I.

Inverter Grid connected solar farms

system

1. Introduction

This report introduces two key issues of inverter in utility
scale grid connected solar farms which are maximum power point
tracking and islanding.


Figure 1.

2. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

3. what is MPPT

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid
connected inverters, solar battery chargers and similar
devices use to get the maximum possible power from one or more
photovoltaic devices, typically solar panels, though optical
power transmission systems can benefit from similar
technology. Solar cells have a complex relationship between
solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that
produces a non-linear output efficiency which can be analyzed
based on the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system
to sample the output of the cells and apply the proper
resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given
environmental conditions. MPPT devices are typically
integrated into an electric power converter system that
provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and


regulation for driving various loads, including power grids,
batteries, or motors. (WIKIPEDIA)



Inverter in grid connected solar farm as shown in the above
figure 01.


MPPT is algorithm that included in charge controllers used for extracting maximum
available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module
can produce maximum power is called maximum power point (or peak power voltage).
4. I-V curve

Solar cell I-V curves where a line intersects the knee of the
curves where the maximum power point is located.



Photovoltaic cells have a complex relationship between their
operating environment and the maximum power they can produce.
The fill factor, abbreviated FF, is a parameter which
characterizes the non-linear electrical behavior of the solar
cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Open Circuit Voltage Voc
and Short-Circuit Current Isc. In tabulated data it is often
used to estimate the maximum power that a cell can provide
with an optimal load under given conditions, P=FF*Voc*Isc. For
most purposes, FF, Voc, and Isc are enough information to give
a useful approximate model of the electrical behavior of a
photovoltaic cell under typical conditions.
For any given set of operational conditions, cells have a
single operating point where the values of the current (I) and
Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output.
These values correspond to a particular load resistance, which
is equal to V / I as specified by Ohm's Law. The power P is
given by P=V*I. A photovoltaic cell, for the majority of its
useful curve, acts as a constant current source. However, at a
photovoltaic cell's MPP region, its curve has an approximately
inverse exponential relationship between current and voltage.
From basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a
device is optimized where the derivative (graphically, the
slope) dI/dV of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V
ratio (where dP/dV=0). This is known as the maximum power
point (MPP) and corresponds to the "knee" of the curve.
A load with resistance R=V/I equal to the reciprocal of this
value draws the maximum power from the device. This is
sometimes called the characteristic resistance of the cell.
This is a dynamic quantity which changes depending on the
level of illumination, as well as other factors such as
temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance is
lower or higher than this value, the power drawn will be less


than the maximum available, and thus the cell will not be used
as efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point trackers
utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search
for this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to
extract the maximum power available from a cell.

MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works
better at cold temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract
maximum power available from them.
When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more
current and charge the battery if the state of charge in the
battery is lowers.

Panel tracking - this is where the panels are on a mount that
follows the sun. The most common are the Zomeworks and
Wattsun. These optimize output by following the sun across the
sky for maximum sunlight. These typically give about a 15%
increase in winter and up to a 35% increase in summer.

Photovoltaic Operation
Figure 1 shows a simple model of a PV cell. RS is the series resistance
associated with connecting to the active portion of a cell or module
consisting of a series of equivalent cells. Using Equation 1 and I-V
measurements, the value of RS can be calculated. Figure 2 shows that RS
varies with the reciprocal of irradiance.


Figure Simple PV Model
Simple PV output current:
P
S
T k n
R I V q
O ph
R
R I V
e I I I
S




) 1 (
) (




Figure R
S
vs Reciprocal of Irradiance
RP is parallel leakage resistance and is typically large, > 100 k in most
modern PV cells. This component can be neglected in many applications
except for low light conditions.

Current through the diode is represented by Equation 2:

) 1 (
) (



T k n
R I V q
O
S
e I
Where
I
O
=Diode saturation current
q=Electron charge (1.6x10
-19
C)
k=Boltzmann constant (1.38x10
-23
J/K)
n=Ideality factor (from 1 to 2)
T=Temperature (K)

II. Islanding

Islanding refers to the condition in which a distributed (DG)
generator continues to power a location even though electrical
grid power from the electric utility is no longer present.
Islanding can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not


realize that a circuit is still powered, and it may prevent
automatic re-connection of devices. For that reason,
distributed generators must detect islanding and immediately
stop producing power; this is referred to as anti-islanding.

5. Basic knonledge

Electrical inverters are devices that convert direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC). Grid-interactive inverters
have the additional requirement that they produce AC power
that matches the existing power presented on the grid. In
particular, a grid-interactive inverter must match the
voltage, frequency and phase of the power line it connects to.
There are numerous technical requirements to the accuracy of
this tracking.
Inverter(s) attached to the panels convert the varying DC
current provided by the panels into AC power that matches the
grid supply. If the grid is disconnected, the voltage on the
grid line might be expected to drop to zero, a clear
indication of a service interruption. However, consider the
case when the house's load exactly matches the output of the
panels at the instant of the grid interruption. In this case
the panels can continue supplying power, which is used up by
the house's load. In this case there is no obvious indication
that an interruption has occurred.
Normally even when the load and production are exactly
matched, the so-called "balanced condition", the failure of
the grid will result in several additional transient signals
being generated. For instance, there will almost always be a
brief decrease in line voltage, which will signal a potential
fault condition. However, such events can also be caused by
normal operation, like the starting of a large electric motor.
Methods that detect islanding without a large number of false
positives is the subject of considerable research. Each method
has some threshold that needs to be crossed before a condition
is consider to be a signal of grid interruption, which leads
to a "non-detection zone" (NDZ), the range of conditions where
a real grid failure will be filtered out.
6. Islanding detection methods
Detecting an islanding condition is the subject of
considerable research. In general, these can be classified
into passive methods, which look for transient events on the
grid, and active methods, which probe the grid by sending
signals of some sort from the inverter or the grid
distribution point. There are also methods that the utility
can use to detect the conditions that would cause the


inverter-based methods to fail, and deliberately upset those
conditions in order to make the inverters switch off.


Islanding mode in a grid connected PV system

Passive methods
Passive methods include any system that attempts to detect
transient changes on the grid, and use that information as the
basis as a probabilistic determination of whether or not the
grid has failed, or some other condition has resulted in a
temporary change.
Under/over voltage
According to Ohm's law, the voltage in an electrical circuit
is a function of electrical current (the supply of electrons)
and the applied load (resistance). In the case of a grid
interruption, the current being supplied by the local source
is unlikely to match the load so perfectly as to be able to
maintain a constant voltage. A system that periodically
samples voltage and looks for sudden changes can be used to
detect a fault condition.
Under/over voltage detection is normally trivial to implement
in grid-interactive inverters, because the basic function of
the inverter is to match the grid conditions, including
voltage. That means that all grid-interactive inverters, by
necessity, have the circuitry needed to detect the changes.
All that is needed is an algorithm to detect sudden changes.
However, sudden changes in voltage are a common occurrence on
the grid as loads are attached and removed, so a threshold
must be used to avoid false disconnections.


The range of conditions that result in non-detection with this
method may be large, and these systems are generally used
along with other detection systems.
Under/over frequency
The frequency of the power being delivered to the grid is a
function of the supply, one that the inverters carefully
match. When the grid source is lost, the frequency of the
power would fall to the natural resonant frequency of the
circuits in the island. Looking for changes in this frequency,
like voltage, is easy to implement using already required
functionality, and for this reason almost all inverters also
look for fault conditions using this method as well.
Unlike changes in voltage, it is generally considered highly
unlikely that a random circuit would naturally have a natural
frequency the same as the grid power. However, many devices
deliberately synchronize to the grid frequency, like
televisions. Motors, in particular, may be able to provide a
signal that is within the NDZ for some time as they "wind
down". The combination of voltage and frequency shifts still
results in a NDZ that is not considered adequate by all.
Rate of change of frequency
In order to decrease the time in which an island is detected,
rate of change of frequency has been adopted as a detection
method. The rate of change of frequency is given by the
following expression:

where is the system frequency, is the time, is the power
imbalance ( ), is the system capacity, and is
the system inertia.
Should the rate of change of frequency, or ROCOF value, be
greater than a certain value, the embedded generation will be
disconnected from the network.
Voltage phase jump detection
Loads generally have power factors that are not perfect,
meaning that they do not accept the voltage from the grid
perfectly, but impede it slightly. Grid-tie inverters, by
definition, have power factors of 1. This can lead to changes


in phase when the grid fails, which can be used to detect
islanding.
Inverters generally track the phase of the grid signal using a
phase locked loop (PLL) of some sort. The PLL stays in sync
with the grid signal by tracking when the signal crosses zero
volts. Between those events, the system is essentially
"drawing" a sine-shaped output, varying the current output to
the circuit to produce the proper voltage waveform. When the
grid disconnects, the power factor suddenly changes from the
grid's to the load's (~1). As the circuit is still providing a
current that would produce a smooth voltage output given the
known loads, this condition will result in a sudden change in
voltage. By the time the waveform is completed and returns to
zero, the signal will be out of phase.
The main advantage to this approach is that the shift in phase
will occur even if the load exactly matches the supply in
terms of Ohm's law - the NDZ is based on power factors of the
island, which are very rarely 1. The downside is that many
common events, like motors starting, also cause phase jumps as
new impedances are added to the circuit. This forces the
system to use relatively large thresholds, reducing its
effectiveness.
Harmonics detection
Even with noisy sources, like motors, the total harmonic
distortion (THD) of a grid-connected circuit is generally
unmeasurable due to the essentially infinite capacity of the
grid that filters these events out. Inverters, on the other
hand, generally have much larger distortions, as much as 5%
THD. This is a function of their construction, some THD is a
natural side-effect of the switched-mode power supply circuits
most inverters are based on.
Thus, when the grid disconnects, the THD of the local circuit
will naturally increase to that of the inverters themselves.
This provides a very secure method of detecting islanding,
because there are generally no other sources of THD that would
match that of the inverter. Additionally, interactions within
the inverters themselves, notably the transformers, have non-
linear effects that produce unique 2nd and 3rd harmonics that
are easily measurable.
The drawback of this approach is that some loads may filter
out the distortion, in the same way that the inverter attempts
to. If this filtering effect is strong enough, it may reduce
the THD below the threshold needed to trigger detection.


Systems without a transformer on the "inside" of the
disconnect point will make detection more difficult. However,
the largest problem is that modern inverters attempt to lower
the THD as much as possible, in some cases to unmeasurable
limits.
Active methods
Active methods generally attempt to detect a grid failure by
injecting small signals into the line, and then detecting
whether or not the signal changes.
Impedance measurement
Impedance Measurement attempts to measure the overall
impedance of the circuit being fed by the inverter. It does
this by slightly "forcing" the current amplitude through the
AC cycle, presenting too much current at a given time.
Normally this would have no effect on the measured voltage, as
the grid is an effectively infinitely stiff voltage source. In
the event of a disconnection, even the small forcing would
result in a noticeable change in voltage, allowing detection
of the island.
The main advantage of this method is that it has a vanishingly
small NDZ for any given single inverter. However, the inverse
is also the main weakness of this method; in the case of
multiple inverters, each one would be forcing a slightly
different signal into the line, hiding the effects on any one
inverter. It is possible to address this problem by
communication between the inverters to ensure they all force
on the same schedule, but in a non-homogeneous install
(multiple installations on a single branch) this becomes
difficult or impossible in practice. Additionally, the method
only works if the grid is effectively infinite, and in
practice many real-world grid connections do not sufficiently
meet this criterion.
Impedance measurement at a specific frequency
Although the methodology is similar to Impedance Measurement,
this method, also known as "harmonic amplitude jump", is
actually closer to Harmonics Detection. In this case the
inverter deliberately introduces harmonics at a given
frequency, and as in the case of Impedance Measurement,
expects the signal from the grid to overwhelm it until the
grid fails. Like Harmonics Detection, the signal may be
filtered out by real-world circuits.


Slip mode frequency shift
This is one of the newest methods of islanding detection, and
in theory, one of the best. It is based on forcing the phase
of the inverter's output to be slightly mis-aligned with the
grid, with the expectation that the grid will overwhelm this
signal. The system relies on the actions of a finely tuned
phase-locked loop to become unstable when the grid signal is
missing; in this case the PLL attempts to adjust the signal
back to itself, which is tuned to continue to drift. In the
case of grid failure, the system will quickly drift away from
the design frequency, eventually causing the inverter to shut
down.
The major advantage of this approach is that is can be
implemented using circuitry that is already present in the
inverter. The main disadvantage is that it requires the
inverter to always be slightly out of time with the grid, a
lowered power factor. Generally speaking, the system has a
vanishingly small NDZ and will quickly disconnect, but it is
known that there are some loads that will react to offset the
detection.
Frequency bias
Frequency bias forces a slightly off-frequency signal into the
grid, but "fixes" this at the end of every cycle by jumping
back into phase when the voltage passes zero. This creates a
signal similar to Slip Mode, but the power factor remains
closer to that of the grid's, and resets itself every cycle.
Moreover, the signal is less likely to be filtered out by
known loads. The main disadvantage is that every inverter
would have to agree to shift the signal back to zero at the
same point on the cycle, say as the voltage crosses back to
zero, otherwise different inverters will force the signal in
different directions and filter it out.
There are numerous possible variations to this basic scheme.
The Frequency Jump version, also known as the "zebra method",
inserts forcing only on a specific number of cycles in a set
pattern. This dramatically reduces the chance that external
circuits may filter the signal out. This advantage disappears
with multiple inverters, unless some way of synchronizing the
patterns is used.
Utility-based methods
The utility also has a variety of methods available to it to
force systems offline in the event of a failure.


Manual disconnection
Most small generator connections require a mechanical
disconnect switch, so at a minimum the utility could send a
repairman to pull them all. For very large sources, one might
simply install a dedicated telephone hotline that can be used
to have an operator manually shut down the generator. In
either case, the reaction time is likely to be on the order of
minutes, or hours.
Automated disconnection
Manual disconnection could be automated through the use of
signals sent though the grid, or on secondary means. For
instance, power line carrier communications could be installed
in all inverters, periodically checking for signals from the
utility and disconnecting either on command, or if the signal
disappears for a fixed time. Such a system would be highly
reliable, but expensive to implement.
Transfer-trip method
As the utility can be reasonably assured that they will always
have a method for discovering a fault, whether that be
automated or simply looking at the recloser, it is possible
for the utility to use this information and transmit it down
the line. This can be used to force the tripping of properly-
equipped DG systems by deliberately opening a series of
recloser in the grid to force the DG system to be isolated in
a way that forces it out of the NDZ. This method can be
guaranteed to work, but requires the grid to be equipped with
automated recloser systems, and external communications
systems that guarantee the signal will make it through to the
reclosers.
Impedance insertion
A related concept is to deliberately force a section of the
grid into a condition that will guarantee the DG systems will
disconnect. This is similar to the transfer-trip method, but
uses active systems at the head-end of the utility, as opposed
to relying on the topology of the network.
A simple example is a large bank of capacitors that are added
to a branch, left charged up and normally disconnected by a
switch. In the event of a failure, the capacitors are switched
into the branch by the utility after a short delay. This can
be easily accomplished through automatic means at the point of
distribution. The capacitors can only supply current for a


brief period, ensuring that the start or end of the pulse they
deliver will cause enough of a change to trip the inverters.
There appears to be no NDZ for this method of anti-islanding.
Its main disadvantage is cost; the capacitor bank has to be
large enough to cause changes in voltage that will be
detected, and this is a function of the amount of load on the
branch. In theory, very large banks would be needed, an
expense the utility is unlikely to look on favourably.
SCADA
Anti-islanding protection can be improved through the use of
the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
already widely used in the utility market. For instance, an
alarm could sound if the SCADA system detects voltage on a
line where a failure is known to be in progress. This does not
affect the anti-islanding systems, but may allow any of the
systems noted above to be quickly implemented.

III. Conclusion

MPPT is an electronic function that adjusts voltage /
current parameters to get the most power out of a solar
panel
PV systems that lack MPPT rarely operate at the most
efficient, MPP. This is why the rated power of the solar
panel is almost never realized when connecting a load.
The behavior of photovoltaic (PV) inverters operating in
islanding mode is very complicated. The islanding of PV
inverters depends on the anti-islanding protection
system.
Three different islanding detection methods are
introduced. Passive islanding detection method is an
important concern for grid connected photovoltaic (PV)
power generation system due to personnel and equipment
safety.
The overview of several possible islanding detection
methods suitable for PV grid connected system have been
discussed and analyzed. As a conclusion, it is difficult
to define a generic method for a specific application,
because most of the methods discussed are governed by the
nature of application and system dependent elements. In
addition, the setup and operation cost is always the
vital factor for anti-islanding method. Hence, careful
selection has to be made based on the understanding of


the actual history of islanding probability occurrence in
a particular system. This is to ensure that the control
system is reliable as well as achieving minimal
compromising between cost, system quality and safety
risks.
In fact, the choice of anti-islanding methods is
dependent on national electrical rules and regulations,
because every country has its own guidelines of DG
interconnection requirements.


IV. Reference

[1] Bollen M. H. J. and Hager M., Power quality: integrations between distributed
energy
resources, the grid, and other customers. Electrical Power Quality and Utilization
Magazine, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 5161, 2005.

[2] Vu Van T., Belmans R., Distributed generation overview: current status and
challenges.
Inter-national Review of Electrical Engineering (IREE), vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 178189,
2006.

[3] Pedro Gonzlez, Impact of Grid connected Photovoltaic System in the Power
Quality of
a Network, Power Electrical and Electronic Systems (PE&ES), School of Industrial
Engineering, University of Extremadura.

[4] Barker P. P., De Mello R. W., Determining the impact of distributed generation
on power
systems: Part 1 Radial distribution systems. PES Summer Meeting, IEEE, Vol. 3,
pp. 16451656, 2000.

Transformer for grid-connected solar farms
2.1 Introduction
In a grid-connected solar power system, the transformer mainly
provides two functions: isolation and match inverter output
voltage to the grid.

In order to prevent noise transfer from the grid to the
electronics in the system, a delta-Y isolation transformer is
placed between the main service switchgear disconnects and the
inverters. The delta winding of the isolation transformer,
which is connected to the service bus, circulates noise
harmonics in the winding and dissipates the energy as heat.

Isolation transformers are also used to convert the inverter
output voltages to the grid.

2.2 Photovoltaic Grid Transformers
There are a number of considerations in the design of a
transformer used in solar farms (DPV-GT). The typical one-line


diagram of a grid-connected solar power system is shown in
figure 2.1. [1]

Figure 2.1 Typical one-line diagram of a solar power system
connected to the grid [1]

2.2.1 Differentiation for Solar Energy Transformers

2.2.1.1 No-Load Operation

PV transformers are subject to long-time no-load operation
conditions, at least at night. This might have impact not
only of the cost but also the design of such transformers.
Oil is heated only by the core, during the no-load
operation, so the thermal behavior of the active part is
much different than at full load so that core overheating
must be avoided. Batteries are included in most PV
installations in order to make the load of the transformer
become almost constant.

2.2.1.2 Low-voltage Fault Ride Through

Fault ride through has yet to be defined for solar systems;
this could be because it is easier to turn solar power
systems on and off quickly.

2.2.1.3 Harmonics

The solar inverter systems typical harmonic content is
less than 1%, which has almost no impact on the system.

2.2.1.4 Step-up Duty

The inverter converts DC input from the photovoltaic array
and provides alternating current (AC) voltage to the
transformer. The problem of overvoltage has been paid much


attention in general installations under PV application. By
providing an automatic gain control scheme to the inverter
circuit configuration, a steady and smooth transition of DC-
AC is given by the inverter, with no overvoltage caused by
unloaded circuits.

2.2.1.5 Nominal Loading Average

Solar power systems typically operate in close proximity to
their rated loads. Since the load variation from the rated
value is low, the operation of transformers is not adversely
affected to cause deterioration of parameters that guide the
insulation coordination of the core-coil structure. Thus,
forces experienced by the primary and secondary windings are
not out of the ordinary, thus alleviating problems that may
occur in the design of the mechanical structure.

2.2.1.6 Special Design Issues

Inverters are used to convert DC to AC in solar power
systems. However, since the largest practical inverter size
is about 500 kVA, a 1000 kVA transformer is built by placing
two inverter connected windings in one box. In this way, the
transformer has to have two separate windings to accept
completely separate inputs. Limited by the size of the
inverter, there may be multiple inverters at each solar
station. Some users would consider having multiple LV
windings in a single transformer with each LV winding
connected to an inverter.

Design considerations such as impedance and short circuit
cause multiple LV windings to create a very complex
transformer, which will increase cost and reduce
availability of the transformer. It is advisable to keep a
transformer as simple as practical so that it can be mass
produced and could be built by as many manufacturers as fea-
sible.

The size of a solar farm is limited by inverter technology
since inverters can currently only be built to about 500kVA.
This means that nearly all solar applications use pairs of
500kVA inverters to drive the transformer and produce about
1000kVA.

It is should be designed and constructed to meet the
standards of earthquake and rated for installation in the
highest earthquake rating zones. [1]

2.3 Insulating media


Transformers have been around for over 125 years. In the very
early stage of development, the oil has been used as
insulating media. Oil fulfils two functions, insulation agent
and cooling agent. Since the turn of the twentieth century,
the standard insulating media for power transformers have been
mineral oil and cellulose. [2]

In power engineering, transformers operating conditions are
stable: supply voltage is sinusoidal, frequency is constant
and load current is sinusoidal. Since transformer is a static
device, there is no wear by movement so that the life span of
a transformer is limited by the life of the insulation. When
the insulation ultimately reaches its end of life, the
transformer will fail due to a dielectric or mechanical
failure.

Insulating media for transformers used in solar farms commonly
consist of paper wrapped around the conductors in the
transformer coils with mineral oil filled and pressboard to
insulate the coils from ground.

2.3.1 Mineral Oil/Paper

The insulating fluid that has the greatest use in electrical
equipment is mineral oil. Mineral oil provides both satisfying
dielectric and thermal properties. There are also insulating
materials that may be superior to mineral oil. However, from
the point of the combination of property and price, mineral
oil still dominates other insulating materials.

In power engineering based upon renewable energy sources, oil-
filled transformers with paper insulation are used in power
electronics circuits. Cellulose (paper) impregnated with
mineral oil makes good turn-to-turn insulation. Main
insulation consists of oil plus insulating barriers made of
insulating boards. Insulating boards used in electrical
circuits are chemically stabilized, they are characterized by
diminished moisture absorption capacity and increased
resistance to heat. Oil acting as cooling medium makes it easy
to solve the issue of transferring away the heat from the core
and the windings to the coolers. Transformer tank provides the
cooling and protects transformer from mechanical damage. Oil-
filled transformers are much cheaper than dry-type
transformers. [2]

2.3.2 Natural Ester Fluid

As the increasing number of nation-states adopt renewable
energy, the renewable energy market of is nearly doubling year


and year. For example, According to the Renewable Electricity
Standard included in the American Clean Energy and Security
Act, 20% of all electricity production by the year 2020 must
be from renewable sources such as wind, solar, and geothermal.
[3]

2.3.2.1 Introduction

In the past, the study of characteristics of transformer has
focused on improved efficiency and extended life expectancy.
But in recent years, reliable power supply and environmental
aspects are highlighted. Conventional mineral oil is some
possibility of environmental pollution and fire with
explosion. But natural ester insulating oils are non-toxic,
more biodegradable and less flammable than a mineral oil. [4]

2.3.2.2 Comparison of Aging of Mineral Oil and Natural Ester
Fluid

Degradation of insulating oil after aging is determined using
total acid number, breakdown voltage and viscosity. Also,
insulating papers after aging are investigated with mechanical
strength. The aging of insulating material in natural ester
fluid is compared with the conventional mineral oil. Kraft
paper and insulating oil(natural oil or mineral oil) were aged
at 140 for 500, 1000, 1500 hours. The experiment was
conducted by Myeong-Seop Shim from Department of Electrical
Engineering of Inha University.

1) Total Acid Number
According to the result of the experiment, the total acid
number in natural ester oil is much more than that in
mineral oil. Generally, the increasing of acid number in
insulating oil will decrease breakdown voltage of the
material. However, the acid generated in natural ester oil
is long-chain fatty acid which is not corrosive, in
contrast with its counterpart in mineral oil. Therefore,
the total acid number in natural ester insulating oil
doesnt cause decreasing dielectric strength.

2) Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Oil
The Breakdown voltage of insulation oil is dependent on the
presence of contaminants such as water, dirt in the
insulating oil. In the breakdown of insulating oil test,
natural ester insulating oil showed better dielectric
properties than mineral oil. The natural ester insulating
oil is relatively higher boiling point. Therefore pyrolysis
of natural ester insulating oil is a slow process.[4]




3) Viscosity
The viscosity of dielectric coolant in a range of normal
operation impacts the performance of cooling and some
internal components. Under initial condition, natural ester
exhibits about 3times of viscosity as compared with that of
mineral oil. And also, natural ester insulating oil has
increased viscosity with aging time and temperature. This
may have an influence on coil winding temperature so that
is it important to design winding in case of the prevention
of overheating.

4) Tensile Strength
Normally, expected life of transformers defined that
tensile strength of insulating paper decrease as the
thermal aging. So it is important to evaluate the
insulating material in transformer for efficient and
economic operation.

In the tensile strength of insulating paper test, the kraft
paper in the natural ester insulating oil ages considerably
slower than its counterpart in mineral oil under the same
thermal stress. Obviously, the natural ester insulating oil
can enhance the life time of transformer.

In conclusion, the natural ester insulating oil has advantage
over the conventional mineral oil in the aspect of life time
of the material. As newly electric equipment should be
designed for environmentally, especially in a solar farm, it
is practical that we can use the natural ester fluid as
alternative to replace mineral oil for insulating. In
addition, not only the life span of transformers can be
increased, but also the soil pollution caused by explosion
might be avoid by use of natural ester fluid.

2.4 Optimal Sizing of Solar Energy Transformers
2.4.1 Introduction

With the spreading growth comes in, a greater scrutiny is
conducted when sizing solar farms. There is often great
incentive to get the most utilization out of the equipment.
The AC oil-filled pad mount transformer is the equipment that
is often overlooked.

Equal in importance to its biodegradability, this natural
ester fluid substantially extends the life of the cellulosic
insulation in the transformer, while allowing periods of
overloading of the transformer. The high fire point of natural
ester fluid provides a safer transformer for solar


applications compared to mineral oil, especially during
periods of high ambient temperature and unit overloading. [5]

By using natural ester as the insulating material, the solar
energy environmental picture becomes brighter. For the
characteristics of solar energy system, cyclic loads and
higher temperature, optimal sizing of transformer reduces
material content. It allows the current supplies to be consumed
in expanded applications. A reduction of exploring, obtaining
and refining raw material used in the manufacturing of
transformers would be the full sustainable impact of that.

Operating at a higher temperature means that the design
footprint can shrink. As it was discussed before, cellulosic
(paper and pressboard) insulation in transformers will last so
much longer in natural ester fluids than in mineral oil at the
same temperature.

2.4.2 Experimental Research

The experiment for researching the optimal sizing of
transformer using natural ester fluid was carried out by David
A. Trevas, Adam Peterson, Kevin J. Rapp and John Luksich from
Cooper Power Systems, Waukesha, USA. An example PV solar
development that uses two 800 kW inverters connected to a
1600kVA AC transformer was chosen. While the 1600kVA
transformer size is mandatory for maximum output, the
inverters may only output 100% current for 8 hours or less in
a given day. ANSI standards are based around the concept that
transformers should be designed for 100% loading, 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week. While this may be satisfactory for the
majority of utility applications, it is greatly over-specified
for the typical PV solar load profile.[5]

2.4.2.1 Natural Ester Fluid

The advantage of natural ester fluids for high voltage
transformers is related their inherent functional properties
(e.g. chemical stability, electrical performance) and their
interactions with cellulosic insulation structures while
possessing improved environmental and sustainable benefits.
Based on their improved insulation system aging performance,
they are increasingly specified within sustainable transformer
platforms.

The use of natural ester fluid provides a technology to
optimize the size of a transformer smaller. With the
application of natural ester fluid, a 1600kVA transformer
designed for continuous 100% loading can be optimized to a


significantly smaller transformer footprint, while maintaining
1600kVA output capabilities.

2.4.2.2 PV Solar Transformer

Transformers used in solar applications are inherently loaded
cyclically which suggests that sizing a transformer as if it
were continuously loaded at its maximum power level leads to
selecting overdesigned units. [5]

A series of typical solar transformers were designed to match
the load ranging from 800 to 1600 kVA, in 200 kVA steps. The
parameters of units were calculated using the companys
program.

The key factor that provides natural ester fluid with the
advantage over mineral oil is that Kraft paper in natural
ester fluid has the same predicted life at a hottest-spot
temperature of 130C that it does in mineral oil at 110C. Due
to this fact, a predicted life of a unit based on its size is
shown in Fig 4.1, which demonstrates the significant
improvement in the efficiency of the natural ester fluid
designs. The data for use is given in Table 1.

Figure 4.1 Predicted insulation life versus transformer rating
[5]

As we can see from Fig 4.1 and Table 1, the nominal 1600 kVA
units would be under-loaded in most of their lives, with an
even nonexistent aging rate of insulation. However, for 800
KVA, half the rating, the unit would operate at an excessively
high hottest-spot temperature during the peak loads that it
would fail in the first year.



At 1000 kVA, the difference between the two insulating media
becomes apparent. A transformer used mineral oil connected to
1.6 PUL (Per Unit Load) would last almost 4 years, while a
natural ester fluid filled transformer is predicted to last
36.5years. While the 1200 KVA mineral oil unit attains the
worldwide acceptable life of 32 years, the same unit using
natural ester would be expected to operate for 277 years of
life.
Table 1 Predicted Life of Various-Sized Transformer [5]


2.4.3 Conclusion

Natural ester fluid is an excellent environmentally-friendly
alternative of conventional mineral oil for a couple of
advantage. It is much safer than mineral oil as it has higher
flash point and less prone to catch fire. Moreover, one of the
most salient features of natural ester fluid is that it is
much more compatible with the Kraft paper that widely used in
the modern insulation system of transformer. The life of Kraft
paper is increased seven times compared to that with mineral
oil by submersed the paper in natural ester.

Combining this improvement in fluids with an accurate method
to use real-world solar power production data and solar farm
ambient conditions, a way to design optimally-sized
transformers of solar power applications is demonstrated. In
this particular case, a transformer rated between 62%
(1000KVA) and 75% (1200KVA) of the maximum peak load will have
a predicted lifespan exceeding 30 years. So the producers of
solar power will be able to select smaller, less expensive
transformers that have long predicted life spans.

Reference
[1] David E. Buckmaster, Hemchandra Shertukde, Chapter 10:
Transformers for Wind Turbine Generators and Photovoltaic
Applications, Electric Power Transformer Engineering,
Third Edition, James H . Harlow, 2012
[2] Thomas A. Prevost, David L. Hanson, Leo J. Savio, Ted
Haupert, Chapter 12: Insulating Media, Electric Power


Transformer Engineering, Third Edition, James H . Harlow,
2012
[3] Tadeusz Glinka, Waldemar Olech, Oil-Filled Transformer
Supplying Power Electronics Circuit, Zeszyty problemowe
Maszyny Elektryczne Nr 100/2013 cz. II (Exercise problem -
Electric Machines No. 100/2013 pcs. II)
[4] Shim, Myeong-Seop, Comparative Evaluation of Aging of
insulating Material in Natural Ester and Mineral Oil,
International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and
Application, Oct. 11-14, 2010, New Orleans, USA
[5] David A. Trevas, Adam Peterson, Kevin J. Rapp, John
Luksich, Optimal Sizing of Solar Energy Transformers using
Natural Ester Fluid, Environment and Electrical
Engineering (EEEIC), 2012 11th International Conference,
18-25 May 2012, Venice, Italy


V.


VI. 3 Solar farm protection
The equipments in a large solar farm, like the photovoltaic
cells and the inverters, are sensitive and expensive,
moreover, the structure of a solar farm is different from the
traditional generation plants, for instance, the solar panels
are series connected, which may cause a reverse current from
other feeders shunt connected when fault occurs in a single
photovoltaic cell. Therefore, there are requirements in
different aspects, including protection against personnel,
thermal issues, reverse current, overcurrent, overvoltage
protection, etc.
7. 3.1 Protecting people against electric shock
To ensure safety of personnel, International Electrotechnical
Commission(IEC) has rules in protection devices and
installation.
Paragraph 412.1.1 of IEC 60364 states: Double or reinforced
insulation is a protective measure in which basic protection
is provided by basic insulation, and fault protection is
provided by supplementary insulation, or basic and fault
protection is provided by reinforced insulation between live
parts and accessible parts.
This protective measure is intended to prevent the appearance
of dangerous voltage on the accessible parts of electrical
equipment through a fault in the basic insulation
IEC 60364-712 stipulates that PV systems whose maximum
generator voltage
max oc
U is higher than 120V DC should use
double or reinforced insulation as a protection against
electric shock.
Switchgear, such as fuses or circuit-breakers on the DC side,
do not afford protection against electric shock as there is no
automatic disconnect of the power supply.
8. 3.2 Risk of fire: protection against thermal
effects
Generally speaking there are three conditions that can result
in unusual high temperature and the risk of fire in a solar
system: insulation fault, a reverse current in a PV module,
and overloading conductors or equipment.


3.2.1 Insulation fault detection
Double or reinforced insulation is a protective measure
against electric shock but it does not exclude all risk of
insulation fault. (The assumption here is that the likelihood
of an insulation fault and of someone touching an energized
part of the installation at the same is very low. Insulation
faults in themselves do happen more frequently, however.) DC
insulation fault could be more dangerous as arc has less
chance to extinguish by itself as it does in AC.
When an insulation fault is detected whatever the solution is,
inverter is stopped and disconnected from AC side, but the
fault is not removed on DC side and voltage across poles is
the open circuit voltage
oc
U of PV generator as long as sun is
shining.
This situation cannot be tolerated over a long period and the
fault has to be found and cleared. If not, a second fault may
develop on the other pole, causing the current to circulate in
the earthing conductors and metal parts of the PV installation
with no guarantee that protective devices will operate
properly. See 3.4 Overcurrent protection.
9. 3.3 Protection of PV modules against reverse
current
A short circuit in a PV module, faulty connection, or a
related fault may cause reverse current in PV strings. This
occurs if the open-circuit voltage of one string is
significantly different from the open voltage of parallel
strings connected to the same inverter. The current flows from
the normally working strings to the faulty one other than
feeding to the inverter and supplying power to the grid.
Reverse current in a long time can lead to dangerous
temperature rises and thus fire risk in the PV module. PV
module withstand capability should therefore be tested in
accordance with IEC 61730-2 standard and the PV module
manufacturer shall provide the maximum reverse current value
max R
I .



Fig 3-1 Reverse current
3.3.1 Reverse current into the faulty string calculation
String overcurrent protection is to be used if the total
number of strings that could feed one faulty string is high
enough to supply a dangerous reverse current:
max
) 1 ( 35 . 1
sc s RM
I N I

where:
RM
I
is the maximum reverse current characteristic of PV cells
defined in IEC 61730,
s
N is the total number of strings
There is obviously no risk of reverse current when there is
only one string. When there are two strings with same number
of PV modules connected in parallel, the reverse current will
be always lower than the maximum string rated current. So,
when the PV generator is made of one or two strings only there
is no need for reverse current protection.
10. 3.4 Protection against overcurrent
As in any installation, there should be protection against
thermal effect of overcurrent causing any danger.
Short-circuit current depends on solar irradiance, but it may
be lower than the trip value of overcurrent protection.
Although this is not an issue for cables as the current is
within current-carrying capacity, the inverter will detect a
voltage drop and stop producing power. It is therefore
recommended that the maximum trip current should be
significantly lower than
max stc
I .
IEC 60364-712:
712.433.1 Overload protection may be omitted to PV string and PV array
cables when the continuous current-carrying capacity of the cable is


equal to or greater than 1,25 times I
SC STC
at any location.
712.433.2 Overload protection may be omitted to the PV main cable if the
continuous current-carrying capacity is equal to or greater than 1,25
times I
SC STC
of the PV generator.
3.4.1 String protection
Where string overcurrent protection is required, each PV
string shall be protected with an overcurrent protection
device.
The nominal overcurrent protection (Fuse or Circuit breaker)
rating of the string overcurrent protection device shall be
greater than 1,25 times the string short circuit current
string stc sc
I
, ,
.
3.4.2 Array protection
The selection of overcurrent protection rating shall be done
in order to avoid unexpected trip in normal operation taking
into account temperature. A protection rating higher than 1.4
times the protected string or array short-circuit current
Isc_stc is usually recommended.
11. 3.5 Circuit breakers or Fuses
Circuit breakers or fuses can be used to provide overcurrent
protection. Fuses, usually on the fuse holder or directly
connected to bars or cables, do not provide a load-break
switch function. So when fuses are used, load-break switches
should also be used to disconnect fuses from the inverter in
order to allow cartridge replacement. So an array box with
fuses on fuse holders as string protection, for example,
should also incorporate a main switch.
Circuit breakers offer fine-tuned adjustment and greater
accuracy than fuses in order to allow the use of cables,
especially for sub-array cables, that are smaller than fuses
3.5.1 Double earth faults
PV systems are either insulated from the earth or one pole is
earthed through an overcurrent protection. In both set-ups,
therefore, there can be a ground fault in which current leaks
to the ground. If this fault is not cleared, it may spread to
the healthy pole and give rise to a hazardous situation where
fire could break out. Even though double insulation makes such
an eventuality unlikely, it deserves full attention.



Fig 3-2 Reverse current with protection

Fig 3- 3 Worker paving grounding wire before mounting PV modules
For the two following reasons the double fault situation shall be
absolutely avoided: Insulation monitoring devices or overcurrent
protection in earthed system shall detect first fault and staff shall
look after the first fault and clear it with no delay:
The fault level could be low (e.g. two insulation faults or a
low short-circuit capability of the generator in weak
sunlight) and below the tripping value of overcurrent
protection (circuit breaker or fuses). However, a DC arc fault
does not spend itself, even when the current is low. It could
be a serious hazard, particularly for PV modules on buildings.
Circuit breakers and switches used in PV systems are designed
to break the rated current or fault current with all poles at
open-circuit maximum voltage (
max oc
U A). To break the current
when
max oc
U is equal to 1000V, for instance, four poles in series
(two poles in series for each polarity) are required. In
double ground fault situations, the circuit breaker or
switches must break the current at full voltage with only two
poles in series. Such switchgear is not designed for that
purpose and could sustain irremediable damage if used to break


the current in a double ground fault situation.
The ideal solution is prevent double ground faults arising.
Insulation monitoring devices or overcurrent protection in
grounded systems detect the first fault. However, although the
insulation fault monitoring system usually stops the inverter,
the fault is still present. Staff must locate and clear it
without delay. In large generators with subarrays protected by
circuit breakers, it is highly advisable to disconnect each
array when that first fault has been detected but not cleared
within the next few hours.
12. 3.6 Switchgears and enclosure selection
3.6.1 Double insulation
Enclosures on the DC side shall provide double insulation.
3.6.2 Thermal issues
The thermal behaviour of switchgear and enclosures warrants
careful monitoring. PV generator boxes and array boxes are
usually installed outdoors and exposed to the elements. In the
event of high ambient temperatures, high IP levels could
reduce air flow and thermal power dissipation. In addition,
the way switchgear devices achieve high voltage operation
i.e. through the use of poles in series increases their
temperature. Special attention should therefore be paid to the
temperature of switchgear inside outdoor enclosures on the DC
side.
Cable protection should comply with requirements of IEC 60364.
Part 712 of the standard stipulates that all enclosures on the
DC side should meet the requirements of IEC 61439. This
standard covers low voltage switchgear and control gear
assemblies and sets out requirements that guarantee the risk
of temperature rises has been factored into the safe design of
DC boxes (generator and array boxes).
3.6.3 Pollution degree of switchgear and enclosure selection
In addition to the standard criteria for selecting enclosures
in PV systems with UOC MAX of 1000V, some equipment may show
IEC 606947-1 Pollution Degree 2 rather than Pollution Degree
3.
If the switchgear is Pollution Degree 2, the IP level of the enclosure
according to IEC 60529 shall be at least IP5x.


13. 3.7 PV System: protection against
overvoltages
Overvoltage may occur in electrical installations for various
reasons. This may be caused by:
The distribution network as a result of lightning or any
work carried out
Lightning bolts (nearby/on buildings and PV installations,
or on lightning conductors)
Variations in the electrical field due to lightning.
Like all outdoor structures, photovoltaic installations are
exposed to the risk of lightning which varies from region to
region. Preventive and arrest systems and devices should be in
place.
3.7.1 Protection by equipotential bonding:
The first safeguard to put in place is a medium (conductor)
that ensures equipotential bonding between all the conductive
parts of a PV installation. The aim is to bond all grounded
conductors and metal parts and so create equal potential at
all points in the installed system.
Protection by surge protection devices (SPD):
SPD are particularly important to protect sensitive electrical
equipments like AC/DC Inverter, monitoring devices and PV
modules but also other sensitive equipments powered by the
230VAC electrical distribution network. The following method
of risk assessment is based on the evaluation of the critical
length Lcrit and its comparison with L the cumulative length
of the d.c. lines.
Surge Protection Device(SPD) is required if
crit
L L

crit
L
depends on the type of PV installation, and is calculated
according to the following table:


Table 3-1: Critical length
crit
L
calculation
Type of
installat
ion
Individual
residentia
l premises
Terrestria
l
production
plant
Service/Industrial/Agricul
tural Buildings
crit
L
(in
m)
115/Ng 200/Ng 450/Ng
crit
L L

Surge protective device(s) compulsory on DC side
crit
L L

Surge protective device(s) not compulsory on DC
side
L is the sum of :


- the distances between the inverter(s) and the junction
box(es), taking into account that the lengths of cable located
in the same conduit are counted only once, and
- the distances between the junction box and the connection
points of the photovoltaic modules forming the string, taking
into account that the lengths of cable located in the same
conduit are counted only once.
Ng: arc lightning density(nb of stike/km/year)

Fig 3-4 Solar farm system with surge protection device(SPD) in every part
table 3-2 Type of SPD according to location
SPD Protection
Location
PV Modules or
Array box
Inverter
DC side
Inverter AC
side
Main board
L
DC
L
AC
Ligthning rod
Criteria <10m >10m <10m >10m Yes No
Type of
SPD
No
need
SPD 1
Type
2
[*]

SPD 2
Type 2
[*]

No
need
SPD 3
Type 2
SPD 4
Type 1
SPD 4
Type 2 if
Ng>2,5
& overhead
line
[*]
Type 1 if separation distance according to EN 62305 is not kept
3.7.2 Surge arrestor
Surge arrestors act like "clamps" in most cases. They go
across the live wires with another wire going to ground.
Normally they just sit there, but if the voltage goes above a
certain level, they start to conduct, shorting the higher
voltage to ground. In lighting prone areas you should also
install a surge capacitor - this is not really an arrestor,
but acts extremely fast, and will catch those high voltage
spikes on the AC line that are too fast for a surge arrestor.
For most systems to get the best protection, you should have a
DC surge arrestor, such as the LA302DC on the side coming from
the array - this should go on the INPUT to the charge
controller. It should be as near the charge controller as
possible. On the AC side (and this applies to BOTH the
inverter AC input and AC output (for generator and/or grid tie


systems) you should have both an AC surge arrestor and a surge
capacitor.

Fig 3-5 AC surge arrestor for lighting protection
14. 3.8 How to ensure safety during
maintenance or emergency
To ensure staff safety during maintenance and emergencies
disconnect devices should be appropriately located and
enclosures installation should be failsafe.
Isolation switching and control
The switch disconnecters on the AC side and DC side of the
inverter shall be installed for inverter service and
maintenance.
As many switch disconnecters should be installed as are needed
to allow operation on the PV generator, particularly to
replace fuses in the array boxes and generator junction boxes.
For PV systems inside buildings, a remotely-controlled switch
disconnecter should be mounted as closely as possible to the
PV modules or to the point of entry of DC cables in the event
of an emergency.

Fig 3-6 DC Switch disconnecter Compact NSX 200A with heatsink and
interphase barrier



Fig 3-7 Switch disconnecter location
Note: Switches used in PV systems are designed to break the
rated current of all poles at
max oc
U . To break the current when
max oc
U is equal to 1000V, for instance, four poles in series
(two poles in series for each polarity) are required. In
double ground fault situations, the circuit breaker or
switches must break the current at full voltage with only two
poles in series. Such switchgear is not designed for that
purpose and could sustain irremediable damage if used to break
the current in a double ground fault situation. For this
reason double ground faults must be avoided at all costs.
Insulation monitoring devices or overcurrent protection in
grounded system detect the first fault. Staff shall locate it
and clear it without delay.
3.8.1 Selecting and installing enclosures
Enclosures for different PV generator boxes and switch boards
on the DC side need to ensure double isolation, equipment
protection against such outdoor hazards as temperatures, the
rain, vandalism, and shock.
Enclosure and their auxiliary equipment must ensure
temperature and humidity control to allow equipment to operate
smoothly. It is, however, difficult to propose a generic
solution. Each installation needs to be analysed in order to
optimize the sizing of its enclosures and auxiliary equipment.



Sun Tracker system in solar farm

1. Introduction
Solar tracker is a device that widely use in PV system
especially in utility scale system. The function of this device is
to orientate the PV modules always perpendicular with sun position
all day long. Hence, the utilization of solar tracker in the PV
solar farm is an important factor in order to yield maximum solar
power. Typically, single axis tracker system will increase the solar
power up to 30% compared to fixed mounted solar module (BREE, 2012).
Kerr states that PV Modules will get maximum power when the sun ray
striking the modules vertically in other words the incident angle is
0. The larger the angle, the lower amount of sun energy converted
by the PV modules. The larger incident angle means the more sun ray
will get reflected by the PC modules (2013).
In general, there are two type of tracker that will be
discussing in this part, single axis and dual axis PV solar power
tracking system. This part of report also will deliberate about the
tracker control methods. In term of control method, there are two
control methods that widely utilized either in solar farm grid
connected PV system or in stand-alone PV system. These methods of
control are so-called active tracker system and passive tracker


system.

Figure 2. Sun tracker Classification

2. Single Axis Tracker
Many solar tracker manufacturing company such as Solar Power
classified single axis tracker (SAT) into 4 groups:
1. Horizontal single axis tracker (HAST)
2. Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT)
3. Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT)
4. Polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT)

2.1 Horizontal single axis tracker (HSAT)
According to Smith Horizontal single axis tracker is the most
common axis that used in PV power Plant. Based on its named, this
type of tracker is oriented the PV modules from the east to the west
and has its axes horizontal in respect to the ground (2011). The
HSAT is widely use in tropical region (equator area) like Indonesia
and Malaysia. In this area the sun are very high at the noon time
but day time is short (Rockwell 2011). This type of tracker system
does not have very serious problem with back shading problem compare
to vertical axis tracker, therefore it doesnt need very spacious
area as in vertical axis tracker. Hence, HSAT achieve relatively
high power density per acre (Smith 2011). Figure 2 shows the
utilization of HSAT in 10 MW DunHuang PV power Plant in China.



Figure 3. Haosolar 10MW DunHuang PV power plant with horizontal
single axis tracker (http://www.acosolar.com)
In conclusion HAST have the feature outline below:
Widely used in tropical (equator country)
Does not have big problem with back shading
Therefore it Required relatively less land used compare to
vertical single axis tracker
Hence, achieve relatively high power densities per acre
2.2 Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT)
Based on its name, vertical axis tracker system has its axes
upright in respect to the ground. This type of tracker is usually
used at high latitude places where the sun is not very high and has
very long day time during the summer. Toledo PV plant is one of the
PV plant in Spain that used this type of tracker. Using this type of
tracker will also require spacious placement of PV module due to
back shading problem and large swept area when the tracker moves.
VAST also has the simplest structure compared to other tracker, due
to it simplicity, this tracker require less structural material.
Figure 3 shows the utilization of VSAT.



Figure 4. Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT) (Sun 2012).
In conclusion VAST have the feature outline below:
Particular install in northern latitudes country, for example,
between 40 and 55
Less structural materials are used (steel and concrete)
Self-shading problem between solar modules
Require spacious area
Relatively lower power density per acre
2.3 Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT)
Every single tracker that rotate on its axes between vertical
and horizontal is classified as Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT).
This type of tracker usually has fixed axes between 20
0
and 30
0

depend on the where it used. Compared to the horizontal tracker and
vertical tracker TSAT give the advantages to the solar plant to
reduce the land use. This tracker also have been reported to have
better performance in term of energy yield by up to 7 % compared to
horizontal and vertical axis. However, this type of tracking system
make the PV module experienced more wind force compare to the
horizontal and vertical tracker. The other potential drawback is
back shading between the modules; therefore the planner must
carefully design the placement of PV module. This type of axis is
widely used in north America and Europe (Smith 2011). Figure 2 show
the TSAT that used in one of solar farm in Iza, Slovakia.


In conclusion VAST have the feature outline below:
Wind loading problem due to the tilt angle compared to the
horizontal axis
Can be densely packed per land unit.
Have the highest power densities per acre in single axis
class.

Figure 5. Tilt single axis tracker system use at Ia PV plant
(99kWp), Slovakia. (http://www.solar-motors.com)

2.4 Polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT)
This type of tracker is almost the same as tilt single axis
tracker system. However, Polar aligned single axis tracker has its
tilt angle line up with the polar star. This type of tracker
typically used in telescope technology. Figure 5 shows the sample of
PASA tracker.



Figure 6. Polar aligned single axis tracker (Sun 2012).



3. Dual Axis Tracker system
The main difference between single axis tracking system and
dual axis tracking system is dual axis tracking system has dual
movement either horizontal or vertical movement. Typically, dual
axis tracker system will increase the solar power up to 6% compared
to single axis solar tracker(BREE 2012). Dual axis tracker system
are more precise in oriented the solar module to the sun compared to
the single axis.
Consequently, dual axis tracker system is much more expensive
than single axis tracker system. In addition, this type of tracker
has more has more complexity in term of design and installation. It
has been reported that dual axis tracker system has more down time
and requires a lot of maintenance (Cooke 2012).
In general, there are two type of dual axis tracker system
(wikipedia 2013):
1. Tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT).
2. Azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT).
Tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT).


This Type of tracker characterized by PV modules placed on the
top of the pole. The vertical movement of the panel is driven by an
H or T shaped machinery that located on the top of the pole. The T
or H shaped machinery also provide a support (mounting point) to the
PV module. The Horizontal movement is mainly driven by the rotating
Pole. TTDAT has been reported to have very good flexibility in term
of movement and make this type of tracker quite expensive (wikipedia
2013). However, due to the high prices and maintenance this type of
axis not often use in Utility scale PV power plant. Figure 5 shows
the sample of TTDAT system.

Figure 7. Tip-tilt dual axis trackers (Sun 2012).

Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT).
AADAT system has its primary axis vertical to the ground, this
axis give the vertical movement of the module. The horizontal
movement is driven by its secondary axis that almost the same with
the secondary axis in TTDAT system. In general, the operation in
AADAT is relatively the same as in TTDAT system. However, AADAT has
different mounting method. Instead of mount the PV module on top of
the pole as in TTDAT system, AADAT system use large ring mounted on
the ground then the module is mounted on series of roller. This will
distribute the PV module weight evenly over the ring. Therefore


TTADAT can support much larger module compare to the AADAT.
Another drawback of this type of tracker is requiring spacious
area due to the unique installation and shading problem.
Figure 7 show Shows the utilization of AADAT at Toledo (1 MW) PV
plant in Spain.


Figure 8. AADT system at Toledo PV power Plant in Spain (Cooke
2012).


There is much discussion today about whether use the
single axis or dual axis in solar farm. Both of single and
dual axes have their own benefits and drawback. In general, in
term of accuracy dual axis is much more eminent than single
axis, but it turns with quite complex design. As a consequent
dual axis tracker system is very expensive technology which is
cannot be compensated by 6% energy output increase. In
addition, dual technology axis also not reliable and need more
maintenance compared to the single axis tracker system (Cooke
2012).
Alternatively, single axis tracking system give better
performance and very reliable. The price is much cheaper than
dual axis system. According to Cooke, expected life time of


single axis is more than 20 years (2012). In addition, single
axis tracker is widely used in solar farm utility scale
compared to the dual axis system.

Sun Tracking techniques

In general, there are two type of sun tracking techniques that
used in both single axis tracker system and dual axis tracker system
(Mousazadeh, Keyhani et al. 2009):
1. Passive Tracker method (Mechanical pneumatic based)
2. Active Tracker method (Electric Motor and microprocessor
based)

Passive Tracker method

The working principle lies on low thermal expansion of liquid
or gasses which usually Freon (chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs)(Lenardic
2013).The liquid is filled in two identical connected tubes that
placed against each other at the side of the PV modules. Both of
these tubes have the same length in respect to the axes and each
tubes use suitably shades (Clifford and Eastwood 2004).
The sun will heats the liquid (Freon) and make the liquid evaporate
from one tube to another tube. Consequently, the evaporation causes
weight imbalance between two tubes. Mass imbalance between the two
tubes help the PV module to track the sun position (Clifford and
Eastwood 2004). This type of tracker is much cheaper that active
tracker. However, Clifford and Eastwood state that this technology
is not widely applicable due to its bad performance. Figure 8 shows
the basic structure of passive tracker system.
Lenardic, Clifford and Eastwood list some benefits and
drawbacks of passive tracker mechanism (2003 and 2013).
Advantages:
- Low cost compared to active tracking.
- Do not consume any electrical power from the PV.
- Simple design.


- Less susceptible to the lightning strike compared to active
tracker.
Disadvantages:
- Less accurate in term of orienting the PV module.
- Will not work in low temperature condition.
- Very bad performance during the morning (very slow movement).
- Relatively need high maintenance.

Figure 9. Basic structure of sun tracker passive method using two
identical connected tubes (Clifford and Eastwood 2004).

Active Tracker method

Unlike passive tracker method, active tracker method uses a
number of electrical components in the system such as electrical
motor, sensors, and control circuit (Microprocessor based or PLC
Based). The sensors govern the motor movement by sense the position
of the sky during the whole day. This method of tracker known have a
high accuracy, except when the cloudy day (Barsoum 2011). Due to
its accuracy, relatively low maintenance and positioning error
active tracker method is widely use either in private or utility
scale PV system. Figure 10 shows a typical structure of active
tracker system.
Advantages:
- High accuracy, hence, PV can produce more power


- Lower maintenance
- High post compared to Passive solar tracker
Disadvantages:
- Consumed electrical power from PV by 2 4 %.
- Susceptible to the lightning strike and impulse.


Figure 10. Active method sun tracker (Clifford and Eastwood 2004).




Conclusion

The choosing of tracker type in both single tracker system and
dual tracker system is based on the site of the PV plant.
In general, Single axis tracking system is much more effective
and efficient compared to the dual axis tracking system.
Due to lower maintenance and high accuracy, active control
method is widely used in every PV utility scale tracker system














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http://www.solar-electric.com
Ground-Mounted PV, avilable: http://solarprofessional.com
Electrical Installation Guide, available: http://www.electrical-


installation.org