02 RF Concepts

25 February Wireless CommSys TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006)
1
Radio Communication
Concepts
2
Radio Waves
To start we need to cover some basic concepts that
relate to radio frequency systems beginning with what
radio waves are, as they are the medium used to carry
the signals in a wireless network
Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations
Electromagnetic radiations can be characterized by
both frequency and wavelength
For the frequencies to create wireless data networks,
the range is in or near the gigahertz frequencies. This
is just under 1 GHz to just under 100 GHz, specifically
700 MHz to 95 GHz
3
Radio Waves
Frequency being the number of complete oscillations
per second of energy in the form of waves
In terms of the length of these waves, they range from
428.6 mm to 3.2 mm
The wavelength is the distance a radio wave will travel
during one cycle
That is the distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform
There are formulas to compute wavelength or
frequency
Note
The actual speed of radio waves is the speed of light, which is
299,792,458 meters per second, but rounding to 300,000,000 is
sufficient for this purpose
4
Radio Wave
s(t) = A
t
sin(2 f
t
t +
t
)
5
Wavelength
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform. In wireless systems, this
length is usually specified in meters, centimeters, or
millimeters
6
The size of the wavelength varies depending on the
frequency of the signal. Generally speaking, the higher the
frequency the smaller the wavelength.
Relationship:
= c/f
wave length ,
speed of light c 3x108m/s,
frequency f
At 2.4 GHz the wavelength is 12.5cm
At 905 MHz the wavelength is 33cm
7
These values are calculated using the following formula:
Wavelength = 3 x 10
2
f (frequency in MHz)
This calculation is important to remember, especially when
installing antennas. Ideally, the antenna should be installed
no closer than 10 wavelengths to the nearest reflective
surface.
8
Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in
alternating current direction. The standard unit of frequency is
the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a current completes one cycle
per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz.
Kilohertz (kHz)
Megahertz (MHz)
Gigahertz (GHz)
Terahertz (THz)
9
Frequency Spectrum
Designation Abbrevi ation Frequencies Free-space Wavel engths
Very Low Frequency VLF 9 kHz - 30 kHz 33 km - 10 km
Low Frequency LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km
Medium Frequency MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km - 100 m
High Frequency HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m
Very High Frequency VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 m - 100 mm
Super High Frequency SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz 100 mm - 10 mm
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm

10
Spectrum
800 850 900 960
DAMPS 869 894
GSM/NMT 890 915 935 960
EGSM 870 915 925 960
TACS 890 905 935 950
ETACS 872 905 917 950
PDC 940 958
AMPS 824 849 869 894
iDEN 806 821 851 866
ESMR 806 824 851 869
UP-SMR
896-
901
940 -
945
NPCS
901-
902
930-
931
940 -
941
PAGING 929 932
ISM 902 928
1700 1800 1900 2000 2500
PCN/DCS 1710 1785 1805 1880
PCS 1850 1910 1930 1990
ISM 2400-2483.5
11
Radio Wave Abbreviations
When discussing frequencies abbreviations are often
used, such as
1 Hz 1 cycle per second
1 kHz 1 thousand cycles per second
1 MHz 1 million cycles per second
1 GHz 1 billion cycles per second
12
Prefixes
Common prefixes seen in RF include
m milli - 1/1000
Such as
5 mw =.005 watts
k kilo - 1000
Such as
3 kg =3000 grams
M Mega - 1,000,000
Such as
2 MHz =2 million Hertz
G Giga - 1,000,000,000
Such as
100 GHz =2 billion Hertz
13
Terms
Common terms used include
Watt
This is the unit of measure for power
Energy
This is power times time
Voltage
Electrical potential
Current
Electrons on the move
Hertz
Cycles per second
The number of times a signal goes through a complete up and down
cycle, which is also the signals frequency
14
TxPower
Tx is short for Transmit
All radios have a certain level or Tx power that the radio
generates at the RF interface. This power is calculated as the
amount of energy given across a defined bandwidth and is
usually measured in one of two units:
1. dBm a relative power level
referencing 1 milliwatt
2. W a linear power level
referencing Watts
15
dBm = 10 x log[Power in Watts / 0.001W]
W = 0.001 x 10
[Power in dBm / 10 dBm]
The radio having Tx power of +18dBm translates into .064 W or
64 mW.
16
Rx Sensitivity
Rx is short for Receive
All radios also have a certain point of no return, where if they
receive a signal less than the stated Rx Sensitivity, the radio
will not be able to see the data.
This is also stated in dBm or W.
A particular radio has a receive sensitivity of 82 dBm. At this
level, a Bit Error Rate (BER) of 10
-5
(99.999%) is seen.
The actual level received at the radio will vary depending on
many factors.
17
Radiated Power
In a wireless system, antennas are used to convert electrical
waves into electromagnetic waves. The amount of energy the
antenna can boost the sent and received signal by is referred to
as the antennas Gain.
Antenna gain is measured in:
1. dBi: relative to an isotropic radiator
2. dBd: relative to a dipole radiator
0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
18
There are certain guidelines set by the FCC that must be met
in terms of the amount of energy radiated out of an antenna.
This energy is measured in one of two ways:
1. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBi]
2. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBd]
19
Energy Losses
In all wireless communication systems there are several factors
that contribute to the loss of signal strength. Cabling,
connectors, lightning arrestors can all impact the performance
of your system if not installed properly.
In a low power system every dB you can save is important!!
Remember the 3 dB Rule.
For every 3 dB gain/loss you will either double your
power (gain) or lose half your power (loss).
20
-3 dB = 1/2 power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
+3 dB = 2x power
+6 dB = 4x power
Sources of loss in a wireless system: free space,
cables, connectors, jumpers, obstructions
21
FCC Guidelines
The ISM Bands are defined as follows:
902 to 928 MHz
2400 to 2483.5 MHz
5725 to 5850 MHz
FCC Part 15, Class B
Unlicensed operation from 2400 to 2483.5 MHz
P2P - EIRP : +36 dBm (4 Watts)
: 3:1 i.e. +24 dBm into 24 dBi
P2MP - EIRP : +36 dBm (4 Watts)
: 3:1 at subscriber (considered P2P)
22
Radio Wave Formulas
For frequency in megahertz
f = frequency in megahertz
v = velocity of the radio wave, which is the speed of light in meters
per second, in this case divided by 1000
w =wavelength in mm
For frequency in gigahertz
f = frequency in gigahertz
w =wavelength in mm
=
1000
w
v
f
=
100
w
v
f
23
Radio Wave Formulas
For wavelength in mm for megahertz frequencies
w =wavelength in mm
f = frequency in megahertz
For wavelength in mm for gigahertz frequencies
w =wavelength in mm
f = frequency in gigahertz
=
1000
f
v
w
=
100
f
v
w
24
Radio Wave Propagation Speed
Since radio waves move really fast, their speed of
propagation is not an issue when discussing wireless
data networks such as these
It is safe to ignore the effect of the speed of the radio
wave
25
Planes
Electromagnetic radiation fields consist of two planes
It is necessary to understand what a plane is in relation
to a wave front as it has an effect on the ability of two
ends of a wireless radio link to communicate
These planes are
E Field Electric Field
Exists in a plane parallel to the antenna
H Field Magnetic Field
Exists in a plane perpendicular to the antenna
In other words the E field lines up with the antenna
Using a dipole antenna for example
26
Planes
Antenna
Vertical
E Field Orientation
27
Planes
Antenna
Horizontal
E Field Orientation
28
Polarization
Radio frequency signals are said to be polarized
The polarization aligns with the E field
In that the direction plane of the electric field lines
determines the polarization of an electromagnetic
wave
If the electric field lines are parallel with the surface,
then the polarization is horizontal
When those electrical field lines are perpendicular to
the surface, the polarization is vertical
The antenna construction and type determine the
polarization of the radio wave
29
Polarization
30
Polarization
For frequencies below 1 GHz, vertically polarized
radio waves propagate better near the earth than
horizontally polarized ones
Horizontal polarized radio waves will be canceled out
by reflections from the earth
Above 1 GHz it makes little difference
It is important that the sending and receiving antennas
in a wireless communication system both use the same
polarization
Failure to do so will cause a reduction in the useable
signal
31
Signals
A signal in a RF or radio frequency system is produced
by an electrical current flowing through a conductor
The antenna turns this current into invisible waves
moving through the air from the transmitting end
Then at the receiving end the invisible waves are
turned back into electrical current on a conductor
The invisible airborne waves are signals
Signals can be
Analog
Digital
32
Analog Signal
An analog signal is one that varies continuously from
one value to another in the form of a sine wave, which
is a waveform that represents periodic oscillations in
which the amplitude of displacement at each point is
proportional to the sine of the phase angle of the
displacement
Sine itself being the trigonometric function that for an
acute angle is the ratio between the leg opposite the
angle when it is considered part of a right triangle and
the hypotenuse
In other words, the current or voltage varies with the
sine of the elapsed time
33
Analog Signal
34
Digital Signal
A digital signal in contrast goes instantly from one
value to another
35
Carrier and Information Signals
In radio frequency systems an analog signal is always
used as the main airborne signal
This is the carrier signal
On top of this signal another signal, analog or digital,
is added that carries the information
This is the information signal
This combination of signals is called the modulation
36
Modulation
Modulation is how an information signal is added to a
carrier signal
This is the superimposing of the information onto the
carrier
In an RF system a modulator generates this
information signal
Then it is passed to the transmitter and out the antenna
In other words it is modulated
Then at the other end the signal is demodulated
The way to think of this is like a letter
The envelope is the carrier and the letter is the information
The envelope is only needed during transmission
37
Modulation
Modulation is why a perfect sine wave is desired
Modulators superimpose the information onto the sine
wave by making tiny modifications to the sine wave
If the sine wave is not perfect, these small changes
may be lost by the time the signal gets to the other end
of the link
38
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal
ASK, FSK, PSK (Shift Keying)
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of basebandsignal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
39
synchronization
decision
digital
data
analog
demodulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio receiver
digital
modulation
digital
data
analog
modulation
analog
baseband
signal
radio
carrier
radio transmitter
101101001
40
Types of Modulation
There are three forms of modulation
AM Amplitude Modulation
FM Frequency Modulation
PM Phase Modulation
Combination modulation
41
AM
AM changes the height of the sine wave as time goes
by
For example
42
FM
FM changes the frequency of the sine wave as time
goes by, without changing the height
For example
43
PM
PM changes the phase of successive sine waves
For example
A B C
A LEADS B BY 30 DEGREES
B LEADS C BY 30 DEGREES
A LEADS C BY 60 DEGREES
44
PM
In general when you see phase modulation schemes
explained B stands for binary, which is only 2 points.
Q stands for quadrature, which is 4 points and 16 and
64 represent the higher number of points in the
modulation schemes
Every time the number of points is increased the speed
is increased, but interference tolerance is reduced
This is one of the reasons for automatic speed
reduction in the face of interference
Going from binary - 2 to 64 requires a really clean
signal
45
PM Types
Some phase modulation methods include
MSK Minimum Shift Keying
BPSK Bi-Phase Shift Keying
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
DQPSK Differential QPSK
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
46
Digital modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
simple
low bandwidth
susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
somewhat larger bandwidth
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
more complex (both ends)
robust against interference
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
47
Signal to Noise Ratio
All communication systems generate noise and pickup
noise that is naturally occurring
The signal to noise ratio is a ratio of the signal power
divided by the noise power
It is measured in decibels
48
Sources of Noise
Noise consists of all undesired radio signals, whether
manmade or natural
Noise makes the reception of useful information
difficult
The radio signals strength is of little use, if the noise
power is greater than the received signal power
This is why the signal to noise ratio is important
Increasing receiver amplification cannot improve the
signal to noise ratio since both signal and noise will be
amplified equally and the ratio will remain the same
49
Natural Noise
Naturally occurring noise has two main sources
Atmospheric noise, such as thunderstorms, from 0 to 5 MHz
Galactic noise, such as stars, at all higher frequencies
Both of these sources generate sharp pulses of
electromagnetic energy over all frequencies
The pulses are propagated according to the same laws
as the desirable signals being generated by the radio
frequency equipment
The receiving systems must accept them along with
the desired signal
50
Manmade Noise
Manmade noise is part of modern life
It is generated almost anywhere that there is electrical
activity, such as automobile ignition systems, power
lines, motors, arc welders, fluorescent lights, and so on
Each occurrence is small, but there are so many that
together they can completely hide a weak signal that
would be above the natural noise in a less populated
area
The most common sources of noise in the urban
environment are automotive noise, power generating
noise, and industrial noise
A Comparative Investigation on Urban Radio Noise
IEE Transactions on Broadcasting Vol. 50 Number 3 9-2004
51
Active or Passive
There are a number of components that are used in RF
systems
All of these are either
Active
or
Passive
An active device requires a power supply
A passive device does not
52
Loss
All components exhibit one of two properties
Loss
or
Gain
If the signal coming out is smaller than the signal
going in, it is loss
Attenuators produce loss
Well everything else produces loss as well, but this
loss is not by design
Loss is a passive process that appears as heat
This passive loss is called insertion loss
53
Attenuation
Causes of loss or attenuation in RF systems and the
environments through which they transmit include
Water, regardless of how it appears or where it is found
including inside connections
When water is encountered in the air as the signal passes
through, the form of the moisture matters
At frequencies above 10 GHz attenuation from rain becomes
significant
When the raindrops size matches the wavelength
attenuation occurs
Raindrops vary in size from colloidal to about 6 to 8 mm
equivalent spherical diameter
Limits to the size of raindrops are due to the drag that occurs
as the raindrops fall through the atmosphere
54
Attenuation
At the maximum size the surface tension of the raindrop can
no longer overcome the force placed on the raindrop by the
atmospheric drag
Keep in mind that the determining factor in rain produced
attenuation is not the total amount of rain that has fallen, but
the instantaneous rainfall rate
Examples of the affect outside include
Rain causes about .08 dB of loss per mile for 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz
Fog causes about .03 dB per mile for 2.4 GHz
For 5.8 GHz the loss is about .11 dB per mile
Ice changes the effective design of an antenna, therefore changing its
performance
55
Attenuation
Inside a structure
The packaging material, such as cardboard, has a water content
This will affect the signal in a warehouse or manufacturing location
The products themselves in many cases have a significant water
content
In an office, hospital, or meeting environment the human beings
attenuate the signal, as humans are basically large bags of water
As the frequency increases so does the affect of water
on the signal
Below 10 GHz rain attenuation is not a major factor
A document from the International
Telecommunications Union, ITU-R P.838-1 has a
formula for computing the effect based on frequency
and polarization
56
Attenuation
As the ITU formula shows a vertically polarized
antenna is less susceptible to rain fade
All of this is why a realistic site survey must be done,
the emphasis on realistic
57
Gain
If the signal gets larger before it exits the device, it is
gain
RF amplifiers produce gain
Gain is an active process in most cases, in other words
it requires a power source
Gain can also be the combination of signals from
different directions appearing together, such as the
main signal and a reflected signal
However, the total gain cannot exceed the original
level transmitted from the antenna in such a case
58
Logarithm
We will next be discussing measures that use
logarithms
Why this level of complication
First, because humans hear things logarithmically
That is when a human says something has doubled in
loudness, the transmission power has actually
increased by a power of 10
This same concept of the increase in power is applied
to wireless communication systems
Second, because boosts or drops in signals are additive
or subtractive
That is one adds to the next or is reduced by it
59
Logarithm
For example
A 10 dB signal encounters a 5 dB loss, then a 15 dB gain
The result is a 20 dB signal
10 5 + 15 = 20
Last, as the numbers of interest here range from very
small to very large a logarithmic scale is useful to
allow them to be viewed in comparison to each other
60
Bel
When work began on the first telephone networks a
unit of measure for the performance of the equipment
was required
As this was a voice network and as humans respond in
a logarithmic fashion to increases in frequency and
loudness, it was decided that a logarithmic measure for
the differences in signal levels would work best
The measure was named the bel
A bel is the logarithm of the ratio of two signal power
levels
The two signals differ by one bel if the logarithm of
their power ratio is 1.0
61
Bel
In other words, if one signal has a power level 10
times that of the other, because the LOG
10
= 1
62
Decibel
Bels are fine, but not accurate enough, as they are too
large
The dB or decibel is used when discussing wireless
data networks
It is 1/10
th
of a bel
So 10 dB = 1 bel
The decibel is commonly used to measure power gain
or loss
63
Decibels in Practice
The formula for gain or loss in dBs then is
dB = power ratio in bels
P
0
= received power
P
I
= transmitted power
In the real RF world there are only three dB
conversions that are used for the most part
0
10
1
P
dB LOG
P
=
64
+3 dB means 2 times larger
Multiply by 2
Double the power
-3 dB means 2 times smaller
Divide by 2
Half the power
Multiply by 10
Ten times the power
-10 dB means 10 times smaller
Divide by 10
One tenth the power
65
Multiply by 100
One hundred times the power
-20 dB means 100 time smaller
Divide by 100
One hundredth the power
66
Common dB Values
dB Increase Factor dB Decrease Factor
0 dB 1 the same 0 dB 1 the same
1 1.25 -1 0.8
3 2 -3 0.5
6 4 -6 0.25
10 10 -10 0.10
12 16 -12 0.06
20 100 -20 0.01
30 1,000 -30 0.001
40 10,000 -40 0.0001
67
dBm
As the bel and decibel are ratios between two power
values, such as input and output power, another
measure is needed to express power in terms of a fixed
reference point
This is the dBm
This uses 1 mW or milliwatt as the standard
1 mW = 0 dBm
So 10 dBm means a signal that is 10 dB above 1 mW
68
dBi
The dBi refers to the gain of an antenna in relation to a
theoretical isotropic radiator
This measure is used for antennas used for frequencies
above 1 GHz
69
dBd
This is the gain in decibels in relation to a standard
half-wave dipole antenna
0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
The dBd is used for antennas for systems transmitting
below 1 GHz
70
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies in a range
There is a relationship between bandwidth and
carrying capacity in terms of the amount of data that
can be transmitted
Although significant, bandwidth is not as important as
actual throughput, which is the amount of data pushed
through a real network
71
Propagation Factors
The propagation of the radio waves through the
atmosphere is how the information travels from one
point to another in a wireless data network
For the types of networks of interest here, this
propagation occurs entirely within the atmosphere near
the Earth
The Earths atmosphere is divided into layers
The troposphere is the first layer
It starts at the Earths surface and goes up to about 10
kilometers
Air in this layer decreases in temperature at a rate of
about 2.5 C for every 300 meters of altitude gained
72
Propagation Factors
The second layer of the atmosphere is the stratosphere
It extends from about 10 km to 50 km
The air in this layer maintains a nearly constant
temperature of about -65 C
Above about 50 km and extending upward to more
than 500 km is the ionosphere
The ionosphere gets its name because the molecules in
it are ionized
Electrons have been stripped from the atoms by the
bombardment of the Suns rays and other high energy
particles from the Sun
73
Propagation Factors
These ionized particles with large quantities of free
electrons act on any radio waves that pass through the
ionosphere
Radio waves move from the transmitter to the receiver
using sky waves, troposphericwaves or ground waves
Sky waves bounce the signal off of the ionosphere,
where it is refracted back to the Earth
The other method, and the one of interest here, is by
ground wave
Sky waves operate in the 2 to 30 MHz range
74
Ground Waves
travels in contact with earths surface
reflection, refraction and scattering by objects on the ground
transmitter and receiver need NOT see each other
affects all frequencies
at VHF or higher, provides more reliable propagation means
signal dies off rapidly as distance increases
75
Ground Waves
A ground wave propagates directly from the
transmitter to the receiver
Ground wave propagation is affected by several
factors which determine how much of the radio wave
is readable when it arrives at the other end, including
The transmitters power output
The frequency being transmitted
The effect of the Earths shape in between the points
The conductivity of the Earth along the transmission path
The microclimate through which the signal passes
76
Ground Waves
The ground wave has three components
Direct wave
Ground reflected wave
Surface wave
The direct wave travels directly from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna
This wave is limited to the line of sight distance
between the transmitting antenna and the receiving
antenna
The distance can be extended by atmospheric
refraction and diffraction of the wave around the
Earths curvature
77
Ground Waves
Raising the antenna at one or both ends helps to extend
this distance
The ground reflected wave bounces off of the surface
and then to the receiving antenna
Multipath as discussed later, is a result of the ground
reflected component and the direct wave component
arriving at the receiving antenna at different times
The surface wave follows the Earths curvature
It is most affected by the Earths conductivity and
dielectric constant
78
Characteristics of Ground Waves
The frequency mainly determines which wave
component will carry the information signal
For example, when the Earths conductivity is high
and the frequency of a radiated signal is low, the
surface wave is the predominant component
For the lowest radio frequency signals the surface
wave is usually the main method of propagation
Above 10 MHz, radio waves begin to be absorbed
more by the ground or other surface, so the direct
becomes the most important
In the 30 to 300 kHz range, ground losses are very
small, so the radio wave follows the Earths surface or
curvature quite well
79
These frequencies can be used for long distance
communication with sufficient transmitter power
The next set of frequencies, those from 300 kHz to 3
MHz, are used for long distance communications over
sea water and for medium distance communication
over land
Above 3 MHz in the 3 to 30 MHz range, the grounds
conductivity is a significant factor
Especially above 10 MHz, the conductivity of the
Earths surface determines how much signal
absorption occurs
80
Both the frequency and the characteristics of the
surface over which the signal travels determines how
much of that signal is lost to absorption by the surface
The best transmission occurs when the signal is at a
low frequency and the surface is highly conductive
81
Effect of Earths Conductivity
In general the Earths surface has poor conductivity
But some surfaces are better than others
For example a commonly used table shows
82
Surface Type Relative Conductivity
Large body fresh water Very good
Ocean or sea water Good
Flat or hilly loam Fair
Rocky terrain Poor
Desert Poor
J ungle Very Poor
83
Keep in mind that the various factors that act on
propagation as discussed here interact or one factor
may help in relation to one thing and be an
impediment in relation to another
For example, as seen just above water has good
conductivity in relation to other surfaces
However, water makes problems from reflections of
the signal much worse
The exact interaction of all of these various factors and
their permutations is quite difficult to characterize
84
Tropospheric Wave
Bending (refraction) of wave in the lower atmosphere
VHF communication possible over a long distance
Bending increases with frequency so higher
frequency more chance of propagation
85
Ionospheric or Sky Wave
Reflected back to earth by ionospheric layer of the
earth atmosphere
By repeated reflection, communication can be
established over 1000s of miles
Mainly at frequencies below 30MHz
More effective at times of high sunspot activity
86
Ducting
At the frequencies of interest here sky wave
propagation is not much of a factor so the ionosphere
can be ignored
The only sky wave phenomena of interest is the
ducting phenomena
Ducting is a form of refraction
It is the bending of a wave as it passes through air
layers of different density
Ducting occurs in semitropical regions, when a layer
of air 5 to 100 meters thick with abnormal
characteristics forms
This is normally the result of a temperature inversion
87
Ducting
For example, on a warm day after a rainy period, the
Sun may heat up the ground and create a layer of
warm, moist air
As the sun goes down, the air a few meters above the
ground will cool very quickly, while the moisture in
the air near the ground holds the remaining heat there
A large difference in temperature occurs between the
air near the ground and the air at a height of 10 to 20
meters, resulting in a difference in air pressure
When a radio wave in the VHF or UHF range is
transmitted into this air mass, it may bend along the
temperature or inversion layer
88
Ducting
This layer then acts as a channel or duct between the
transmitting antenna and an unusually distant receiving
antenna that normally would not be able to receive the
signal
Ducting is measured by the k-factor or refractivity
gradient
The k-factor can change frequently and different
regions have different values
A k-factor higher than 1 means a microwave signal
will tend to bend downward toward the earth
The result is the radio horizon is now much further
away than would normally be the case
89
Ducting
In other words the signal will curve around the earth
when in more typical weather conditions, it would not
Moreover, if the k-factor is less than one, then the
microwave signal will not travel as far as expected
90
General Atmospheric Related Factors
In addition to the ducting phenomena, temperature
changes in general along with other atmospheric
factors will commonly produce a daily variance in
signal strength
As the day goes by the temperature may go up and the
humidity down, then as the sun goes down the reverse
happens
Air density as expressed by atmospheric pressure also
affects propagation
For example, here is a report from a wireless related
mailing list concerning these effects
91
General Atmospheric Related Factors
I have watched my links long enough now to observe signal
strength patterns and have noticed a very repeatable pattern
My strongest signals usually occur near midnight
Then they will fade slightly until around 8 AM, where they
come back up a bit until around 2 PM, when they again,
slowly fade, until they are the worst around 6-7 pm, where
they stay until around 9 pm, where they slowly start back up
until around midnight
92
Environmental Factors
As radio waves move along in their journey from here
to there, they are acted upon by many things
Most of these many things are not good
Everything an RF signal encounters on its journey has
an effect on the signal
The effect is usually to make the signal smaller or to
changes its direction in some way
93
Environmental Factors
These things that have an effect include
Free Space Loss
Absorption
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Scattering
94
4 possible events
Radio wave
Radio wave
shadowing scattering
Radio wave
reflection diffraction
95
Free Space Loss
The free space loss is the widening out of the signal as
it moves away from the antenna
The effect is a loss of signal strength at the receiving
end of the link
J ust think of water coming out of a water hose, it can
only go so far
Propagation loss increases with respect to both
distance and frequency
In other words, higher frequency signals loose more
than lower frequency signals, because the short
wavelengths of the higher frequencies cannot bend
around objects as can longer wavelengths
96
Free Space Path Loss
The result being systems that use the short
wavelengths must be line of sight
The formula is
L = C + (20 * Log(D)) + (20 * Log(F))
For both measuring systems
D = Distance
F = Frequency
For kilometers
C = 32.4
For miles
C = 36.6
97
Absorption
Free space loss is only the beginning of the losses
suffered by the signal as it goes from here to there
Absorption is insertion loss caused by things the
signals run into
For the wavelengths of interest here the amount of loss
experienced by a radio wave from absorption depends
on the materials the wave encounters on its journey
and the effects of the Earths surface over which it
travels
These high frequencies with their short wavelengths
are absorbed by the Earth at points relatively close to
the point of transmission
98
Absorption
In general as the frequency goes up, the more rapidly
will the wave be absorbed by the Earth
So straight line, long distance transmission at heights
close to the Earths surface is impractical above 2
MHz
Further the size of the obstacle in comparison to the
size of the wavelength is important
When short wavelengths as are used in these wireless
systems hit large obstacles, such as a tree, the signal is
blocked
Lower frequency signals are desired for this type of
non line of sight penetration
99
Absorption
In the types of systems used to create data and
multimedia networks for deployment outside, the main
absorption problem encountered is vegetation
There are no firm numbers for this problem, but some
general statements can be made
This absorption is due to the water content of the
vegetation and the frequency of the signal
100
Absorption
For full foliage trees in the Northern Hemisphere
research suggests these values for the absorption effect
of vegetation
870 MHz
.2 to 1.3 dB per meter of foliage or 11 dB per tree
1.6 GHz
.5 to 1.3 dB per meter of foliage or 11 dB per tree
5 GHz
1.2 to 2 dB per meter or 20 dB per tree
20 GHz
2 to 4 dB per meter of foliage or 23 dB per tree
101
Absorption
Studies suggest that the wood part of the tree is the
major factor in tree related attenuation at frequencies
from 870 MHz to 4 GHz
With the leaves adding from 35% additional
attenuation at 870 MHz to 15% additional at 1.6 GHz
At 20 GHz the wood and leaves are both important
An ITU - International Telecommunication Union
study on this subject also states that the attenuation
caused by vegetation varies widely due to the irregular
shape of vegetation, as well as the wide range of sizes,
shapes, densities, and water content of the various
species
102
Absorption
In addition to the attenuation caused by absorption,
foliage also causes scattering as discussed below,
especially at the lower frequencies around 900 MHz
103
Absorption
104
Reflection
Reflection is a change in direction of the signal caused
by something the signal cannot penetrate
The amount of reflection depends on the wavelength
and the material the object is made of
Reflection occurs when the object has a very large
dimension compared to the wavelength
As most of the wavelengths used in wireless systems
are very short in comparison to the objects they
encounter on their journey, most things in the
environment cause reflection
If the material does not absorb all of the signal, some
must bounce off or be reflected in another direction
105
Reflection
A smooth metal surface with good electrical
conductivity does this
Reflection appears as multipath
Surfaces made of metal or water exhibit severe
reflection
Antenna diversity or modulation techniques are used
to help with this multipath problem
106
Reflection
107
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes
through an object
It is not reflected off, but mostly passes through the
object
The signal that passes through goes off in a direction
different from that which it entered the object
The obstruction that causes the refraction is not always
obvious
Atmospheric refraction is an example of this
In atmospheric refraction when the wave front reaches
a area of less dense air it starts to travel faster than the
part of the wave front still in the more dense air
108
Refraction
This causes the part of the wave front to bend
Ducting as discussed earlier is the common effect see
from this type of refraction
Usually refraction and reflection both occur at the
same time
109
Refraction
110
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when a RF wave is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp edges or a rough surface, such as
the edge of a building or a hill
The signal moves around the object and back to the
other side
But a shadowed area appears behind the object
111
Diffraction
112
Diffraction
113
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the radio waves hit a large
number of objects whose dimensions are smaller than
the wavelength of the wave
In the frequencies of interest here, common causes of
this are foliage, street signs, and other such things
found in the environment
In addition to the scattering caused by the leaves.
Swaying of the tree branches due to wind whether the
leaves are present or not introduces additional loss due
to scattering
Effect of Wind on Foliage Obstructed Line-of-Sight
Eric R. Pelet, J . Eric Salt, and Garth Wells
IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 50 Number 3 9-
2004
114
Scattering
115
Multipath Characteristics
A signal may arrive at a receiver
- many different times
- many different directions
- due to vector addition
. Reinforce
. Cancel
- signal strength differs from place to place
116
Delay Spread
Signal follows different paths to reach same
destination.
So same signal may arrive many times at different
time intervals.

117
Delay Spread
In digital system, delay spread causes intersymbol
interference.
Therefore, there is a limit on the maximum symbol
rate of a digital multipathchannel.
Obviously, delay spreads are different in different
environment.
(roughly between 0.2 to 3 microseconds)
118
Capacity of Channel
What is the maximum transmission rate so that the
channel has very high reliability?
- error free capacity of a channel
C.E. Shannons work suggest that signaling scheme
exists for error-free transmission if the rate of
transmission is lower than the channel capacity.
119
Shannons work
C - channel capacity (bits/s)
B transmission bandwidth (Hz)
E energy per bit of received signal (J oule)
R information rate (bits/s)
S = E R signal power
N single-sided noise power spectral density (W/Hz)
(C/B) = log [1+(S/(NB))] = log [1+(E/N)(R/B)]
Suppose R = C we have
(C/B) = log [1+(E/N)(C/B)]
120
Propagation models in built-up areas
Propagation is strongly influenced by the environment
- building characteristics
- vegetation density
- terrain variation
Perfect conductors reflect the wave where as
nonconductors absorb some energy!
121
Empirical models to predict propagation
losses
Okumuras model
- based on free space path loss + correction factors for
suburban and rural areas, irregular terrain, street
orientations
Sakagmi and Kuboi model
- extend Okumuras model using regression analysis of
data.
Hatasmodel
- empirical formula to describe Okumuras data
122
More models
Ibrahimand Parsons model
- equations developed to best fit data observed at
London. (freq. 168-900 MHz)
Lees model
Use at 900MHZ
3 parameters (median trasmissionloss, slope of the path loss
curve and adjustment factor)
123
Freq. for mobile communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
small antenna, focusing
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF
spectrum
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen
weather dependent fading, signal loss due to by heavy rainfall etc.
2.2.1
124
Interference Temperature
Interference among radio frequency systems is
currently minimized by coordinating frequency usage
or by limiting the power of a transmitter
In contrast the interference temperature model sets a
maximum noise level for an entire band
New systems can be placed in service beside existing
systems, if it is anticipated that the interference
temperature limit would not be exceeded
For this to work the interference temperature would
have to be monitored by the systems that would share
the spectrum
125
Interference Temperature
This requires that cognitive radios be developed that
can sense the interference temperature and adjust
themselves accordingly
126
VSWR
The equipment that is used to send or receive an RF
signal is put together with connectors and cables that
must all be electrically matched
This match is expressed by saying all of the
components must use the same impedance, which is 50
ohms for the equipment used in wireless networks
Not having a good match results in impedance or loss
being introduced
Of course loss is always bad in a system, unless put in
by an attenuator
Regardless of how carefully parts are put together,
there will be some insertion loss or leaking in this case
127
VSWR
This leaking is measured by SWR or VSWR Voltage
Standing Wave Ratio, which is an indication of how
good the impedance match is
Common interpretation says that
1.0:1 is a perfect match with no leaking, never happens
1.4:1 is an excellent match, a design goal
1.5:1 is very good as 96% of the power gets radiated out
2.0:1 is a good match and acceptable
10.0:1 is considered to be terrible
As most antennas and their connectors are able to
achieve from 1.5:1 to 2.0:1 VSWR values, this is not
much of an issue in practice
128
Return Loss
Another measure of lack of match is return loss
The reason for return loss is that the signal does not all
actually just leak out into space, part is sent backwards
down the conductor
In other words, some of the signal is returned where it
came from
Common values of return loss, in dB, for various
VSWR values are
1.0:1 30 dB
1.5:1 14 dB
2.0:1 9.5 dB
129
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Also known as Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access
(DS-CDMA), DSSS is one of two approaches to spread spectrum
modulation for digital signal transmission over the air.
The stream of information to be transmitted is divided into small
pieces, each of which is allocated to a frequency channel acrossthe
spectrum.
When transmitted, the data is combined with a higher data-rate bit
sequence (also known as a chipping code) that divides the data
according to a spreading ratio.
130
Thetransmitter and the receiver must be synchronized with the
same spreading code.
The chipping code helps the signal resist interference and also
enables the original data to be recovered if data bits are damaged
during transmission.
22 MHz wide
131
132
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Also known as Frequency Hopping Code Division Multiple
Access (FH-CDMA), FHSS radios transmit "hops" between
available frequencies according to a specified algorithm which can
be either random or preplanned.
The transmitter operates in synchronization with a receiver, which
remains tuned to the same center frequency as the transmitter.
133
FHSS an example
TIME TIME
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
f1 f1
f2 f2
f3 f3
f4 f4
f5 f5
Each
channel
1MHz wide
Hopset Hopset Hopset
134
Signal Propagation
As the signal leaves the antenna it propagates, or disperses, into
space. The antenna selection will determine how much
propagation will occur.
At 2.4 GHz it is extremely important to ensure a that a path (or
tunnel) between the two antennas is clear of any obstructions.
Should the propagating signal encounter any obstructions in the
path, signal degradation will occur.
Trees, buildings, hydro poles, and towers are common
examples of path obstructions.
135
The greatest amount of loss in your wireless system will be
from Free Space Propagation. The Free Space Loss is
predictable and given by the formula:
FSL(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log
10
F(MHz) + 20Log
10
D(km)
The Free Space Loss at 1km using a 2.4 GHz system is:
FSL(dB) = 32.45 + 20Log
10
(2400) + 20Log
10
(1)
= 32.45 + 67.6 + 0
= 100.05 dB
136
Line of Sight
Attaining good Line of Sight (LOS) between the sending and
receiving antenna is essential in both Point to Point and Point to
Multipoint installations.
Generally there are two types of LOS that are used discussed
during installations:
1. Optical LOS - is related to the ability to see one
site from the other
2. Radio LOS related to the ability of the receiver
to see the transmitted signal
137
To quantify Radio Line of Sight, the Fresnel Zone theory is
applied. Think of the Fresnel Zone as a football shaped tunnel
between the two sites which provides a path for the RF signals.
At WaveRider (a firm) acceptable Radio Line of Sight means
that at least 60% of the first Fresnel Zone plus 3 meters is
clear of any obstructions.
138
Fresnel Zones
2nd* 2nd*
1st* 1st*
3rd* 3rd*
* Fresnel Zones * Fresnel Zones
139
The First Fresnel Zone
Site A
Site B
Fresnel Zone diameter depends upon
Wavelength, and Distances from the sites
along axis
For minimum Diffraction Loss, clearance of
at least 0.6F1+ 3mis required
d2
d1
Radius of n
th
Fresnel Zone given
by:
2 1
2 1
d d
d d n
r
n
+
=

140
When obstructions intrude on the first Fresnel Zone many
issues can arise which will affect the performance of the
system. The main issues are:
1. Reflection
incident wave propagates away from smooth scattering
plane
multipath fading is when secondary waves arrive out-of-
phase with the incident wave causing signal degradation
141
When obstructions intrude on the first Fresnel Zone many
issues can arise which will affect the performance of the
system. The main issues are:
1. Reflection
incident wave propagates away from smooth scattering
plane
multipath fading is when secondary waves arrive out-of-
phase with the incident wave causing signal degradation
142
The Path Profile
Path Profile characteristics may Path Profile characteristics may
change over time, due to vegetation, change over time, due to vegetation,
building construction, etc. building construction, etc.
Path Profile characteristics may
change over time, due to vegetation,
building construction, etc.
143
144
Antenna - How it Works
The antenna converts radio frequency electrical energy fed to it
(via the transmission line) to an electromagnetic wave propagated
into space.
The physical size of the radiating element is proportional to the
wavelength. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna
size.
Assuming that the operating frequency in both cases is the same,
the antenna will perform identically in Transmit or Receive mode
145
Antennas
Isotropic radiator: Equal radiation in all directions
(3D) - theoretical antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects
(vertically and/or horizontally)
Different antennas have different radiation pattern.
146
The type of system you are installing will help determine the
type of antenna used. Generally speaking, there are two types
of antennae:
1. Directional
- this type of antenna has a narrow beamwidth; with the
power being more directional, greater distances are usually
achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
- Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennae
147
2. Omni-Directional
- this type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and radiates
360
0
; with the power being more spread out, shorter
distances are achieved but greater coverage attained
- Omni antenna
148
Yagi
- better suited for shorter links
- lower dBi gain; usually between 7 and 15 dBi
149
Typical Radiation Pattern for a Yagi
150
Parabolic
- used in medium to long links
- gains of 18 to 28 dBi
- most common
151
Typical Radiation Pattern for a Parabolic
152
Sectoral
- directional in nature, but can be adjusted anywhere from 45
0
to
180
0
- typical gains vary from 10 to 19 dBi
153
0
90
180
270 0 -3 -6 -10
-15
-20
-30
dB
0
90
180
270 0 -3 -6 -10
-15
-20
-30
dB
Typical Radiation Pattern for a Sector
154
Omni
-typical gains of 3 to 10 dBi
155
Typical Radiation Pattern for an Omni
156
Antenna Radiation Patterns
Common parameters
main lobe (boresight)
half-power beamwidth (HPBW)
front-back ratio (F/B)
pattern nulls
Typically measured in two planes:
Vector electric field referred to E-field
Vector magnetic field referred to H-field
157
Polarization
An antennas polarization is relative to the E-field of antenna.
If the E-field is horizontal, than the antenna is Horizontally
Polarized.
If the E-field is vertical, than the antenna is Vertically
Polarized.
No matter what polarity you choose, all antennas in the same RF
network must be polarized identically regardless of the antenna
type.
158
Polarization may deliberately be used to:
Increase isolation from unwanted signal sources (Cross
Polarization Discrimination (x-pol) typically 25 dB)
Reduce interference
Help define a specific coverage area
Horizontal
Vertical
159
Antenna Impedance
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum power
transfer. The antenna must also function as a matching load for
the Transmitter ( 50 ohms).
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), is an indicator of how
well an antenna matches the transmission line that feeds it.
It is the ratio of the forward voltage to the reflected voltage.
The better the match, the Lower the VSWR. A value of 1.5:1
over the frequency band of interest is a practical maximum
limit.
160
Return Loss is related to VSWR, and is a measure of the
signal power reflected by the antenna relative to the forward
power delivered to the antenna.
The higher the value (usually expressed in dB), the better.
A figure of 13.9dB is equivalent to a VSWR of 1.5:1. A
Return Loss of 20dB is considered quite good, and is
equivalent to a VSWR of 1.2:1.
161
VSWR Return Loss Transmission Loss
1.0:1

0.0 dB
1.2:1 20.83 dB 0.036 dB
1.5:1 13.98 dB 0.177 dB
5.5:1 3.19 dB 2.834 dB
162
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
M1
Distance-to-fault
CHER-B-A04
Model: S332B Serial #: 00004096
Date: 06/27/2000 Time: 12:03:59
BiasTee: OFF Output Power: -30.00 dBm
Resolution: 259 CAL: ON(COAX) CW On
R
e
t
u
r
n

L
o
s
s

(
d
B
)
Distance (0.0 - 60.0 Feet)
M1: -3.728 dB @ 50.698 Feet
163
Environmental Effects
Ice and wind loading, Salt spray
Radomes used to improve performance in icy, windy
conditions (more common with larger solid parabolic
dishes). Wind loading can be reduced substantially by
using a radome.
Wind loading can produce vibration, which in turn can
produce azimuth errors. For longer paths, this can be
critical.
Installation - pay close attention to proper sealing of all
connector junctions.
164
165
166
The Transmission Line
The type of cable selected depends mostly on the length of
that cable required. Generally, the longer the cable run the
better the cable must be in terms of attenuation.
Attenuation refers to the degradation of the signal as it
travels through the cable. This is usually stated as a loss in
dB per 100 feet.
Andrew
Corporation
Heliax
Times
Microwave
LMR types
167
Attenuation Table
Cabl e Type Attenuati on at 2.4 GHz
per 100 feet
RG8 10
LMR400 6.8
Hel i ax 3/8" 5.36
LMR600 5.4
Hel i ax 1/2" 3.74
Hel i ax 5/8" 2.15
168
Transmission Line Selection
Physical Characteristics:
Bend radius
Diameter - transition considerations (interface jumper
cable use)
Environmental considerations
Plenum installation (fire retardant)
Special weather-resistant types
UV resistance very important in tropics
169
Line Loss or Attenuation paramount refer to your Link
Budget Calculations to determine how much loss is
acceptable and still have a viable link.
Foam dielectric, Air Dielectric, Pressurized types of Coaxial
Cable. Waveguide use also possible but typically not cost-
effective
170
Connectors
Your connector selection will be determined based on the
following:
- connector gender at antenna
- type of cable being used
- use of lightning protection
- gender of jumpers being used
171
For the most part the cabling manufacturers also manufacture
the connectors that go on the cables. Knock off connectors
are available, but dont always fit the cable the way the
manufacturers connectors do.
Generally the only decision that needs to be made is what
gender of connector to installMale or Female
Antennas usually Female
Lightning Arrestors usually Female
172
Connectors
N-male
RP-SMA- male
N-female
RP-SMA-female
173
The Lightning Arrestor
To avoid the potential for damage during a lightning strike,
the use of lightning is highly recommended.
For maximum protection, ground must be connected close to
point of entry into building - within 2ft.
Typically structural steel OK for ground connection
Typical
Lightning
Arrestor
Do not use Gas Lines or
Water pipes.
Check Electrical Code for
grounding restrictions.
174
Link Budget Calculations
To establish the viability of a link prior to installing any
equipment, a Link Budget Calculation needs to be made.
Performing this calculation will give you an idea as to how much
room for path loss you have, and give you an idea as to link
quality.
Fade Margin
Defined as the difference between the Receive Signal Level
RSL, and the Rx Threshold or other chosen reference Level.
For path lengths of 16km or less, a minimum 10dB Fade
Margin is recommended
Ie. If you have an RSL of 60dB and a Rx Threshold of 72dB,
than your fade Margin would be 12dB
175
Path Loss (dB)
Field Factor (dB)
Antenna Gain
(dBi)
Cable Losses
(dB)
Connector
Losses
(dB)
Connector
Losses
(dB)
Cable Losses
(dB)
A B
Received Signal Level (dBm) =Tx Output (dBm) - Path
Loss(dB) - Field Factor (dB) +Total Antenna Gains (dB) - Total
Cable Losses (dB) - Total Connector Losses (dB)
Antenna Gain
(dBi)
Tx Output (dBm) Tx Output (dBm)
176
Interference Countermeasures
1. Short Paths
2. Narrow Beam Antennas (high gain)
3. Frequency Selection
4. Antenna Polarization
5. Antenna Azimuth
6. Equipment/Antenna Location
177
Conclusion
You should now be familiar with the radio frequency
concepts required to understand how wireless
networks operate

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25 February Wireless CommSys TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006)

25 February Wireless CommSys TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006)

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