Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
| v
T63-66
~| . ~
~ (| v )
| .
~ (~| v ~)
~| v ~
~ (| . )
| v
~ (~| . ~)
Negation of
Biconditional
nb or NB
~ (| )
| ~
| ~
~ (| )
T90
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3.13 E2 Use the derived rules in the following derivations.
(a) ~(P v Q). R Q. ~(~R S). ~S
(b) W ~(S . T). ~S ~Z. ~T ~Z. (~W v ~Z)
(c) ~(R S). ~(T v W R). V T. ~V (S v W). P
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3.14 Another Shortcut: Abbreviated Derivations
Often it is handy to be able to combine two or even more steps into one.
R . (P ~R). ~~P v Q. Q
1 Show Q
2 R pr1 S
3 P ~R pr1 S
4 ~~R 2 DN We need to use DN with line 2 before we can use MT
with line 3.
5 ~P 3 4 MT
6 ~~~P 5 DN We need to use DN with line 5 before we can use
MTP with pr3.
7 Q pr3 6 MTP DD
We could shorten the proof a little by combining the DN steps with other steps.
1 Show Q
2 R pr1 S
3 P ~R pr1 S
4 ~P 2 DN 3 MT This means use DN on 2 and then use the result with
line 3 to derive ~P using MT.
5 Q 4 DN pr3 MTP DD This means use DN on line 4 and then use the result
with pr3 to derive Q using MTP.
And we can shorten it even more.
R . (P ~R). ~~P v Q. Q
1 Show Q
2 ~P pr1 SL DN pr1 SR MT This means use S one pr1 then DN and use the result
with the result of using S on pr1 to derive ~P through
MT.
NOTE: I now use the justifications SL (simplification
to the left conjunct) and SR (simplification to the right
conjunct). Now the justification is unambiguous.
3 Q 2 DN pr3 MTP DD This means use DN on line 4 and then use the result
with premise 3 to derive Q using MTP.
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Caution: In using abbreviated derivations you need to be careful that your proof is
still interpretable!
Keep your abbreviated derivations clear by combining simple rules like DN, S, ADD and BC that act
on a single sentence with more complex rules that act on two (or three) sentences.
Use SL and SR in abbreviated steps, rather than S, making it clear which conjunct you are working
with.
You read the abbreviated justification as follows:
Start at the left and move towards the right.
The line or premise number gives you the sentence on that line.
The rule gives you the sentence that follows by the rule from the line cited.
A sentence followed by DN, S, ADD and BC gives you the result of applying that rule to
that sentence. (You need to use your judgment to decipher the resulting sentence.)
Two sentences followed by MP, MT, ADJ or CB gives you the result of applying that
rule to those sentences.
Some common abbreviated steps:
1. P . Q
2. P S
3. S
1 SL 2 MP
1. P v Q R
2. P
3. R
2 ADD 1 MP
1. ~P ~Q
2. Q
3. P
2 DN 1 MT DN
1. P
2. P Q
3. Q R
4. R
1 2 MP 3 MP
3.14 E1
Try the following derivations using derived rules, abbreviated proofs and/or theorems as
rules:
a) V . W Y. ~ W Z. (Y v Z) ~U. U ~V
b) P v Q. Q S. U v ~ S. P v S R. R U. U
c) R . (S v T). R (T U). ~(R . S) U
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3.15 The Complete Derivation System for Sentential Logic
The basic rules for conditional and negation:
Modus Ponens (MP or mp)
(| )
|
Modus Tollens (MT or mt)
(| )
~
~|
Double Negation (DN or dn) Repetition (R or r)
|
~~ |
~~|
|
|
|
The basic rules for conjunction, disjunction and biconditional.
Simplification (S/SL/SR or s/sl/sr) Adjunction (ADJ or adj)
| .
|
| .
|
| .
Addition (ADD or add) Modus Tollendo Ponens (MTP or mtp)
|
| v
| v
| v
~ |
| v
~
|
Biconditional-Conditional (BC or bc) Conditional-Biconditional (CB or cb)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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The derived rules:
Negation of
Conditional
nc or NC
~(| )
| . ~
| . ~
~(| )
Conditional as
Disjunction
cdj or CDJ
|
~| v
~| v
|
~|
| v
| v
~|
Separation of Cases
sc or SC
| v
| _
_
_
| _
~| _
_
De Morgans
dm or DM
~ (| v )
~| . ~
~ (~| v ~)
| .
~ (| . )
~| v ~
~ (~| . ~)
| v
~| . ~
~ (| v )
| .
~ (~| v ~)
~| v ~
~ (| . )
| v
~ (~| . ~)
Negation of
Biconditional
nb or NB
~ (| )
| ~
| ~
~ (| )
Theorems as Rules:
A theorem of conditional form:
| . _
Justifies a rule of the form:
|
_
A theorem of biconditional form
|
Justifies rules of the form:
|
|
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And here are all the theorems
2
T1 P P
T2 Q (P Q)
T3 P ((P Q) Q)
T4 (P Q) ((Q R) (P R))
T5 (Q R) ((P Q) (P R))
T6 (P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R))
T7 ((P Q) (P R)) (P (Q R))
T8 P (Q R)) (Q (P R))
T9 (P (P Q)) (P Q)
T10 ((P Q) Q) ((Q P) P)
T11 ~~P P
T12 P ~~P
T13 (P Q) (~Q ~P)
T14 (P ~Q) (Q ~P)
T15 (~P Q) (~Q P)
T16 (~P ~Q) (Q P)
T17 P (~P Q)
T18 ~P (P Q)
T19 (~P P) P
T20 (P ~P) ~P
T21 ~(P Q) P
T22 ~(P Q) ~Q
T23 ((P Q) P) P
T24 P . Q Q . P
T25 P . (Q . R) (P . Q) . R
T26 (P Q) . (Q R) (P R)
T27 (P . Q R) (P (Q R))
T28 (P . Q R) (P . ~R ~Q)
2
The number of possible theorems is infinite. Thus, the numbering is arbitrary. This list of theorems
is from: Kalish, Montague, and Mar. Logic: Techniques of Formal Reasoning. Oxford: 1980. Pg.
107
THEOREMS
Theorems are general patterns of reasoning, just
like rules of inference are. Indeed, any theorem
that has a conditional or biconditional as the main
connective can be used as a rule of inference (3.12)
Think of P, Q and R as general terms that stand for
any three sentences molecular or atomic.
For instance, consider theorem 13.
(PQ) (~Q ~P)
If we replace P with R and Q with T v S
we would get the following sentence:
(R T v S) (~(T v S) ~R)
This sentence is also a theorem.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Since these theorems do express regular patterns of
reasoning, many of them have traditional names.
T4, T5: Hypothetical Syllogism
T11, T12: Double Negation
T13, T14, T15, T16: Transposition
T24, 53: commutation
T25, 54: association
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T29 (P Q . R) (P Q) . (P R)
T30 (P Q) (R . P R . Q)
T31 (P Q) (P . R Q . R)
T32 (P R) . (Q S) (P .Q R . S)
T33 (P Q) . (~P Q) Q
T34 (P Q) . (P ~Q) ~P
T35 (~P R) . (Q R) ((P Q) R)
T36 ~(P . ~P)
T37 (P Q) ~(P . ~Q)
T38 P . Q ~(P ~Q)
T39 ~(P . Q) (P ~Q)
T40 ~(P Q) P . ~Q
T41 P P . P
T42 P . ~Q ~(P Q)
T43 ~P ~(P . Q)
T44 ~Q ~(P . Q)
T45 P v Q (~P Q)
T46 (P Q) ~P v Q
T47 P P v P
T48 (P v Q) . (P R) . (Q S) R v S
T49 (P v Q) . (P R) . (Q R) R
T50 (P R) . (Q R) (P v Q R)
T51 (P v Q) . (P R) . (~P . Q R) R
T52 (P R) . (~P . Q R) (P v Q R)
T53 P v Q Q v P
T54 P v (Q v R) (P v Q) v R
T55 (P Q v R) (P Q) v (P R)
T56 (P Q) (R v P R v Q)
T57 (P Q) (P v R Q v R)
T58 (P Q) v (Q R)
T59 P v ~P
T60 (P R) v (Q R) (P . Q R)
T61 P . (Q v R) (P . Q) v (P . R)
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T62 P v (Q . R) (P v Q) . (P v R)
T63 P . Q ~(~P v ~Q)
T64 P v Q ~(~P . ~Q)
T65 ~(P . Q) ~P v ~Q
T66 ~(P v Q) ~P . ~Q
T67 ~P . ~Q ~(P v Q)
T68 P (P . Q) v (P . ~Q)
T69 P (P v Q) . (P v ~Q)
T70 Q (P . Q P)
T71 ~Q (P v Q P)
T72 (P Q) (P . Q P)
T73 (P Q) (P v Q Q)
T74 (PQ) . P Q
T75 (PQ) . Q P
T76 (PQ) . ~P ~Q
T77 (PQ) . ~Q ~P
T78 (P (QR)) ((P Q) (P R))
T79 (P (QR)) (P . Q P . R)
T80 (PQ) v (P~Q)
T81 (PQ) (P Q) . (Q P)
T82 (PQ) ~((P Q) ~(Q P))
T83 (PQ) (P . Q) v (~P . ~Q)
T84 P . Q (PQ)
T86 ((PQ) R) (P .Q R) . (~P . ~Q R)
T87 ~(PQ) (P . ~Q) v (~P . ~Q)
T88 P . ~Q ~(PQ)
T89 ~P . Q ~(PQ)
T90 ~(PQ) (P~Q)
T91 P P
T92 (PQ) (QP)
T93 (PQ) . (QR) (PR)
T94 (P (QR)) ((PQ) R)
T95 (P Q) ((PR) (QR))
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T96 (PQ) (~P~Q)
T97 (PR) . (QS) ((P Q) (R S))
T98 (PR) . (QS) (P .Q R . S)
T99 (PR) . (QS) (P v R Q v S)
T100 (PR) . (QS) ((PQ) (RS))
T101 (QS) ((P Q) (P S)) . ((Q P) (S P))
T102 (QS) (P . Q P . S)
T103 (QS) (P v Q P v S)
T104 (QS) ((PQ) (PS))
T105 P . (QR) (P . Q R)
T106 (P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R))
T107 (P (Q R)) (Q (P R))
T108 (P (P Q)) (P Q)
T109 ((P Q) Q) ((Q P) P)
T110 P ~~P
T111 (P Q) (~Q ~P)
T112 (P ~Q) (Q ~P)
T113 (~P Q) (~Q P)
T114 (~P P) P
T115 (P ~P) ~P
T116 (P . Q) v (R . S) (P v R) . (P v S) . (Q v R) . (Q v S)
T117 (P v Q) . (R v S) (P . R) v (P . S) v (Q . R) v (Q . S)
T118 (P Q) . (R S) (~P . ~R) v (~P . S) v (Q . ~R) v (Q . S)
T119 (P v ~P) . Q Q
T120 (P . ~P) v Q Q
T121 P v (~P . Q) P v Q
T122 P . (~P v Q) P . Q
T123 P P v (P . Q)
T124 P P . (P v Q)
T125 (P Q . R) (P . Q P . R)
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3.16 MORE DERIVATION FAQs
With all those new rules, how do I begin?
- .The earlier suggestions still apply:
o Your first line is a show line. Show: the conclusion of the argument your main goal.
o Think through the argument: Does that suggest a strategy?
o Analyze the goal sentence: What is the main logical connective? Do any sentential
components (negated or unnegated) appear in the premises?
o Analyze the premises: Do any sentential components (negated or unnegated) occur in
more than one premise? Can you use them together? Are there any obvious
contradictions?
o If the goal sentence is completely unrelated to the premises, look for a contradiction in
the premises. Any conclusion follows from a set of inconsistent sentences.
- If you are still stuck, just work with what youve got to make things a bit simpler. Then, when
you are done, look at what youve got and see if you can work out a strategy.
o Use S (simplification) to eliminate all the conjunctions and free the conjuncts.
o Use MP (modus ponens) and MT (modus tollens) and MTP (modus tollendo ponens) if
you can.
o Will a quick use of DN, ADJ (adjunction) or ADD (addition) make MP, MT or MTP
possible?
o Use NB (negation of a biconditional) to turn negated biconditionals into unnegated
ones.
- Examine all of your disjunction sentences:
o Think of each as a conditional. Would that make it easier to use with other sentences?
If so use CDJ (conditional as disjunction) and keep going.
o Can you derive the same goal from each disjunct by itself? If so, you want to derive the
two conditional sentences that show that, then use SC (separation of cases) and keep
going. (For instance, if your disjunction is (| v ) and your goal is _, then derive (|
_) and ( _) and use SC to get _.)
o Think of the disjunction as the negation of a conjunction. Would that make it easier to
use with other sentences (for instance if the conjunction occurs in the consequent
position of a conditional)? If so, use DM (de Morgans) and keep going.
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What if Im stuck in the middle of a derivation?
- Keep track of your available lines. Stop when you are stuck and determine exactly which lines
are available. Dont forget that cancelled show lines and premises are available (but
uncancelled show lines and boxed lines are not!) Then, after you have done that, think through
the argument again trying to see how the conclusion follows from the available lines. Does it
suggest a strategy?
- If you are still stuck (especially if you are midway through the derivation and youve tried
doing everything else), check if there is a conditional sentence that you havent used yet. Does
the consequent look like it might be useful? If so consider trying to show that the antecedent is
true through an indirect proof, then you can use MP to derive the consequent. (Suppose the
conditional is | and youd really like to have . Put in a show line: show |. Then assume
~|. Try to derive a contradiction. If successful, then you can cancel the show line, and use MP
to get .
How do I know when to put a show line for a subderivation?
- Use a show line whenever you cant get what you need through a direct derivation. All the
subderivations will be conditional or indirect derivations after all, if you can derive it directly,
just using the rules of inference, you dont need a subderivation. (Occasionally, you will put a
show line in for something that you can derive directly or already have thats not a problem.
Just use DD as soon as you can, box and cancel, and keep going.)
- Look at your working goal (the show line you are working with). Thinking about all the other
available lines. Ask yourself what you need to achieve that goal? (For instance, if you have
| on an available line, and your main goal is , then what you need to achieve it is: |.)
Once you know what you need, make it a show line.
How do I know what sentence to assume?
- If you know why you are starting a subderivation then you will know what assumption to make.
Once you have your show line, ask yourself how you want to show it? Then it should be
obvious what assumption to make.
o Is it a conditional? Then you probably will do a conditional derivation. Assume the
antecedent. Your new goal is the consequent.
o If it isnt a conditional, then you want to do an indirect derivation. Assume the negated
(or unnegated) sentence. Your new goal is a contradiction.
o Occasionally when you want to show a conditional the best way is with an indirect
derivation. Assume the negated conditional. Your new goal is a contradiction.
Remember, a negated conditional can be easily turned into a conjunction.
See the chart on the next page: Determining your goals for subderivations.
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Determining your goals for subderivations (new show lines).
What you want to show You have
available
OR
You can derive
If so, try this strategy:
If you need to derive a sentence think about whether
you can get it directly through the rules and available
lines, or if you want to use ID or CD to derive it.
A conditional: | Show |.
Assume |.
Derive or reiterate .
CD, box and cancel. (Uniform derivation)
A conditional: | ~| Show |.
Assume |.
Derive or reiterate ~|.
ID, box and cancel. (Mixed derivation, CD/ID)
A disjunction: | v (or |) Derive (or |)
Use ADD to get (| v )
A disjunction: | v (~|) OR
(~|)
Derive (~|) OR (~|)
Use CDJ to get (| v )
Remember you might need to use RT53 to get
the disjuncts in the right order or RT13-16
(transposition) to get the conditional in the
correct form.
A conjunction: | . |
Derive |
Derive
Use ADJ to get (| . )
Remember you might need to use ID or CD to
derive | and/or .
A biconditional: | |
|
Derive: |
Derive: |
Use CB to get (| ).
Remember you can use CDJ to get (| )
from (~|v ).
The negation of a
conjunction: ~(| .)
Show ~(| .).
Assume (| .) for an indirect proof.
Use S to get | and and derive a contradiction.
ID, box and cancel.
The negation of a
disjunction ~(| v )
~| AND ~ Derive ~| AND ~
Use ADJ to get (~|.~)
Use DM to get ~(| v )