finding it impossible for a force of "untrained, undisciplined, poorly equipped" guerrillas
to have killed so many enemy soldiers.
[84]
The National Chinese authorities ridiculed Japanese estimates of Chinese casualties. In 1940, the National Herald
stated that the Japanese exaggerated Chinese casualties, while deliberately concealing the true amount of Japanese
casualties, releasing false figures that made them appear lower. The article reports on the casualty situation of the
war up to 1940.
[85][86][87]
Number of troops involved
Flag of the National Revolutionary
Army.
Chinese forces
Further information: Chinese armies in the Second Sino-Japanese War
National Revolutionary Army
Main article: National Revolutionary Army
With Chiang Kai-shek as the highest commander, the National
Revolutionary Army (NRA) is recognized as the unified armed force of
China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately
4,300,000 regulars, in 370 Standard Divisions (simplified Chinese:
; traditional Chinese: ), 46 New Divisions (simplified Chinese:
; traditional Chinese: ), 12 Cavalry Divisions (simplified
Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ), eight New Cavalry
Divisions (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese:
), 66 Temporary Divisions (simplified Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ), and 13 Reserve Divisions (simplified Chinese:
; traditional Chinese: ), for a grand total of 515 divisions.
However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same
time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average
NRA division had 4,0005,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms
of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.
The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese
division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to
specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command
structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when
relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as intelligence, logistics, communications, and medical services, are
taken into account.
Although Chiang Kai-shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect
limited. This was due to NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists.
Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled
or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could
be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.
Loyal to Chiang Kai-shek, the Central Army(simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ) was best
equipped. Most of officers in Central Army were trained by the Whampoa Military Academy, where Chiang Kai-
shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.
The Regional Army(simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ) consisted of various types of strengths
from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted
Chiang Kai-shek's leader position. However, they didn't really follow Chiang's command, nor receive Chiang's
assist. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included Guangxi, Shanxi,
Yunnan and Ma clique.
Flag of the Imperial Japanese Army.
After Xi'an Incident, Chiang paused his invasion to Chinese Red Army led by communists. Communists
incorporated into NRA and formed Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army of NRA. Although during the entire
war communists fought under the name of NRA, their de facto commander was Mao Zedong. Communists also led
a large number of militias during the war.
[88]
The National Revolutionary Army expanded from about 1.2 million in 1937 to 5.7 million in August 1945,
organized in 300 divisions.
[88]
Japanese forces
Imperial Japanese Army
Main article: Imperial Japanese Army
The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) had approximately 3,200,000
regulars. More Japanese troops were quartered in China than deployed
elsewhere in the Pacific Theater during the war. Japanese divisions
ranged from 20,000 men in its divisions numbered less than 100, to
10,000 men in divisions numbered greater than 100.
At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the IJA had 51 divisions, of
which 35 were in China, and 39 independent brigades, of which all but
one were in China. This represented roughly 80% of the IJA's
manpower.
By October 1944 the IJA in China was divided into three strategic groupings.
The China Expeditionary Army was dislocated along the coast. Its primary component was the 13th Army
with four divisions and two brigades.
The North China Area Army occupied the north-eastern China. It included the Kwantung Army with two
divisions and six brigades, the Mongolian Garrison Army with one division and one brigade, and the 1st
Army with two divisions and six brigades.
The Sixth Area Army occupying the inland zone south of the Yellow River included: the 12th Army with four
divisions, including one armoured, and one infantry brigade; 34th Army with one division and four brigades
along the Yangtze valley; 11th Army with ten divisions; 23rd Army with two divisions and five brigades.
Collaborationist Chinese Army
Main article: Collaborationist Chinese Army
The Chinese armies allied to Japan had only 78,000 people in 1938, but had grown to around 649,640 men by
1943,
[89]
and reached a maximum strength of 900,000 troops before the end of the war. Almost all of them
belonged to Manchukuo, Provisional Government of the Republic of China (Beijing), Reformed Government of the
Republic of China (Nanjing) and the later Nanjing Nationalist Government (Wang Jingwei regime). These
collaborator troops were mainly assigned to garrison and logistics duties in their own territories, and were rarely
fielded in combat because of low morale and Japanese distrust. They fared very poorly in skirmishes against both
Chinese NRA and Communist forces.
Military equipment
See also: Development of Chinese armoured forces (19271945), List of aircraft used in China before
1937, Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (19371945) and List of World War II firearms of
China
The Central Army possessed 80 Army infantry divisions with approximately 8,000 men each, nine independent
brigades, nine cavalry divisions, two artillery brigades, 16 artillery regiments and three armored battalions. The
Chinese Navy displaced only 59,000 tonnes and the Chinese Air Force comprised only about 700 obsolete
aircraft.
For regular provincial Chinese divisions their standard rifles were the Hanyang 88 (copy of Gewehr 88). Central
army divisions were typically equipped with the Chiang Kai-Shek rifle (copy of Mauser Standard Model) and
Czechoslovakian vz. 24. However, for most of the German-trained divisions, the standard firearms were German-
made 7.92 mm Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k. The standard light machine gun was a local copy of the Czech 7.92
mm Brno ZB26. There were also Belgian and French light machine guns. Provincial units generally did not possess
any machine guns. Central Army units had one LMG per platoon on average. German-trained divisions ideally had
1 LMG per squad. Surprisingly, the NRA did not purchase any Maschinengewehr 34s from Germany, but did
produce their own copies of them. Heavy machine guns were mainly locally-made Type 24 water-cooled Maxim
guns, which were the Chinese copies of the German MG08, and M1917 Browning machine guns chambered for
the standard 8mm Mauser round. On average, every Central Army battalion would get one heavy machine gun
(about a third to half of what actual German divisions got during World War II). The standard weapon for NCOs
and officers was the 7.63 mm Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol, or full-automatic Mauser M1932/M712 machine
pistol. These full-automatic versions were used as substitutes for submachine guns (such as the MP18) and rifles
that were in short supply within the Chinese army prior to the end of World War II. Throughout the Second Sino-
Japanese War, particularly in the early years, the NRA also extensively used captured Japanese weapons and
equipment as their own were in short supply. Some lite units also used Lend-Lease US equipment as the war
progressed.
Generally speaking, the regular provincial army divisions did not possess any artillery. However, some Central
Army divisions were equipped with 37 mm PaK 35/36 anti-tank guns, and/or mortars from Oerlikon, Madsen, and
Solothurn. Each infantry division had 6 French Brandt 81 mm mortars and 6 Solothurn 20 mm autocannons. Some
independent brigades and artillery regiments were equipped with Bofors 72 mm L/14, or Krupp 72 mm L/29
mountain guns and there were 24 Rheinmetall 150 mm L/32 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1934) and 24 Krupp
150 mm L/30 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1936). At the start of the war, the NRA and the Tax Police Regiment
had three tank battalions armed with German Panzer I light tanks and CV-33 tankettes. After defeat in the Battle of
Shanghai the remaining tanks, together with several hundred T-26 and BT-5 tanks acquired from the Soviet Union
were reorganised into the 200th Division.
Infantry uniforms were basically redesigned Zhongshan suits. Puttees were standard for soldiers and officers alike
since the primary mode of movement for NRA troops was by foot. Troops were also issued sewn field caps. The
helmets were the most distinguishing characteristic of these divisions. From the moment German M35 helmets
(standard issue for the Wehrmacht until late in the European theatre) rolled off the production lines in 1935, and
until 1936, the NRA imported 315,000 of these helmets, each with the Blue Sky with a White Sun emblem of the
ROC on the sides. These helmets were worn by both elite German-trained divisions and regular Central Army
divisions. Other helmets include the Adrian helmet, Brodie helmet and later M1 helmet. Other equipment included
straw shoes for soldiers (cloth shoes for Central Army), leather shoes for officers and leather boots for high-ranking
officers. Every soldier was issued ammunition, ammunition pouches or harness, a water flask, combat knives, food
bag, and a gas mask.
On the other hand, warlord forces varied greatly in terms of equipment and training. Some warlord troops were
notoriously under-equipped, such as Shanxi's Dadao (Chinese: , a one-edged sword type close combat
weapon) Team and the Yunnan clique. Some, however, were highly professional forces with their own air force and
navies. The quality of the New Guangxi clique was almost on par with the Central Army, as the Guangzhou region
was wealthy and the local army could afford foreign instructors and arms. The Muslim Ma clique to the northwest
was famed for its well-trained cavalry divisions.
See also: List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War, List of armour used
by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War and List of Japanese aircraft in use
during the Second Sino-Japanese War
Although Japan possessed significant mobile operational capacity, it did not possess capability for maintaining a
long sustained war. At the beginning of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army comprised 17 divisions, each
composed of approximately 22,000 men, 5,800 horses, 9,500 rifles and submachine guns, 600 heavy machine
guns of assorted types, 108 artillery pieces, and 600 plus of light armor two-men tanks. Special forces were also
available. The Imperial Japanese Navy displaced a total of 1,900,000 tonnes, ranking third in the world, and
possessed 2,700 aircraft at the time. Each Japanese division was the equivalent in fighting strength of four Chinese
regular divisions (at the beginning of the Battle of Shanghai).
Major figures
Chinese Nationalists
Bai Chongxi ()
Chen Cheng (, )
Chiang Kai-Shek (, )
Du Yuming ()
Fang Xianjue (, )
Feng Yuxiang (, )
Fu Zuoyi (, )
Gu Zhutong (, )
He Yingqin (, )
Chinese Communists
Chen Yi (, )
Deng Xiaoping ( / )
He Long ( / )
Lin Biao ()
Liu Bocheng ( / )
Liu Shaoqi ( / )
Luo Ronghuan ( / )
Mao Zedong ( / )
Nie Rongzhen ( / )
H. H. Kung ()
Hu Kexian ()
Hu Zongnan ()
Li Zongren ()
Long Yun (, )
Ma Bufang ()
Ma Buqing ()
Ma Hongbin ()
Ma Hongkui ()
Ma Zhanshan (, )
Song Zheyuan ()
Soong May-ling (, )
T. V. Soong ()
Sun Lianzhong (, )
Sun Liren (, )
Tang Enbai (, )
Tang Shengzhi ()
Wei Lihuang (, )
Xue Yue ()
Yan Xishan (, )
Xie Jinyuan (, )
Zhang Fakui (, )
Zhang Lingfu (, )
Zhang Xueliang (, )
Zhang Zhizhong (, )
Zhang Zizhong (, )
Zhu Shaoliang (, )
Peng Dehuai ( / )
Su Yu ()
Xu Xiangqian ()
Ye Jianying ( / )
Ye Ting ( / )
Zhang Aiping ( / )
Zhou Enlai ( / )
Zhu De ()
Foreigners supporting China
Alexander von Falkenhausen
Joseph Stilwell
Albert Coady Wedemeyer
Claire Chennault
Agnes Smedley
Edgar Snow
Norman Bethune
John Rabe
Jakob Rosenfeld
Morris Abraham "Two-Gun" Cohen
James Gareth Endicott
Dwarkanath Kotnis
George Hogg
Kim Gu
Vasily Chuikov
Rewi Alley
Kaji Wataru
Sanzo Nosaka
Shwa Emperor () Hirohito ()
Nobuyuki Abe ( )
Korechika Anami ( )
Prince Asaka Yasuhiko ()
Chinese collaborators supporting
Japan
Manchukuo
Puyi
Mengjiang
Prince Chichibu Yasuhito ()
Kenji Doihara ( )
Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu ()
Kingoro Hashimoto ( )
Shunroku Hata ( )
Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko ( )
Masaharu Honma ( )
Shiro Ishii ( )
Rensuke Isogai ( )
Seishir Itagaki ( )
Prince Kan'in Kotohito ( )
Konoe Fumimaro (Kyjitai: , Shinjitai:
)
Kanji Ishiwara ( )
Kuniaki Koiso ( , )
Iwane Matsui ( )
Renya Mutaguchi ( )
Kesago Nakajima ( )
Toshiz Nishio ( , )
Yasuji Okamura ( )
Takashi Sakai ( )
Hajime Sugiyama ( )
Prince Takeda Tsuneyoshi ( )
Hisaichi Terauchi ( , )
Hideki Tojo (Kyjitai: , Shinjitai:
)
Yoshijir Umezu ( )
Tamon Yamaguchi ( )
Tomoyuki Yamashita ( )
Demchugdongrub
East Hebei Autonomous Council
Yin Ju-keng ()
Provisional Government of the Republic
of China
Wang Kemin ()
Reformed Government of the Republic of
China
Liang Hongzhi ( / )
Nanjing Nationalist Government
Chen Gongbo ( / )
Wang Jingwei ( / )
Zhou Fohai ()
Military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Battles
Battles with articles. Flag shows victorious side in each engagement. Date shows beginning date except for the
1942 battle of Changsha, which began in Dec. 1941.
Mukden September 1931
Invasion of Manchuria September 1931
Jiangqiao Campaign October 1931
Resistance at Nenjiang Bridge November 1931
Jinzhou December 1931
Defense of Harbin January 1932
Shanghai (1932) January 1932
Pacification of Manchukuo March 1932
Great Wall January 1933
Battle of Rehe February 1933
Actions in Inner Mongolia (19331936)
Suiyuan Campaign October 1936
Battle of Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge Incident) July 1937
BeipingTianjin July 1937
Chahar August 1937
Battle of Shanghai August 1937
Defense of Sihang Warehouse October 26, 1937
BeipingHankou August 1937
TianjinPukou August 1937
Taiyuan September 1937
Battle of Pingxingguan September 1937
Battle of Xinkou September 1937
Battle of Nanjing December 1937
Battle of Xuzhou December 1937
Battle of Taierzhuang March 1938
Northern and Eastern Honan 1938 January 1938
Battle of Lanfeng May 1938
Xiamen May 1938
Battle of Wuhan June 1938
Battle of Wanjialing
Guangdong October 1938
Hainan Island February 1939
Battle of Nanchang March 1939
Battle of Xiushui River March 1939
Battle of Suixian-Zaoyang May 1939
Shantou June 1939
Battle of Changsha (1939) September 1939
Battle of South Guangxi November 1939
Battle of Kunlun Pass December 1939
19391940 Winter Offensive November 1939
Battle of West Suiyuan Jan Feb 1940
Battle of Wuyuan March 1940
Battle of Zaoyang-Yichang May 1940
Hundred Regiments Offensive August 1940
Central Hupei November 1940
Battle of South Henan January 1941
Western Hopei March 1941
Battle of Shanggao March 1941
Battle of South Shanxi May 1941
Battle of Changsha (1941) September 1941
Battle of Changsha (1942) January 1942
Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road March 1942
Battle of Toungoo
Battle of Yenangyaung
Battle of Zhejiang-Jiangxi April 1942
Battle of West Hubei May 1943
Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan October 1943
Battle of Changde November 1943
Operation Ichi-Go
Operation Kogo Battle of Central Henan April 1944
Operation Togo 1 Battle of Changsha (1944)
Operation Togo 2 and Operation Togo 3 Battle of GuilinLiuzhou August 1944
Battle of West HenanNorth Hubei March May, 1945
Battle of West Hunan April June 1945
Second Guangxi Campaign April July 1945
Aerial engagements
Aerial Engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Japanese invasions and operations
Japanese Campaigns in Chinese War
Chinchow Operation
Manchukuoan Anti Bandit Operations
Operation Nekka
PeikingHankou Railway Operation
TientsinPukow Railway Operation
Operation Quhar
Kuolichi-Taierhchuang Operation
Canton Operation
Amoy Operation
Hainan Island Operation
Han River Operation
Invasion of French Indochina
Swatow Operation
Sczechwan Invasion
CHE-KIANG Operation
Kwanchow-Wan Occupation
Operation Ichi-Go
Commemoration
Numerous monuments and memorials throughout China, including the Museum of the War of Chinese People's
Resistance Against Japanese Aggression in Beijing's Wanping Fortress.
See also
Chinese Civil War
Timeline of events leading to World War II in Asia
General:
History of China
History of Japan
History of the Republic of China
Military history of China
Military history of Japan
Notes
1. ^ Taylor, Jay, The Generalissimo, p.645.
2. ^ Chung Wu Taipei "History of the Sino-Japanese war (19371945)" 1972 pp 535
3. ^ Jowett, Phillip, Rays of the Rising Sun, p.72.
4. ^ Clodfelter, Michael "Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference", Vol. 2, pp. 956.
5. ^
a

b

c

d
Dower, John "War Without Mercy", pp. 297.
6. ^
a

b
Liu Feng, (2007). ": ". Central Compilation and Translation Press. ISBN
978-7-80109-030-0. Note: This Chinese publication analyses statistics provided by Japanese publications.
7. ^
a

b
Chung Wu Taipei "History of the Sino-Japanese war (19371945)" 1972 pp 565
8. ^ Bix, Herbert P. (1992), "The Showa Emperor's 'Monologue' and the Problem of War Responsibility", Journal of
Japanese Studies 18 (2): 295363, doi:10.2307/132824 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F132824)
9. ^ Wilson, Dick, When Tigers Fight: The story of the Sino-Japanese War, 19371945, p.5
10. ^ Wilson, Dick, p.4
11. ^ "Foreign News: Revenge?" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,727322,00.html). Time
magazine. August 13, 1923.
12. ^ Hoyt, Edwin P., Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict, p.45
13. ^ Palmer and Colton, A History of Modern World, p.725
14. ^ Taylor, Jay, p.33
16. ^ Taylor, Jay, p.79, p.82
17. ^ Boorman, Biographical Dictionary, vol.1, p.121
19. ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2001, p.364
20. ^ Fu Jing-hui, An Introduction of Chinese and Foreign History of War, 2003, p.109111
21. ^ Ray Huang, Chiang Kai-shek Diary from a Macro History Perspective, 1994, p.168
22. ^ L, Klemen (19992000). "Chinese Nationalist Armour in World War II"
(http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/china_armour.html). Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies
Campaign 19411942.
23. ^ Ray Huang, 1994, p.259
24. ^ "Crisis" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801570-4,00.html). Time. November 13, 1944.
25. ^ Michael Schaller, The U. S. Crusade in China, 1938 (1979)
26. ^ Taylor, Jay, The Generalissimo, p.156.
27. ^ [1] (http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter4_4.html)
28. ^ Douglas Varner, To the Banks of the Halha: The Nomohan Incident and the Northern Limits of the Japanese
Empire (2008)
29. ^ "Memorandum by Mr J. McEwen, Minister for External Affairs 10 May 1940"
(http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/info/historical/HistDocs.nsf/(LookupVolNoNumber)/3~221). Info.dfat.gov.au.
Retrieved 2010-12-02.
30. ^ US Congress. Investigation of Concentracion of Economic Power. Hearings before the Temporary National
30. ^ US Congress. Investigation of Concentracion of Economic Power. Hearings before the Temporary National
Economic Committee. 76th Congress, 2nd Session, Pt.21. Washington, 1940, p.11241
31. ^ . . . . 19351941. ., , 1990. .157
32. ^ Lack of Japanese Resistance to Militarism (http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/papers/resistnc.htm)
33. ^ Pacific War, 1931-1945 By Saburo Ienaga Page 219
34. ^ From Kona to Yenan: The Political Memoirs of Koji Ariyoshi By Koji Ariyoshi page 104 - 106
35. ^ From Kona to Yenan: The Political Memoirs of Koji Ariyoshi By Koji Ariyoshi Chapter 12 Re-Education And
Sanzo Nosaka Page 123-126
36. ^ Pacific War, 1931-1945 By Saburo Ienaga Page 218
37. ^ "China's Declaration of War Against Japan, Germany and Italy"
(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/ww2/chinawar.html). Contemporary China (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)
1 (15). December 15, 1941. Retrieved September 10, 2010.
38. ^ Hans Van de Ven, "Stilwell in the Stocks: The Chinese Nationalists and the Allied Powers in the Second World
War", Asian Affairs 34.3 (November 2003): 243259.
39. ^ Ray Huang, 1994, p. 299300.
40. ^ Roy MacLaren, 1981, p. 200220
41. ^ Ray Huang, 1994, p.420
42. ^
a

b

c

d
William J. Duiker (1976). The rise of nationalism in Vietnam, 19001941 (http://books.google.com/?
id=HKRuAAAAMAAJ&q=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd&dq=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd). Cornell University Press. p. 272.
ISBN 0-8014-0951-9. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
43. ^ Marr (1995), p. 165.
44. ^ James P. Harrison (1989). The endless war: Vietnam's struggle for independence (http://books.google.com/?
id=SSxyTlkmv2cC&pg=PA81&dq=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd#v=onepage&q&f=false). Columbia University Press.
p. 81. ISBN 0-231-06909-X. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
45. ^ United States. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Historical Division (1982). The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: History
of the Indochina incident, 19401954 (http://books.google.com/?id=uEDfAAAAMAAJ&q=Chang+Fa-
Kuei+vnqdd&dq=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd). Michael Glazier. p. 56. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
46. ^ Oscar Chapuis (2000). The last emperors of Vietnam: from T c to Bo i (http://books.google.com/?
id=9RorGHF0fGIC&pg=PA106&dq=Chang+Fa-Kuei+vnqdd#v=onepage&q=Chang%20Fa-
Kuei%20vnqdd&f=false). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 106. ISBN 0-313-31170-6. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
47. ^ Barbara Wertheim Tuchman (1985). The march of folly: from Troy to Vietnam (http://books.google.com/books?
id=v5YlBtzklvQC&pg=PA235&dq=chiang+kai-
shek+vietnam+Under+no+circumstances&hl=en&ei=hI4OTZGwIcL98Aasn5iVDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=res
ult&resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
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48. ^ Larry H. Addington (2000). America's war in Vietnam: a short narrative history
(http://books.google.com/books?id=iF3MG43x--0C&pg=PA30&dq=chiang+kai-
shek+vietnam+french+concessions&hl=en&ei=_Y0OTYTpIsL38Aa2_MiwDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=3&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
resnum=3&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
shek%20vietnam%20french%20concessions&f=false). Indiana University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-253-21360-6.
49. ^ Peter Neville (2007). Britain in Vietnam: prelude to disaster, 1945-6 (http://books.google.com/books?id=o1t8-
EjWyrgC&pg=PA119&dq=chiang+kai-
resnum=8&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
shek%20vietnam%20french%20concessions&f=false). Psychology Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-415-35848-5. Retrieved
2010-11-28.
50. ^ Van Nguyen Duong (2008). The tragedy of the Vietnam War: a South Vietnamese officer's analysis
(http://books.google.com/books?id=pVNaoUu7veUC&pg=PA21&dq=chiang+kai-
resnum=9&ved=0CEoQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
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11-28.
51. ^ Stein Tnnesson (2010). Vietnam 1946: how the war began (http://books.google.com/books?
id=1I4HOcmE4XQC&pg=PA41&dq=chiang+kai-
resnum=2&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
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52. ^ Elizabeth Jane Errington (1990). The Vietnam War as history: edited by Elizabeth Jane Errington and B.J.C.
McKercher (http://books.google.com/books?id=yQGqQ3LmExwC&pg=PA63&dq=chiang+kai-
resnum=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=chiang%20kai-
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&q=soviet%20border%20japanese%20propaganda&f=false). Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 0-415-58264-4.
55. ^ Asia, Volume 40 (http://books.google.com/books?
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704147.html), Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda and Prince Mikasa received a special screening by Shir Ishii of a film
showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940. (Daniel Barenblatt, A
Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.32.) All these weapons were experimented with on humans before being used in
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over Taiwanese Sovereignty and the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty Since World War II
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the Enemy's Rear during the Sino-Japanese War", paper presented at Harvard University Conference on Wartime
China, Maui, January 2004, pp. 3236
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Munich: 2005
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(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml). Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
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81. ^ * Himeta, Mitsuyoshi (1995). [Concerning the Three Alls
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84. ^ ed. Coox, Alvin and Hilary Conroy "China and Japan: A Search for Balance since World War I", pp. 296.
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References and bibliography
Bayly, C. A., and T. N. Harper. Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 19411945. Cambridge,
MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005. xxxiii, 555p. ISBN 0-674-01748-X.
Bayly, C. A., T. N. Harper. Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asian. Cambridge,
MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007. xxx, 674p. ISBN 978-0-674-02153-2.
Gordon, David M. "The ChinaJapan War, 19311945" Journal of Military History (Jan 2006) v 70#1,
pp 13782. (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_military_history/v070/70.1gordon.html)
Historiographical overview of major books from the 1970s through 2006
Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang, China's Anti-Japanese War
Combat Operations(Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 2005) ISBN 7-214-03034-9. On line in Chinese:
(http://www.xiaoshuo.com/readindex/index_00163571.html)
Hsiung, James Chieh, and Steven I. Levine, eds., China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937
1945. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1992. xxv, 333p. ISBN 0-87332-708-X. Chapters on military,
economic, diplomatic aspects of the war.
Ray Huang, (Reading Chiang Kai-shek's Diary from a Macro History
Perspective) China Times Publishing Company, 1994-1-31 ISBN 957-13-0962-1.
Annalee Jacoby and Theodore H. White, Thunder out of China, New York: William Sloane Associates,
1946. Critical account of Chiang's government by Time magazine reporters.
Jowett, Phillip (2005). Rays of the Rising Sun: Japan's Asian Allies 193145 Volume 1: China and
Manchukuo. Helion and Company Ltd. ISBN 1-874622-21-3.- Book about the Chinese and Mongolians
who fought for the Japanese during the war.
Long-hsuen, Hsu; Chang Ming-kai (1972). History of the Sino-Japanese war (19371945). Chung Wu
Publishers. ASIN B00005W210.
Lary Diana, and Stephen R. Mackinnon, eds. The Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern
China. Vancouver: UBC Press, Contemporary Chinese Studies, 2001. xii, 210p. ISBN 0-7748-0840-3.
MacKinnon, Stephen R., Diana Lary and Ezra F. Vogel, eds. China at War: Regions of China, 1937
1945. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007. xviii, 380p. ISBN 978-0-8047-5509-2.
Peattie, Mark. Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds. The Battle for China: Essays on the Military
History of the Sino-Japanese War of 19371945 (Stanford University Press, 2011); 614 pages
Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China.
88. ^
a

b
David Murray Horner (July 24, 2003). The Second World War: The Pacific (http://books.google.com/books?
id=DShPzguQ64UC&pg=PA14). Taylor & Francis. pp. 1415. ISBN 978-0-415-96845-4. Retrieved March 6,
2011.
89. ^ Jowett, Phillip, Rays of the Rising Sun, pg.130133.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03338-2.
Wilson, Dick (1982). When Tigers Fight: The story of the Sino-Japanese War, 19371945. New York:
Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-76003-X.
Zarrow, Peter. "The War of Resistance, 193745". China in war and revolution 18951949. London:
Routledge, 2005.
MacLaren, Roy (1981). Canadians Behind Enemy Lines 19391945. UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-1100-
5.- Book about the Chinese Canadians and Americans who fought against Japan in the Second World War.
Duiker, William (1976). The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 19001941. Ithaca, New York: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0951-9.
China at war, Volume 1, Issue 3 (http://books.google.com/books?id=OKLiAAAAMAAJ). China
Information Committee. 1938. p. 66. Retrieved March 21, 2012.Issue 40 of [China, a collection of
pamphlets Original from Pennsylvania State University Digitized Sep 15, 2009
a. ^ This number does not include the casualty of large number of the Chinese collaborator government troops
fighting on Japanese side.
External links
"CBI Theater of Operations" IBIBLIO World War II: China Burma India
(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/CBI/index.html) Links to selected documents, photos, maps, and books.
Addresses to the House of Representatives and to the Senate by Soong Mai Ling
World War II Newspaper Archives War in China, 19371945
(https://web.archive.org/web/20031129080955/http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/operations/china_e.h
tml) at the Wayback Machine (archived November 29, 2003)
Annals of the Flying Tigers (http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm)
KangZhan.org Gallery and history of the Sino-Japanese war (http://www.kangzhan.org/)
(Chinese)/(English)
Japanese soldiers in the Sino-Japanese war, 19371938
(http://www.geocities.jp/torikai007/japanchina/1937.html) (Japanese)
History and Commercial Atlas of China, Harvard University Press 1935, by Albert Herrmann, Ph.D.
(http://map.huhai.net/) See bottom of the list for 1930s maps.
Perry-Castaeda Library Map Collection (https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/china/), China 1:250,000,
Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service, 1954 . Topographic Maps of China during the Second World War.
Perry-Castaeda Library Map Collection (https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/manchuria/) Manchuria
1:250,000, Series L542, U.S. Army Map Service, 1950 . Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the
Second World War.
Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War, Harvard University
(https://web.archive.org/web/20010713042417/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-
japanese/index.htm) at the Wayback Machine (archived July 13, 2001). Multi-year project seeks to expand
research by promoting cooperation among scholars and institutions in China, Japan, the United States, and
other nations. Includes extensive bibliographies
Photographs of the war from a Presbyterian mission near Canton
(http://www.presbyterian.org.nz/archives/photogallery11/page1.htm).
[5] (http://www.microworks.net/pacific/road_to_war/route_south.htm)
Internet video
1937 video-cast of Soong Mai-ling address to the world in English
(http://www.youtube.com/v/TRF2WTNwo0M&hl=zh_TW&fs=1)
1943 Soong Mai-ling address to the American Congress
(http://www.youtube.com/v/TRF2WTNwo0M&hl=zh_TW&fs=1)
The Battle of China OWI (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lQTWtokeF5Q) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 2 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DcjVWe3xgAo) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 3 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKTIylgLDHE) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 4 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M6z-fZwpmME) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 5 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VKHk6eepm0E) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 6 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_zntg-eFF0) on YouTube
The Battle of China OWI Pt 7 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0hZiD5Uk5I) on YouTube
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