nforming Our Practice: Modernist, Transactional, and Critical

Perspectives on Childrens Literature and Reading Instruction

Frank Serafini
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According to research reports, the amount of childrens
literature published and its use in elementary classrooms
have expanded exponentially during the past two decades
(Allington & Guice, 1997; Cullinan, 1989; Gambrell,
1992; Harris, 1992). The whole language and literature-
based reading movements of the 1980s and 1990s fostered
a burgeoning interest in childrens literature, unlike any
seen previously in elementary reading education (Goodman,
1986; Weaver, 1990). By the mid-1990s, childrens
literature had assumed a prominent place in the elementary
reading curriculum in the United States, as elsewhere
(Huck, 1996; Smith, 1995). Extensive collections of quality
childrens literature began to appear in elementary
classrooms, along with a proliferation of professional
resources describing literature-based reading instruction
(Atwell, 1987; Lynch-Brown & Tomlinson, 1998; Peterson &
Eeds, 1990; Rogers, 1999; Serafini, 2001b; Short & Pierce,
1990).
The neo-conservative backlash we currently find ourselves
experiencing in the United States has resulted in changes in
instructional approaches that include childrens literature in
the elementary reading curriculum (Taxel, 1999).
Responding to political pressures, elementary teachers
frequently are forced to adopt instructional practices and
commercial programs that focus on decoding and
comprehension strategies designed to raise standardized
test scores (Putney, Green, Dixon, & Kelly, 1999, online
document). In fact, many commercial publishers have
advertised their reading programs based solely on their
purported ability to increase test scores. With this shift in
the political climate and the rapid expansion of high-stakes
testing (Kohn, 2000; McGill-Franzen, 2000), the role of
childrens literature may be reduced to that of an
instructional device used to teach children how to decode
more effectively and to identify the main idea of a reading
selection in order to secure higher scores on standardized
tests.

Related Postings
from the Archives
A Tale of
Differences by
Gina Cervetti
et al.
Further Notes
on the Four
Resources
Model by
Allan Luke
and Peter
Freebody
Research on
Children's
Literature by
Lee Galda et
al.
Children's
Literature in
Teacher-
Preparation
Programs by
Allison
Hoewisch
An Update on
Reading in
the Content
Areas by
Thomas Bean


Literature in the Curriculum | Theoretical Perspectives: Modernist, Transactional,
and Critical | Concluding Remarks | References


Childrens Literature in the Curriculum: Perspectives on Practice and
Theory
Reading instructional practices that involve childrens literature range from a
basalized approach (Shannon & Goodman, 1994), in which literature is treated in the
same manner as selections in a commercial anthology and instructional activities
include scripted lessons, skills exercises, and predetermined-response questions, to
child-centered approaches (Atwell, 1987), in which students and teachers select
literature to read and to discuss in groups, and respond to the literature by drawing on
the experiences they bring to the texts and the meanings they construct during
reading (Serafini, 2001b).
Shifting from a basal reading program that includes excerpted childrens literature to
using authentic childrens literature in instruction may not, however, reflect an
underlying shift in theoretical perspective. I would argue that just because a teacher
may move to using childrens literature in the classroom, this does not mean that he or
she is doing anything different than was done with the basal program. It is no longer
enough to fill the classroom with high-quality books and read aloud one or two each
day. Reading aloud and creating a literate environment are necessary but insufficient
for implementing a literature-based approach to reading instruction. A shift in
theoretical understandings needs to accompany this shift in instructional resources
(Walmsley, 1992).
The ways in which childrens literature is used in the elementary classroom are directly
related to the teachers definition of reading, her beliefs about how meaning and
knowledge are constructed, the role of the reader in the act of reading, and the
context of the reading event (Levande, 1989). Preservice and in-service teachers need
to understand not only reading instructional practices, but also the theories that inform
and support those practices. Without a substantial change in elementary teachers
theoretical perspectives concerning the roles that text, readers, and context play
during the act of reading, there will be little or no change in the way that childrens
literature is used in the curriculum.
McGee (1992) suggests that in order for elementary teachers to implement a quality
literature-based reading program and make a substantial shift in the way that
childrens literature is used in the curriculum, they must first make a parallel shift in
the theoretical perspectives they use to ground their practice. Without this parallel
shift, teachers may simply change the materials they use to teach reading, relegating
childrens literature to an instructional device in the service of higher test scores. In
order to make a shift, however, one must first understand what the theoretical
perspectives are and how they influence classroom practice.
Teacher educators and school administrators interested in incorporating literature in
instructional frameworks are concerned that teachers may lack the appropriate
preservice coursework and in-service professional development necessary for effective
implementation of quality literature-based reading programs (Gardner, 1988). For
instance, a university course in childrens literature, let alone a course in literary
theory, is not a requirement for elementary teaching certification in most U.S. states
(Hoewisch, 2000, online document). Limited experience with literary theory and
childrens literature is problematic for two reasons:
First, without extensive understanding of literature and literary theory, teachers
may reduce the role of childrens literature to that of an instructional device
used to help children learn how to decode more effectively. Instead, literature
can be used as a way of understanding the world, or appreciated as a work of
art that has value in and of itself.
Second, with todays conservative political educational agenda, teachers are
often forced to adopt reading programs that tell them how to teach, regardless
of their beliefs and understandings. Classroom teachers need to understand
contemporary theories of reading and literacy development and be able to
articulate their theoretical perspectives concerning childrens literature, the
reading process, and their instructional practices, so they do not fall victim to
the political pressures associated with standardized tests, state-mandated
curricula, and commercial reading programs (Coles, 1998; McQuillan, 1998). As
literacy educators, we need to be able to understand and discuss why we do
what we do if we are going to create readers who can do more than decode
texts accurately, read them aloud on demand, and score well on tests.
In this article, I suggest that many of the current instructional practices that use
childrens literature in the elementary classroom derive from modernist theories of
meaning, readers, texts, and contexts (Eagleton, 1996; Elkind, 1997), which do not
reflect the transactional nature of reading (Rosenblatt, 1978) or perspectives from
reader response (Beach, 1993) or various critical theories (Lewis, 2000; Luke &
Freebody, 1997; Luke, OBrien, & Comber, 1994). Many contemporary reading
instructional practices are therefore based on an outdated understanding of reading,
the reader, and the role of the social context in the construction of meaning.
In the following sections, I describe three theoretical perspectives associated with
reading and literacy education -- modernist, transactional, and critical -- and provide
examples of instructional practices that align with each. Although there are certainly
distinctions that could be made within each perspective, I offer these three categories
as a heuristic device to explain the various theoretical perspectives that affect reading
instructional practices and the use of childrens literature in contemporary elementary
classrooms. Helping teachers to become aware of the theories that underlie their
practices is the focus of this article.
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Theoretical Perspectives on Reading
The modernist perspective is based on a belief that meaning resides in the text
(Eagleton, 1996). Reading is conceptualized as an orchestrated set of transportable
cognitive processes that individual readers acquire through formal instruction and use
to uncover that meaning (Beach, 1993). Only the most competent of readers, usually
university professors and literary scholars, can ever truly understand the pure
essence of a text, but all readings can be measured against this one true meaning
(Probst, 1992).
In contrast, the transactional perspective is based on the belief that meaning is
constructed in the transaction between a particular reader and a particular text
(Rosenblatt, 1978). Readers bring their prior knowledge and experiences to bear on
the reading event, and meaning is constructed during the transaction between reader
and text. Both text and reader are vitally important. Reading is seen as the
construction of meaning in the internal, cognitive space of the individual reader in
transaction with a particular text.
Finally, a critical perspective focuses on the ways that texts are constructed in
social, political, and historical contexts, and on the ways in which these contexts
position readers and texts and endorse particular interpretations (McKormick, 1994).
Reading is seen as a social practice of constructing meaning that cannot be separated
from the cultural, historical, and political context in which it occurs. Edelsky
(1999) suggests that being critical means questioning against the frame of system,
seeing individuals as always within systems, as perpetuating or resisting systems (p.
28).
Each theoretical perspective supports a particular set of reading practices or
pedagogies. These practices vary according to the amount of time allocated to reading
instruction and reading of self-selected texts, the way that reading is defined, the
epistemological assumptions about where knowledge is located and whether it is
found or constructed, and the emphasis placed on the role of the text, the reader,
and the context in the reading process. Regardless of whether teachers can explicitly
articulate their theoretical perspectives, their beliefs play a dominant role in the
resources they choose, the instructional practices they employ, and the environment
they create in their classrooms.
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Modernist Theories and Practices
Street (1984) has referred to a modernist perspective of reading and literacy as an
autonomous model, in which literacy is associated with a set of universal skills
readers apply to a neutral text in order to comprehend the meaning that resides within
the text itself. From this perspective, reading is viewed as a cognitive, psychological
process divorced from any of the forces that are inherent in social, political, or cultural
institutions -- for example, public schools (Siegel & Fernandez, 2000). De Castell and
Luke (1986) have described reading from a modernist perspective as a context-
neutral, content-free, skill-specific competence that can be imparted to children with
almost scientific precision (p. 88).
A modernist perspective is based on the belief that
Meaning is located in the text and can be uncovered through close textual
analysis
Comprehension is a result of cognitive processes and has little to do with the
social context of the reading event
There is one pure essence (main idea) of a text that only competent readers
have access to
Readings of a text can be evaluated for correctness
Reading practices based on this perspective are concerned with finding the best
methods for teaching children how to read, where reading is defined as the ability to
decode text, read aloud fluently, and comprehend the main idea of a story. The
teaching of reading skills in a direct, sequential manner (Honig, 1995) dominates these
approaches to instruction. Instructional materials used with this approach often include
commercial reading programs and workbooks that focus on selections in a basal
anthology. Although many newer basal series contain selections from childrens
literature, the lessons and quizzes accompanying them are designed according to
modernist theoretical perspectives.
In many classrooms where commercial reading programs are in use, the reading of
childrens literature is often viewed as separate from teaching reading skills. Children
are given limited time to read authentic literature, since activities including preparing
book reports, completing worksheets, or writing exercises may take up a large portion
of the allocated reading period. Childrens literature may be considered an add-on to
the primary reading instructional program, a frill available only to those children who
are able to get all their other reading work done.
Another reading instructional practice that is often associated with a modernist
perspective is the balanced or eclectic approach to reading instruction (Pressley,
1999). Here, the primary focus is establishing an appropriate pedagogical blend of
direct phonics and skills instruction and the use of authentic texts and other whole
language approaches (Spiegel, 1992). Many proponents of this approach suggest that
in order to balance reading instruction, it is necessary to inject some direct,
systematic phonics into a whole language classroom (Adams & Bruck, 1995; Honig,
1995). In a sense, literature is used as a counterweight intended to balance direct
phonics and skills instruction (Freppon & Dahl, 1998, online document).
The blend of reading practices offered by these approaches may be pedagogically
balanced; however, it is limited by a narrow definition of reading and by the emphasis
placed on decoding, oral performance, and literal comprehension (Short, 1999).
Although competence in decoding, for example, is a necessary skill for readers, Luke
(1995) and others argue that there are other competencies that readers need to
develop in a democratic society. Balanced approaches may, in fact, teach readers to
read just well enough to pay taxes and become avid consumers, but not to participate
as fully literate, informed citizens in a democratic state.
Another example of a popular reading instructional practice associated with a
modernist perspective is the use of leveled texts associated with commercial reading
incentive programs. Some of these programs offer stories in little paperback books
that resemble the stories found in traditional basal anthologies, while others use
authentic childrens literature, either in whole or abridged formats. Many of these
commercially produced stories feature controlled or decodable text, and are leveled
according to a specific formula or criteria.
One commercial program, The Accelerated Reader (Paul & Paul, 1990), levels authentic
childrens literature based on particular readability formulas (e.g., the Flesch,
1974; Fry, 1977). Books with long sentences and big words are rated as more
difficult, regardless of the difficulty of the vocabulary and concepts for a particular
student (Worthy & Sailors, 2001, p.231). Although this program may vary in its
application in any particular school setting, generally speaking it requires children to
read only those texts that are determined to be at their instructional level. Children
select a title from the list of books available at their level, read the book, and then take
a computer-based quiz in which they answer a set of literal recall questions to assess
whether they have comprehended the text. For each book read and each test passed,
readers are awarded points that can be redeemed for bonus marks, prizes, or tokens.
As students pass each test, they are directed to read books that come next in the
series or are at a higher level. (See Labbo, 1999 [online document] and Topping,
1999 [online document] for a discussion of The Accelerated Reader.)
The evaluations used in this program align with a modernist perspective: they assume
that meaning can be found in the text and that reading ability or instructional level can
be determined quickly by computer through literal recall questions. These questions
can be answered correctly with exact words or phrases from the text, and little or no
inferring or personal response is required. Answers are literally in the text, and it is the
students job to find them. From this theoretical perspective, reading literature is a
leveled task that requires progression through a series of stories according to a
particular formula.
The Accelerated Reader and other programs and practices that align with a modernist
perspective impose a premature closing on childrens exploration of their responses
to literature (Beach, 1993). There is one correct answer, one main idea, and it is the
readers job to uncover it if she is to be evaluated as a competent reader. According
to Pressley (2000, online summary), Children are taught to read so that they can
understand what is in the text...if the reader cannot decode a word, she or he cannot
comprehend it (pp. 545, 546; emphasis added). From such modernist theoretical
perspectives, literature is usurped in the service of teaching children how to read,
which is conceptualized as accurate decoding, oral performance, and literal
comprehension or finding the main idea. Standardized test scores become the primary
measure of a childs reading ability and instructional level. Although these instructional
practices may, in fact, match the requirements of standardized tests, their narrowing
effect, the reduction of childrens literature to an instructional device for teaching
decoding and literal comprehension, and the political pressures to raise test scores
have restricted the definition of reading and ignored the research and literary theories
that have emerged in the last three decades.
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Transactional Theories and Practices
From a transactional perspective, the reader plays a central role in the construction of
meaning, drawing upon prior knowledge and experience to attend selectively to
specific aspects of a text (Rosenblatt, 1978). Theorists who align with a transactional
model reject the notion that meaning resides in the text (Wells, 1986) and instead
focus on interpretive communities (Fish, 1980), the gaps that readers fill in during
the reading event (Iser, 1978), the stances that a reader assumes while reading
(Rosenblatt, 1978), and the ways that literature expands the readers understanding of
the world (McClure & Zitlow, 1991).
According to Morrow and Gambrell (2000, online summary), meaning is a two-way
process that resides in the transaction that occurs between the reader and text
wherein the reader constructs a personal envisionment of meaning that is guided by
the text (p. 565). This definition emphasizes the roles of the reader and the text, and
views meaning as the result of the cognitive processes of an individual reader in
transaction with a particular text. In this perspective, the focus is on a particular
reader, transacting with a particular text in a particular context. All three components
are included, although the focus seems to be on the transaction between reader and
text and not on the context of the reading event, including the social, political, and
cultural factors involved in the construction of meaning (Lewis, 2000).
From the transactional perspective, childrens literature is seen as a way of knowing
and is used to help children make connections to the world around them, become
acquainted with the language of stories, learn about the characteristics of the natural
and social world, and discover insights into their own personalities and identities
(Short, 1999). It is the lived-through or aesthetic experience of reading literature, and
the ways that literature develops identity and understanding, that become the primary
focus.
Short (1999) offers an approach to reading instruction, based on the work of linguist
Michael Halliday, that aligns with a transactional perspective. In this approach,
literature is used as vehicle for learning language, learning through language, and
learning about language (Halliday, 1980). Learning experiences that highlight these
three opportunities should be made available to students in their transactions with
literature:
Students need opportunities to learn language by reading extensively, to learn about
language by reflecting on their reading strategies and literary knowledge, and to learn
through language by using literature inquire about the world and their own lives.
(Short, 1999, p. 132)
The instructional practices that align with a transactional perspective generally involve
whole class or small group discussions and workshops. The focus is on sharing
individual interpretations within communities of readers to come to deeper
understandings of a particular text. Various frameworks have been created by reading
educators to support these interactions around texts, including book clubs (Raphael &
McMahon, 1994), literature study groups (Peterson & Eeds, 1990), focus units (Moss,
1984), literary investigations and invested discussions (Serafini, 2001b), and lively
discussions (Gambrell & Almasi, 1996). During these activities, the teacher supports
the ongoing dialogue, entering into conversations with students and helping them
reach more complex understandings about the text, their world, and their identity. The
teacher becomes a member of the discussion group, supporting the conversation, not
simply asking comprehension questions and evaluating responses.
Although Rosenblatt (1978) is certainly concerned with the role of literature in a
democratic state (Pradl, 1996), she often addresses the local contexts of the reading
event rather than the larger role of social, political, cultural and historical contexts
associated with a critical perspective (Lewis, 2000). The shift from a transactional to a
critical perspective is often associated with a shift from a focus on the local and
particular to a focus on the larger contexts that influence the way texts are
constructed, readers are positioned, and meanings are made available during the act
of reading.
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Critical Theories and Practices
Although the term critical literacy can be interpreted in a wide variety of ways (Siegel
& Fernandez, 2000), in general it is considered an approach that addresses the social,
historical, and political systems that affect literacy and what it means to be a literate
person in contemporary society. Critical theories of literacy have been greatly
influenced by critical social theorys view that meanings are always contested (never
givens), and are related to ongoing struggles in society for the possession of
knowledge, power, status, and material resources (Cervetti, Pardales, & Damico,
2001, online document). A critical perspective on reading instruction acknowledges
that reading is tied up in the politics and power relations of everyday life in literate
cultures (Luke & Freebody, 1997, p. 185). The reading practices associated with
critical perspectives are intended to help educators and readers understand the variety
of meanings that are available during the transaction between reader, text, and
context, and the systems of power that affect the meanings constructed.
Reading instruction in public schools is not ideologically neutral, nor is it accidentally
designed. Rather, reading is a social practice, comprised of interpretive rules and
events constructed and learned in institutions like schools and churches, families and
workplaces" (Luke, 1995, p. 97). From this perspective, texts are not neutral
receptacles of information but cultural artifacts, created for specific purposes by people
with political, cultural, and historical experiences; texts are social constructions that
promote particular interests and versions of reality, and are sites for construction of
plural and possibly conflicting meanings (ONeill, 1993). The main idea is simply one
possible meaning available to a reader, usually an officially sanctioned interpretation of
a particular text. It is the uncovering of the systems that affect meaning and the
analysis of the social contexts of texts, interpretations, and meanings that make this
perspective critical.
From a critical perspective, instruction focuses on helping readers understand how
different meanings are constructed and how readers themselves are positioned by
various readings and interpretations. Instructional practices are constructed in
classrooms by teachers and students; they are not predetermined and mandated by
commercial reading programs.
Childrens literature may be regarded as a space for constructing critical conversations
and interpretations, where both teachers and students negotiate meanings, discuss the
systems of power inherent in the meanings available, and share experiences of how
these stories relate to their lives and communities (Serafini, 2001a). In this sense,
critical reading practices are alternative ways of organizing classroom experiences
around texts to address cultural, political, and historical forces and their impact on the
lives of students. Pedagogical decisions are made at the classroom level, taking into
consideration larger societal contexts and forces. The classroom is no longer seen as
an independent, neutral space, isolated from political agendas and cultural contexts;
rather it is a part of society, influenced by the political, cultural, and historical forces
contained therein.
Drawing on the work of critical social theorists (e.g., Gee, 1996; Street, 1984),
classroom teachers can begin to understand how these critical perspectives are
transformed into classroom experiences. In many classrooms, literature discussions
have taken on new dimensions, in which texts are interrogated by focusing on issues
of gender, social class, race, and ethnicity. The issues raised during discussions of
carefully selected pieces of childrens literature within the context of contemporary
society can invite children to make connections to their lives and communities. For
example, teachers and students now interrogate pop culture (Alvermann, Moore, &
Hagood, 1999), television commercials and newspaper advertisements (Luke, OBrien
& Comber, 2001), and classic childrens stories (Hanzl, 1993) from a critical
perspective. These educators are adopting a critical stance in their classroom
experiences and are helping students understand the political, historical, and cultural
implications involved with the texts they read and the meanings they construct.
In addition to these classroom experiences, critical literacy theorists have focused on
the role of media -- for example, the Internet, television, and film -- and its effects on
students literate abilities (Luke, 2000; Myers & Beach, 2001, online document). These
educators often discuss the extension of a critical perspective to include multimedia
and technology. As we begin to expand the definition and role of all texts in the
elementary classroom, adopting a critical perspective becomes more and more
important.
An emphasis on instruction aimed at developing students ability to assume a critical
stance towards media and childrens literature extends to the teacher education
classroom, as well. Luke (2000) writes that the goal of the teacher education
curriculum is to provide students with the critical analytic tools to understand reader
and viewer diversity of reading positions and sociocultural locations and differences
that influence affinities to, or preferences for (and pleasures derived from), particular
kinds of media forms and messages (p. 425).
A critical perspective on reading assumes that there is no neutral, context-free
construction of meaning. Reading is a social practice that cannot be separated from its
political and cultural context. A critical perspective focuses on the larger social,
political, cultural, and historical contexts in which reading and other literate activities
are practiced. Childrens literature is no longer seen as a neutral receptacle of
information from which readers are required to extract the correct meaning. Rather,
literature is used as a vehicle to provide a space for critical conversations, discussions
that go beyond the walls of the classroom to include the political, cultural, and
historical contexts of the world in which we live.
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Concluding Remarks
Although childrens literature has emerged as an important resource in contemporary
elementary reading curricula, its role can be conceptualized in different ways: as an
add-on or treat available when children finish the exercises in the commercial
workbook, a pedagogical balancing device, a way of knowing the world, or a space for
critical conversations, used to explore the systems of power that affect the ways
students are positioned as readers and the meanings available to them. A shift in the
resources used in the classroom, from controlled texts to authentic childrens
literature, must also include a parallel shift in the theoretical perspectives that support
classroom instruction if significant changes in reading practices are to occur.
Transactional theories of reading tend to focus on the cognitive processes of individual
readers as they construct meaning in transaction with a text, whereas critical
theoretical perspectives focus on social, political, historical, and cultural contexts and
their ways of constructing readers and readings. What is common to both perspectives
is the rejection of the concept that meaning resides in the text and is predetermined,
waiting to be discovered by competent readers. These theoretical perspectives view
the reader as an active constructor of meaning, not as a passive recipient of ready-
made truths.
Determining a texts main idea is no longer a viable pursuit in transactional and critical
theories; instead, it is seen as identifying a sanctioned interpretation by an external
authority rather than a truth hidden in the text. In both of these theoretical
perspectives, reading is not a set of decontextualized cognitive skills that can be
universally transmitted via commercial reading exercises. Rather, reading is a social
practice that is constrained, mediated, and shaped by the social forces inherent in a
particular community of readers. Meaning does not just generically arise in neutral
contexts; it is grounded in the social, political, cultural, and historical contexts of the
reading event. Readers are individuals in society, unable to escape from the contexts
in which they live and read, but capable of rendering unique interpretations as they
transact with particular texts at particular times.
In order to make the shift from a modernist perspective to a transactional or critical
perspective, teachers must begin to interrogate the theoretical assumptions that
support their reading instructional practices. As literacy educators we should shift the
focus from trying to find the right method for teaching children how to read, to
determining whether the reading practices and experiences constructed in classrooms
are addressing the broad repertoire of practices required in todays society. Because of
this, reading education has to go beyond scientific considerations to include the social,
political, and cultural dimensions, if our students are to become the kinds of readers
we want in a democratic society.
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About the Author


Frank Serafini is an assistant professor at the
University of Nevada-Las Vegas, where he teaches
courses in childrens literature, reading instruction,
and literacy research. He can be reached by e-mail
at serafini@unlv.edu. His research interests are
literature-based reading instructional frameworks,
childrens literature, reading comprehension, and
literary theory.
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For a printer-ready version of this article, click here.
Citation: Serafini, F. (2003, February). Informing our practice: Modernist, transactional, and critical perspectives
on childrens literature and reading instruction. Reading Online, 6(6). Available:
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=serafini/index.html




Reading Online, www.readingonline.org
Posted February 2003
2003 International Reading Association, Inc. ISSN 1096-1232





Perspectivas tericas sobre la lectura

La perspectiva modernista se basa en la creencia de que el significado reside en el texto (Eagleton, 1996). Lectura se
conceptualiza como un conjunto orquestado de procesos cognitivos transportables que lectores individuales adquieren a
travs de instruccin formal y utilizar para descubrir ese significado (playa, 1993). Slo el ms competente de los lectores,
generalmente profesores universitarios y los estudiosos literarios, puede entender verdaderamente la "esencia pura" de un
texto, pero todas las lecturas pueden medirse contra este un verdadero significado (Probst, 1992).

Por el contrario, la perspectiva transaccional se basa en la creencia de que el significado es construido en la transaccin
entre un particular lector y un texto particular (Rosenblatt, 1978). Los lectores traen sus conocimientos previos y
experiencias sobre el evento de lectura y significado se construye durante la transaccin entre el lector y el texto. Lector y el
texto son de vital importancia. Lectura es visto como la construccin de sentido en el espacio interno, cognitivo del lector
individual en transaccin con un texto en particular.

Finalmente, una perspectiva crtica se centra en las formas en que los textos estn construidos en contextos histricos,
polticos y sociales y sobre las formas en que estos contextos Coloque los lectores y los textos y respaldar interpretaciones
particulares (McKormick, 1994). Lectura es visto como una prctica social de la construccin de lo que significa que no
puede separarse del contexto cultural, histrico y poltico en el que se produce. Edelsky (1999) sugiere que "ser crtico
significa cuestionamiento contra el marco del sistema, viendo a los individuos como siempre dentro de los sistemas, como
perpetuar o resistir sistemas" (p. 28).

Cada perspectiva terica soporta un conjunto particular de prcticas o pedagogas de la lectura. Estas prcticas varan
segn la cantidad de tiempo asignado a la instruccin de lectura y lectura de textos auto elegidos, la forma en que se define
la lectura, los supuestos epistemolgicos sobre donde se encuentra el conocimiento y sea "encontrado" o "construido", y el
nfasis puesto en el papel del contexto en el proceso de lectura, el lector y el texto. Sin importar si los profesores pueden
articular explcitamente sus perspectivas tericas, sus creencias desempean un papel dominante en los recursos que
eligen las prcticas de enseanza que emplean y el medio ambiente que crean en sus aulas.

Volver al men


Las prcticas y teoras modernistas

Calle (1984) se ha referido a una perspectiva modernista de lectura y alfabetizacin como un modelo "autnomo", en el que
la alfabetizacin es asociada con un conjunto de habilidades universales lectores se aplican a un texto neutral con el fin de
comprender el significado que reside en el propio texto. Desde esta perspectiva, la lectura es vista como un proceso
cognitivo, psicolgico divorci de cualquiera de las fuerzas que son inherentes a las instituciones sociales, polticas o
culturales, por ejemplo, las escuelas pblicas (Siegel & Fernandez, 2000). De Castell y Lucas (1986) han descrito la lectura
desde la perspectiva modernista como una "competencia contexto neutro, libre de contenido, habilidad especfica que se
puede impartir a los nios con precisin casi cientfica" (p. 88).

Una perspectiva modernista se basa en la creencia de que

Significado se encuentra en el texto y puede ser descubierta a travs del anlisis textual cerca
Comprensin es el resultado de los procesos cognitivos y tiene poco que ver con el contexto social del evento de lectura
Hay una esencia pura (idea principal) de un texto que slo los lectores competentes tienen acceso a
Lecturas de un texto pueden ser evaluadas para correccin
Prcticas de lectura basadas en esta perspectiva se refieren a encontrar los mejores mtodos para ensear a los nios a
leer, donde la lectura se define como la capacidad de decodificar el texto, ledo en voz alta con fluidez y comprender la idea
principal de una historia. La enseanza de la lectura de una manera directa, manera secuencial (Honig, 1995) domina estos
enfoques a la instruccin. Materiales didcticos utilizados con este enfoque a menudo incluyen programas comerciales de
lectura y los libros que se centran en las selecciones en una antologa basal. Aunque muchas nuevas series basales
contienen selecciones de literatura y juvenil infantil, las lecciones y cuestionarios que les acompaan se disean segn
perspectivas tericas modernistas.

En muchas aulas donde programas de lectura comercial estn en uso, la lectura de la literatura infantil a menudo se
considera como separada de la enseanza de habilidades de lectura. Los nios estn terminando dado tiempo limitado a
leer literatura autntica, desde actividades como elaboracin de informes de libro, hojas de clculo, o ejercicios de escritura
puede tomar hasta una gran parte del perodo de lectura asignada. La literatura infantil puede ser considerada un
"complemento" para el programa de instruccin de lectura primaria, un volante disponible solamente para aquellos nios
que son capaces de hacer todas su otra lectura "trabajo".

Otra lectura instruccin prctica que a menudo se asocia con una perspectiva modernista es el enfoque "equilibrado" o
"eclctico" a la lectura de la instruccin (Pressley, 1999). Aqu, el objetivo principal es establecer una mezcla pedaggica
apropiada de instruccin directa de la fontica y las habilidades y el uso de textos autnticos y otros enfoques "idioma"
(Spiegel, 1992). Muchos defensores de este enfoque sugieren que para equilibrar la instruccin de lectura, es necesario
para "inyectar" algunos fontica directa y sistemtica en un aula de lengua entera (Adams & Bruck, 1995; Honig, 1995). En
cierto sentido, la literatura se utiliza como un contrapeso de la intencin de equilibrar la instruccin directa de fontica y
habilidades (documento en lnea Freppon & Dahl, 1998).

La mezcla de prcticas ofrecidas por estos enfoques de lectura puede ser pedaggicamente equilibrada; Sin embargo, es
limitado por una definicin estrecha de la lectura y el nfasis puesto en la descodificacin, el desempeo oral y comprensin
literal (corto, 1999). Aunque la competencia en la decodificacin, por ejemplo, es una habilidad necesaria para los lectores,
Luke (1995) y otros sostienen que existen otras competencias que los lectores necesitan para convertirse en una sociedad
democrtica. Enfoques equilibrados pueden, de hecho, ensear a los lectores a leer slo lo suficientemente bien como para
pagar impuestos y se convierten en consumidores vidos, pero no a participar como plenamente alfabetizado, inform a los
ciudadanos en un estado democrtico.

Otro ejemplo de una lectura popular instruccin prctica asociada a una perspectiva modernista es el uso de textos
"nivelado" asociados a programas de incentivos comerciales de lectura. Algunos de estos programas ofrecen relatos en
pequeos libros en rstica que se asemejan a las historias encontraron en antologas basales tradicionales, mientras que
otros uso autntico de literatura infantil, ya sea en formatos enteros o abreviados. Muchos de estos comercialmente
produccin historias funcin controlada o texto decodificable y estn nivelados segn una frmula especfica o criterios.

Un programa comercial, The Accelerated Reader (Paul & Paul, 1990), los niveles de literatura infantil autntica basada en
frmulas de legibilidad particular (por ejemplo, el Flesch, 1974; Fry, 1977). "Libros con frases largas y grandes palabras son
clasificados como ms difcil, independientemente de la dificultad del vocabulario y conceptos para un estudiante en
particular" (digno & marineros, 2001, p.231). Aunque este programa puede variar en su aplicacin en cualquier entorno
escolar particular, hablando en trminos generales se requieren los nios a leer slo aquellos textos que estn decididos a
estar en su nivel educacional. Los nios seleccionar un ttulo de la lista de libros disponibles en su nivel, leen el libro y luego
tomar un examen computarizado que responden a un conjunto de preguntas de memoria literal para evaluar si ha
comprendido el texto. Para cada libro ledo y cada prueba superada, los lectores se otorgan puntos que pueden canjearse
por marcas de bono, premios o fichas. A medida que los estudiantes pasan cada prueba, se dirigen a leer libros que vienen
de la serie o que estn en un nivel superior. (Vase Labbo, 1999 [documento en lnea] y Topping, 1999 [documento en
lnea] para una discusin de The Accelerated Reader.)

Las evaluaciones que se utilizan en este programa se alinean con una perspectiva modernista: asumen que significado
puede encontrarse en el texto y que capacidad o nivel de instruccin de lectura puede determinar rpidamente por la
computadora a travs de preguntas de memoria literal. Estas preguntas pueden ser contestadas correctamente con
palabras o frases del texto, y se requiere poca o ninguna respuesta inferencia o personal. Las respuestas estn literalmente
en el texto, y es trabajo del estudiante para encontrarlos. Desde esta perspectiva terica, leer literatura es una tarea
nivelada que requiere la progresin a travs de una serie de historias segn una frmula especial.
El lector acelerado y otros programas y prcticas que se alinean con una perspectiva modernista imponen un "cierre
prematuro" en la exploracin de los nios de sus respuestas a la literatura (playa, 1993). Hay una respuesta correcta, una
idea principal, y es trabajo del lector a descubrir si va a ser evaluado como un lector competente. Segn Pressley (2000,
extracto en lnea), "los nios se les ensea a leer de modo que puedan entender lo que est en el texto... si el lector no
puede descifrar una palabra, l o ella no puede entender" (pgs. 545, 546; cursivas en el original). Desde estas perspectivas
tericas modernistas, la literatura es usurpada en el servicio de ensear a los nios a leer, que se conceptualiza como
descodificacin precisa, desempeo oral y comprensin literal o encontrar la idea principal. Las pruebas estandarizadas se
convierten en la principal medida de habilidad de lectura y nivel de instruccin de un nio. Aunque estas prcticas
educacionales pueden, de hecho, emparejar los requisitos de pruebas estandarizadas, su efecto de estrechamiento, la
reduccin de la literatura infantil a un dispositivo instruccional para la enseanza de la comprensin literal y decodificacin, y
las presiones polticas para elevar los puntajes han restringido la definicin de la lectura y omite la investigacin y las teoras
literarias que han surgido en las ltimas tres dcadas.

Volver al men


Las prcticas y teoras transaccionales

Desde una perspectiva transaccional, el lector juega un papel central en la construccin del significado, basndose en el
conocimiento previo y experiencia para atender selectivamente a determinados aspectos de un texto (Rosenblatt, 1978).
Tericos que se alinean con un modelo transaccional rechazan la nocin que significado reside en el texto (Wells, 1986) y
mejor enfocan en las comunidades interpretativas (pescados, 1980), las brechas que los lectores "llenan" durante el evento
de lectura (Iser, 1978), las posturas que asume un lector mientras Lee (Rosenblatt, 1978) y las formas en que la literatura
ampla la comprensin del lector del mundo (McClure & Zitlow1991).

Segn Morrow y Gambrell (2000, extracto en lnea), significado "es un proceso bidireccional que reside en la transaccin
que ocurre entre el lector y el texto en el cual el lector construye un envisionment personal de lo que significa que es guiado
por el texto" (p. 565). Esta definicin hace hincapi en el papel del lector y el texto y vistas como resultado de los procesos
cognitivos de un lector individual en transaccin con un texto particular significado. En esta perspectiva, el foco est en un
lector particular, tramitar con un texto particular en un contexto particular. Los tres componentes se incluyen, aunque el
enfoque parece ser en la transaccin entre el lector y el texto y no en el contexto del evento de lectura, incluyendo los
sociales, polticos, y factores culturales involucradoen en la construccin del significado (Lewis, 2000).

Desde la perspectiva transaccional, la literatura infantil es vista como una "manera de saber" y se utiliza para ayudar a los
nios a hacer las conexiones al mundo que los rodea, familiarizarse con el lenguaje de las historias, aprender sobre las
caractersticas del mundo natural y social y descubrir sus propias personalidades y identidades (corto, 1999). Es la
experiencia vivi a travs o esttica de la lectura, la literatura y las formas en que la literatura desarrolla la identidad y el
entendimiento, que se convierten en el foco primario.

Corto (1999) ofrece un acercamiento a la lectura de la instruccin, basada en la obra del lingista Michael Halliday, que se
alinea con una perspectiva transaccional. En este enfoque, la literatura se utiliza como vehculo para el aprendizaje del
lenguaje, aprendizaje a travs del lenguaje y aprendiendo sobre el lenguaje (Halliday, 1980). Experiencias que ponen de
relieve estas tres oportunidades de aprendizaje debera facilitarse a los estudiantes en sus transacciones con la literatura:

Estudiantes necesita oportunidades para aprender el idioma mediante la lectura ampliamente, para aprender sobre el
lenguaje reflexionando sobre sus estrategias de lectura y conocimiento literario y a aprender a travs del lenguaje mediante
el uso de literatura pregunte acerca del mundo y sus propias vidas. (Corto, 1999, p. 132)

Las prcticas de enseanza que se alinean generalmente con una perspectiva transaccional involucran a toda la clase o
grupo pequeo charlas y talleres. El foco est en compartir las interpretaciones individuales dentro de las comunidades de
lectores a la comprensin ms profunda de un texto particular. Varios marcos han sido creadas por educadores de lectura
para apoyar estas interacciones alrededor de los textos, incluyendo clubes de libros (Raphael & McMahon, 1994), grupos de
estudio de la literatura (Peterson & AEEs, 1990), unidades (Moss, 1984), se centran las investigaciones literarias y debates
invertidos (Serafini, 2001b) y discusiones animadas (Gambrell & Almasi, 1996). Durante estas actividades, el profesor apoya
el dilogo continuo, entrar en conversaciones con los estudiantes y ayudarles a llegar a entendimientos ms complejas
sobre el texto, su mundo y su identidad. El profesor se convierte en un miembro del grupo de discusin, apoyando la
conversacin, no simplemente haciendo preguntas de comprensin y evaluacin de las respuestas.

Aunque Rosenblatt (1978) es ciertamente preocupado por el papel de la literatura en un estado democrtico (Pradl, 1996),
ella a menudo dirige a los contextos locales del evento de lectura ms que el papel ms grande de los contextos sociales,
polticos, culturales e histricos asociados con una perspectiva crtica (Lewis, 2000). El cambio de una transaccin a una
perspectiva crtica a menudo se asocia con un cambio de enfoque en el local y particular a centrarse en los contextos ms
grandes que influyen en la manera textos estn construidos, los lectores estn posicionados y significados estn a su
disposicin durante el acto de lectura.

Volver al men

Las prcticas y teoras crticas

Aunque la alfabetizacin crtica del trmino puede ser interpretada en una amplia variedad de formas (Siegel & Fernandez,
2000), en general se considera un enfoque que se ocupa de los sistemas sociales, histricos y polticos que afectan la
alfabetizacin y lo que significa ser una persona sabe leer y escribir en la sociedad contempornea. "Teoras crticas de la
alfabetizacin han sido grandemente influenciadas por la teora social crtica de opinin que significados son siempre
impugnados (nunca givens), y est en curso relacionados con las luchas en la sociedad para la posesin del conocimiento,
poder, estatus y recursos materiales" (documento en lnea Cervetti, Pardales & Damico, 2001). Una perspectiva crtica
sobre instruccin de lectura reconoce que lectura "est atado en la relacin poltica y poder de la vida cotidiana en las
culturas letradas" (Luke & Freebody, 1997, p. 185). Las prcticas de lectura asociadas con perspectivas crticas pretenden
ayudar a los educadores y los lectores entiendan la variedad de significados que estn disponibles durante la transaccin
entre lector, texto y contexto y los sistemas de energa que afectan a los significados construidos.

Instruccin de lectura en las escuelas pblicas no es ideolgicamente neutral, ni disea accidentalmente. Por el contrario, la
lectura es "una prctica social, conformada por las reglas interpretativas y eventos construidos y aprendido en instituciones
como escuelas, iglesias, familias y lugares de trabajo" (Lucas, 1995, p. 97). Desde esta perspectiva, los textos no son
neutrales recipientes de informacin sino artefactos culturales, creados para fines especficos por personas con experiencia
poltica, cultural e histrico; los textos son construcciones sociales que promueven los intereses particulares y las versiones
de la realidad y son sitios para la construccin de significados plurales y posiblemente contradictorias (o ' Neill, 1993). La
idea principal es simplemente un significado posible disponible para un lector, generalmente una interpretacin oficial de un
texto particular. Es el descubrimiento de los sistemas que afectan al significado y el anlisis de los contextos sociales de
textos, interpretaciones y significados que hacen que esta perspectiva "crtica".

Desde una perspectiva crtica, la instruccin se centra en ayudar a los lectores a comprender cmo diferentes significados
se construyen y cmo los lectores se colocan por varias lecturas e interpretaciones. Prcticas de enseanza se construyen
en las aulas por docentes y alumnos; No estn predeterminados y mandados por programas de lectura comercial.


La literatura infantil puede ser considerada como un espacio para la construccin de conversaciones crticas y las
interpretaciones, donde profesores y alumnos negocian significados, discutir los sistemas de poder inherente en los
significados disponibles y compartan experiencias de cmo estas historias se relacionan con sus vidas y comunidades
(Serafini, 2001a). En este sentido, las prcticas de lectura crtica son formas alternativas de organizar experiencias de clase
alrededor de los textos de direccin culturales, polticas e histricas de las fuerzas y su impacto en las vidas de los
estudiantes. Las decisiones pedaggicas a nivel de aula, teniendo en consideracin ms grandes contextos sociales y
fuerzas. El aula ya no es visto como un espacio independiente, neutral, aislado de las agendas polticas y contextos
culturales; ms bien es una parte de la sociedad, influenciada por las fuerzas histricas, culturales y polticas que en l
figuran.

Basndose en la obra de los tericos sociales crticos (por ejemplo, Gee, 1996; Street, 1984), los maestros pueden empezar
a entender cmo estas perspectivas crticas se transforman en experiencias de clase. En muchos salones de clase, las
discusiones de la literatura han tomado nuevas dimensiones, en el que los textos son interrogados centrndose en
cuestiones de gnero, clase social, raza y etnicidad. Las cuestiones planteadas durante las discusiones de piezas
cuidadosamente seleccionadas de la literatura infantil dentro del contexto de la sociedad contempornea pueden invitar a
los nios a hacer conexiones a sus vidas y comunidades. Por ejemplo, los profesores y los estudiantes ahora interrogan a la
cultura pop (Alvermann, Moore & Hagood, 1999), los anuncios de televisin y anuncios de peridico (Luke, O'Brien &
Comber, 2001) y cuentos infantiles clsicos (Hanzl, 1993) desde una perspectiva crtica. Estos educadores estn adoptando
una postura crtica en sus experiencias de aula y estn ayudando a los estudiantes a entender las implicaciones polticas,
histricas y culturales implicados con los textos Lee y los significados que construyen.


Adems de estas experiencias de aula, tericos de la alfabetizacin crtica se han centrado en el papel de los medios de
comunicacin--por ejemplo, Internet, televisin y cine--y sus efectos sobre las habilidades del alumnado sabe leer y escribir
(Lucas, 2000; Myers & Beach, 2001, documentos en lnea). Estos educadores a menudo hablar de la extensin de una
perspectiva crtica que incluyen tecnologa y multimedia. Como comenzamos a ampliar la definicin y el rol de todos los
textos en el aula elemental, adoptando una perspectiva crtica se convierte cada vez ms importante.

Un nfasis en la instruccin destinada a desarrollar la habilidad de los estudiantes para asumir que una postura crtica hacia
los medios de comunicacin y literatura y juvenil infantil se extiende hasta el aula de educacin docente, as como. Lucas
(2000) escribe que la meta de la formacin docente curricular "es proveer a los estudiantes con las herramientas de
analticas crticas para entender la diversidad lector y visor de lectura posiciones y ubicaciones socioculturales y diferencias
que influyen en las afinidades, o preferencias para (y placeres derivados), determinados tipos de formas de los medios de
comunicacin y los mensajes" (p. 425).

Una perspectiva crtica sobre lectura asume que no hay ninguna construccin neutral, independiente del contexto de
significado. La lectura es una prctica social que no puede ser separada de su contexto poltico y cultural. Una perspectiva
crtica centra en la ms grande sociales, polticas, contextos culturales e histricos en los que se practican lectura y otras
actividades de leer y escribir. Literatura y juvenil infantil ya no es visto como un receptculo de neutro de la informacin de
que los lectores estn obligados a extraer el significado correcto. Por el contrario, la literatura se utiliza como un vehculo
para proporcionar un espacio para las conversaciones crticas, discusiones que van ms all de las paredes del aula para
incluir los contextos histricos, culturales y polticos del mundo en que vivimos.

Volver al men

Observaciones finales

Aunque la literatura infantil se ha convertido en un recurso importante en los
programas de lectura elemental contemporneo, su papel puede conceptualizarse
de diferentes maneras: como un "complemento" o trato disponible cuando los
nios terminar los ejercicios en el libro comercial, un dispositivo pedaggico de
equilibrio, una forma de conocer el mundo, o un espacio de conversaciones
crticas, utilizado para explorar los sistemas de energa que afectan las maneras
estn colocados los estudiantes como lectores y los significados disponibles para
ellos. Un cambio en los recursos utilizados en el aula, desde textos controlados a
literatura infantil autntica, debe incluir tambin un cambio paralelo en las
perspectivas tericas que apoyan la instruccin en el aula si cambios significativos
en las prcticas de lectura van a ocurrir.

Teoras transaccionales de la lectura tienden a centrarse en los procesos
cognitivos de los lectores individuales como construyen significado en transaccin
con un texto, mientras que las perspectivas tericas crticas se concentran en
contextos sociales, polticos, histricos y culturales y sus formas de construccin
de lectores y lecturas. Lo que es comn a ambas perspectivas es el rechazo del
concepto que significado reside en el texto y est predeterminado, esperando a
ser descubiertas por los lectores competentes. Estas perspectivas tericas Ve el
lector como un activo constructor de significado, no como un receptor pasivo del
ready-made "verdades".

Determinar la idea principal de un texto ya no es una persecucin viable en teoras
transaccionales y crticas; en cambio, es vista como identificar una interpretacin
sancionada por una autoridad externa en lugar de una verdad oculta en el texto.
En ambas de estas perspectivas tericas, la lectura no es un conjunto de
habilidades cognitivas descontextualizados que pueden transmitirse
universalmente mediante ejercicios de lectura comercial. Por el contrario, la lectura
es una prctica social que es limitada, mediada y formada por las fuerzas sociales
inherentes a una determinada comunidad de lectores. Significado no slo
genricamente se presenta en contextos neutrales; que est en tierra en el social,
poltico, cultural y contextos histricos del evento de lectura. Los lectores son
individuos en la sociedad, incapaz de escapar de los contextos en los que viven y
leer, pero capaz de hacer interpretaciones nicas como tramitan con particulares
textos en momentos concretos.

Para hacer el cambio desde la perspectiva modernista a una perspectiva
transaccional o crtico, los profesores deben comenzar a interrogar a los
supuestos tericos que apoyan sus prcticas de enseanza de lectura. Como
alfabetizadores que debamos usar el enfoque de tratar de encontrar el mtodo
correcto para ensear a los nios como leer, para determinar si las prcticas de
lectura y experiencias construccin en las aulas estn abordando el amplio
repertorio de prcticas necesarias en la sociedad actual. Debido a esto, leyendo la
educacin tiene que ir ms all de consideraciones cientficas que incluyen los
sociales, polticos y dimensiones culturales, si nuestros estudiantes van a
convertirse en el tipo de lectores que queremos en una sociedad democrtica.